Digital Electronics:CAE201-1C

UNIT-1 :COMPONENTS OF A COMPUTER

 The computer is the combination of hardware and software.

 Hardware is the physical component of a computer like motherboard, memory
devices, monitor, keyboard etc.
 Software is the set of programs or instructions.
 Both hardware and software together make the computer system function.

 Generations of Computers

Computers are developed in different stages called "generations." Each generation is marked
by major technological advancements.

 1st Generation of Computers (1940 – 1956)

Key Technology Vacuum Tubes

Language Machine Language (binary – 0s & 1s)
Input/Output Punched cards, paper tape
Example ENIAC, UNIVAC I, IBM 701

Advantages:

 First ever electronic computers.

 Can solve complex numerical problems faster than humans.
 Used in scientific and military applications.

Disadvantages:

 Very large in size (room-sized).

 Produced a lot of heat.
 High power consumption.
 Slow and unreliable.
 Noisy operation.
 Very expensive and required specialized cooling systems.
 2nd Generation of Computers (1956 – 1963)

Key Technology Transistors (replaced vacuum tubes)

Language Assembly Language
Input/Output Punch cards, magnetic tape
Example IBM 1401, IBM 7094, CDC 1604

Advantages:

 Smaller, faster, and more reliable than 1st generation.

 Less heat generation than vacuum tubes.
 More energy efficient.
 Cost-effective compared to first-generation.
 Easier to program using assembly language.

Disadvantages:

 Still produced some heat (though less than vacuum tubes).

 Required air-conditioning.
 Limited in multitasking capabilities.
 Still bulky and not portable.
 3rd Generation of Computers (1964 – 1971)

Key Technology Integrated Circuits (IC)

Language High-Level Languages (COBOL, FORTRAN, BASIC)
Input/Output Keyboard and monitor
Example IBM System/360, PDP-8

Advantages:

 Much faster and more efficient than 2nd generation.

 More compact and reliable.
 Lower power consumption.
 Supported multitasking and time-sharing.
 Increased storage capacity.

Disadvantages:

 Required air-conditioning.
 ICs were expensive to manufacture.
 Limited parallel processing capabilities.
 4th Generation of Computers (1971 – Present)

Key Technology Microprocessors (VLSI - Very Large Scale Integration)

Language High-level and GUI-based languages
Input/Output Mouse, keyboard, monitor
Example Intel 4004, Apple II, IBM PC

Advantages:

 Very compact, powerful, and affordable.

 Wide use of personal computers (PCs).
 Advanced graphical user interfaces (GUI).
 Reliable and versatile.
 Available for personal and commercial use.
 Large storage and memory capacity.
 Supported multimedia and networking.

Disadvantages:

 Environmental impact due to e-waste.

 High dependency on technology.
 Vulnerable to cyber threats.
  5th Generation of Computers (Present & Future)

Key Technology Artificial Intelligence (AI), Machine Learning, Quantum Computing

Language Natural language processing (NLP), AI-based programming
Input/Output Touch, voice, gesture recognition
Example Robotics, Self-driving cars, ChatGPT, IBM Watson

Advantages:

 Can make decisions using AI.

 Ability to learn and adapt (machine learning).
 High-speed processing and multitasking.
 Advanced natural language understanding.
 Supports parallel and distributed processing.

Disadvantages:

 Expensive and complex technology.

 Ethical and privacy concerns.
 Still under development in many areas (e.g., true general AI).
 High maintenance and power needs in some AI systems.
 Classification of Computer Systems

Computers can be broadly classified based on their size, power, and purpose into three main
types:

1. Supercomputer

Definition: The most powerful computers with the highest processing speed and large
memory. Designed for complex and large-scale scientific calculations.

Features:

 Extremely fast processing speed (measured in teraflops or petaflops).

 Can handle trillions of calculations per second.
 Uses parallel processing with thousands of processors.
 Very large size and expensive.
 Requires special cooling systems.
 Used for highly complex tasks requiring massive computation power.

Applications:

 Weather forecasting and climate research.

 Nuclear simulations and atomic research.
 Space exploration and astrophysics.
 Molecular modeling and genetic research.
 Cryptography and defense research.

Examples:

 IBM Summit, Cray-1, Fugaku, PARAM (India).

2. Mainframe Computer

Definition: Large, powerful computers used primarily by large organizations for bulk data
processing and enterprise-wide applications.

Features:

 Supports hundreds to thousands of users simultaneously.

 High processing power but slower than supercomputers.
 Highly reliable and secure.
 Large memory and storage capacity.
 Used for transaction processing, batch processing, and large database management.

Applications:

 Banking systems for managing accounts and transactions.

 Airline reservation systems.
  Payroll and billing systems for large corporations.
 Government and census data processing.
 Large-scale enterprise resource planning (ERP).

Examples:

 IBM zSeries, Unisys ClearPath, Hitachi mainframes.

3. Personal Computer (PC)

Definition: A computer designed for individual use, generally small, affordable, and easy
to operate.

Features:

 Small size, desktop or laptop form factor.

 Affordable and user-friendly.
 Moderate processing power suitable for personal and office tasks.
 Supports single user.
 Operates with graphical user interface (GUI).

Applications:

 Word processing, spreadsheet, and presentations.

 Internet browsing and multimedia entertainment.
 Gaming and social networking.
 Software development and education.
 Small business applications like invoicing and accounting.

Examples:

 Desktop PCs (Dell, HP, Lenovo).

 Laptops (MacBook, Surface, ThinkPad).
 Tablets and smartphones (considered microcomputers).
 Computer Block Diagram

A computer system consists of five main components working together:

1. Input Unit

 Function: Takes input data and instructions from the user or external devices and
converts it into a binary form that the computer can understand.
 Examples: Keyboard, Mouse, Scanner, Microphone.

2. Memory Unit

 Function: Stores data and instructions temporarily or permanently.

 Types:
o Primary Memory: Includes RAM (temporary) and ROM (permanent).
o Secondary Memory: Hard drives, SSDs for long-term storage.
 Acts as a workspace for the CPU to hold data and instructions.

3. Control Unit (CU)

 Function: Directs and coordinates all operations inside the computer.

 Fetches instructions from memory, decodes them, and sends control signals to other
components to execute.
 Controls the flow of data between input, memory, ALU, and output.
4. Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)

 Function: Performs all arithmetic calculations (addition, subtraction, multiplication,

division) and logical operations (comparison, AND, OR, NOT).
 Acts as the brain for computations inside the CPU.

5. Output Unit

 Function: Converts processed data from the computer into a form understandable to
the user.
 Examples: Monitor (displays visuals), Printer (hard copy), Speaker (audio output).
 Input Device:

 Keyboard

What is a Keyboard?

A keyboard is a primary input device that allows users to enter text, numbers, and
commands into a computer by pressing keys.

Components of a Keyboard

 Keys: Usually around 101 to 104 keys, including letters (A-Z), numbers (0-9),
function keys (F1-F12), control keys (Ctrl, Alt, Shift), navigation keys (arrows, Home,
End), and a numeric keypad.
 Switches: Under each key, there is a mechanical or membrane switch that registers a
key press.
 Controller: Translates key presses into electrical signals to be sent to the computer.

How Does a Keyboard Work?

1. When you press a key, the keyboard’s circuitry detects the key’s position.
2. It sends a corresponding binary code (called a scan code) to the computer’s CPU.
3. The CPU interprets this code as the corresponding character or command.
4. The character appears on the screen, or the command is executed.

Types of Keyboards

 Mechanical Keyboard: Uses individual mechanical switches under each key; known
for durability and tactile feedback.
 Membrane Keyboard: Uses pressure pads that complete circuits; quieter and less
expensive.
 Wireless Keyboard: Connects to the computer via Bluetooth or RF, offering
mobility.
 Ergonomic Keyboard: Designed to reduce strain on hands and wrists.
 Virtual Keyboard: Software-based keyboard displayed on touchscreens.

Applications of Keyboard

 Typing documents, emails, programming code.

 Gaming controls.
 Command entry in operating systems and software.
 Shortcut keys for quick actions.
Advantages

 Easy to use and widely available.

 Fast input of text and commands.
 Compatible with almost all computers.
 Supports shortcut keys improving efficiency.

 Mouse

What is a Mouse?

A mouse is a handheld pointing device that allows a user to interact with the graphical user
interface (GUI) of a computer by moving a pointer on the screen and performing clicks.

Components of a Mouse

 Body: The part you hold and move.

 Buttons: Usually left and right buttons (sometimes additional ones), used for clicking,
selecting, and performing commands.
 Scroll Wheel: Allows vertical scrolling through documents or web pages.
 Sensor: Detects movement; can be mechanical (ball) or optical/laser.
 Cable or Wireless Receiver: Connects the mouse to the computer.

How Does a Mouse Work?

 Mechanical Mouse:
Uses a rubber or metal ball that rolls on the surface. Movement of the ball is detected
by sensors inside and translated into cursor movement.
 Optical/Laser Mouse:
Uses a light-emitting diode (LED) or laser to detect movement by capturing images of
the surface and tracking changes.
 Wireless Mouse:
Sends signals via Bluetooth or radio frequency to the computer receiver.

When you move the mouse, the sensor detects the motion and sends signals to move the
cursor on the screen accordingly. Clicking buttons sends commands like selecting, dragging,
or opening files.

Types of Mouse

 Mechanical Mouse: Older technology using a rolling ball.

 Optical Mouse: Uses LED light, more accurate and less maintenance.
 Laser Mouse: Uses laser light, can work on a wider variety of surfaces.
 Wireless Mouse: No cables; uses Bluetooth or RF communication.
Applications of Mouse

 Navigating and selecting items on the computer screen.

 Dragging and dropping files or icons.
 Playing video games requiring precise pointer control.
 Drawing or designing with graphic software.

Advantages

 Intuitive and easy to use.

 Provides precise control over cursor movement.
 Supports multiple buttons for different functions.
 Portable and available in many designs.

 Joystick

What is a Joystick?

A joystick is a handheld input device consisting of a stick that pivots freely on a base and
can move in multiple directions. It translates physical movement into signals that control
objects or cursors on a computer.

How it Works

 Moving the stick changes its angle.

 Sensors inside (like potentiometers) detect this angle.
 The joystick converts these movements into electrical signals.
 The computer interprets these signals to move an object accordingly.
 It often includes buttons to perform additional actions like shooting or selecting.

Types of Joysticks

 Digital Joystick: Detects simple directions (e.g., up/down/left/right).

 Analog Joystick: Detects varying degrees of movement for more precise control.

Applications

 Flight simulators and video games for navigation and control.

 Robotics and machinery control for precise directional commands.
 Assistive devices for people with mobility challenges.

Advantages

 Intuitive directional control.

 Allows precise and smooth movement.
 Multiple buttons add functionality.
 Ergonomic for extended use.
Disadvantages

 Mainly useful for specific applications (gaming, robotics).

 Can be bulky and less portable.
 Moving parts can wear out over time.

 Trackball

What is a Trackball?

A trackball is a stationary input device consisting of a large ball housed in a socket that can
be rotated by the user’s fingers, thumb, or palm. It functions like an upside-down mouse.

How it Works

 The user rolls the exposed ball in any direction.

 Internal sensors detect the rotation and translate it into cursor movement on the screen.
 Buttons on the device perform clicking actions similar to a mouse.

Advantages

 Requires less desk space than a mouse.

 Can be more precise for some users and tasks.
 Useful in limited or confined spaces.
 Reduces wrist and arm movement, potentially lowering strain.

Disadvantages

 Can be less intuitive for users accustomed to a mouse.

 Requires some practice to get used to controlling cursor movement by ball rotation.
 Ball and sensors can get dirty, affecting performance.
 Less common, so fewer users are familiar with it.

Applications

 CAD (Computer-Aided Design) for precise cursor control.

 Professional environments with limited workspace.
 Accessibility devices for users with limited arm mobility.

 Light Pen

What is a Light Pen?

A light pen is a pen-shaped input device used to interact directly with a computer screen,
especially CRT monitors.

How it Works

 The tip of the pen detects the light emitted by the screen.
  When the pen touches or points to a spot on the screen, it senses the light at that
location.
 It sends a signal to the computer indicating the exact position.
 This allows the user to select or draw directly on the display.

Advantages

 Allows precise selection and drawing on the screen.

 Useful for graphic design and CAD applications.
 Provides a direct, intuitive way to interact with the computer.

Disadvantages

 Works primarily with CRT screens, not modern LCD or LED monitors.
 Requires physical contact with the screen, which can be uncomfortable or impractical.
 Less commonly used today due to touchscreens and other input devices.

Applications

 Early graphic design and drawing applications.

 Selecting objects on screen in specialized environments.
 Used in some CAD (Computer-Aided Design) systems.

 Scanner

What is a Scanner?

A scanner is an input device that converts physical documents, photos, or images into digital
form that a computer can process.

How it Works

 The scanner shines a light on the document or image.

 Sensors capture the reflected light and convert it into electrical signals.
 These signals are processed into a digital image made of pixels.
 The digital file can then be stored, edited, or shared on the computer.

Types of Scanners

 Flatbed Scanner: Has a flat glass surface where you place documents; ideal for
photos and pages.
 Sheet-fed Scanner: Pulls paper through rollers; useful for scanning multiple pages
quickly.
 Handheld Scanner: A small device moved manually over the document.
 Drum Scanner: Uses photomultiplier tubes for very high-resolution scans (used
professionally).

Advantages

 Converts physical media into editable digital form.

 Preserves documents, photos, and artwork.
 Enables digital sharing and storage.
  Supports Optical Character Recognition (OCR) for text extraction.

Disadvantages

 Can be slow compared to digital capture devices like cameras.

 Requires good resolution for quality scans.
 Physical size and cost can be limitations for some models.

Applications

 Digitizing printed documents for editing and storage.

 Scanning photos and artwork for preservation.
 Input for OCR software to convert text images into editable text.
 Archiving records in digital form.

 OMR (Optical Mark Reader)

What is OMR?

OMR is a device that reads marks made on specially designed paper forms, such as filled
bubbles or checkboxes.

How it Works

 The paper is scanned with light.

 The reader detects the presence or absence of marks by sensing how much light is
reflected.
 Dark marks (like filled bubbles) absorb light and are detected as responses.
 The data is converted into digital signals for processing.

Applications

 Multiple-choice exam grading.

 Surveys and feedback forms.
 Voting ballots.
 Attendance sheets.

Advantages

 Fast and accurate data capture from paper forms.

 Minimizes human error in data entry.
 Suitable for large-scale automated processing.

Disadvantages

 Requires specially printed forms.

 Cannot detect handwritten or typed text.
 Forms must be filled correctly for accurate reading.
 Bar Code Reader

What is a Bar Code Reader?

A bar code reader scans and decodes barcodes—patterns of parallel lines representing
numbers or characters.

How it Works

 A laser or LED light scans the barcode.

 The light reflected from the black and white bars is detected by a sensor.
 The sensor converts the reflected light into electrical signals.
 These signals are decoded into readable data (e.g., product ID).

Applications

 Retail checkout systems.

 Inventory and stock management.
 Shipping and logistics tracking.
 Library book management.

Advantages

 Quick and accurate data capture.

 Reduces manual entry errors.
 Widely used and standardized.

Disadvantages

 Requires clear, undamaged barcodes.

 Only reads data encoded in barcode format.
 Scanner must be correctly aligned with the barcode.

 MICR (Magnetic Ink Character Recognition)

What is MICR?

MICR is a technology that reads characters printed with special magnetic ink, typically
found on bank cheques.

How it Works

 Characters are printed using magnetic ink.

 The MICR reader passes a magnetic head over the characters.
 The magnetic signals generated are converted into electrical signals.
 These signals are decoded into digital data representing the characters.

Applications

 Banking: processing cheques and financial documents.

 Fast and secure recognition of document information.
 Prevents fraud by verifying magnetic ink.
Advantages

 High-speed and accurate reading.

 Resistant to damage and wear compared to regular ink.
 Secure and reliable for banking operations.

Disadvantages

 Requires special magnetic ink and printing.

 Limited to specific documents like cheques.
 Specialized hardware needed.

 OCR (Optical Character Recognition)

What is OCR?

OCR is a technology that converts printed or handwritten text into machine-readable digital
text.

How it Works

 A scanner captures an image of the text.

 OCR software analyzes shapes of letters and numbers.
 Text characters are recognized and converted into editable digital text.

Applications

 Digitizing books and documents.

 Automating data entry from printed forms.
 Assisting visually impaired users.
 Extracting text from images and PDFs.

Advantages

 Saves time compared to manual typing.

 Makes printed text searchable and editable.
 Supports many languages and fonts.

Disadvantages

 Accuracy depends on the quality of the scanned image.

 Handwritten text recognition can be less reliable.
 May require manual proofreading and correction.
 Processing Device

The processing device is the brain of the computer that processes data and controls all
operations. It mainly consists of:

1. CPU (Central Processing Unit)

 The CPU is the core component responsible for executing instructions and managing
the flow of data inside the computer.
 Often called the "brain" of the computer.
 It fetches instructions from memory, decodes them, executes them, and stores the
results.
 The CPU consists of two main parts: the Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) and the
Control Unit (CU).

2. ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit)

 The ALU performs all arithmetic and logical operations.

 Arithmetic operations include addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division.
 Logical operations include comparisons like AND, OR, NOT, and XOR.
 The ALU receives data from registers, processes it, and sends the result back.

3. Control Unit (CU)

 The Control Unit manages and coordinates all activities inside the CPU.
 It fetches instructions from memory, decodes them, and directs the ALU and other
parts to perform operations.
 Controls the flow of data between CPU, memory, and input/output devices.
 Sends control signals to synchronize the operations of the computer components.

How They Work Together

 The Control Unit fetches instructions from memory.

 It decodes the instruction and tells the ALU what operation to perform.
 The ALU processes the data (arithmetic or logical).
 The result is stored back in memory or registers.
 This cycle repeats thousands to millions of times per second.

Summary Table

Component Function
CPU Executes instructions and controls data flow
ALU Performs arithmetic and logical operations
Control Unit (CU) Directs and coordinates CPU activities
 Output device

 Printer

What is a Printer?

A printer is an output device that converts digital data from a computer into physical hard
copies on paper or other media.

How Does a Printer Work?

 The computer sends data to the printer in a printable format.

 The printer processes this data and creates the image or text on paper by applying ink,
toner, or other methods.
 Depending on the type, it uses different mechanisms like spraying ink droplets,
applying toner powder with heat, or striking an ink ribbon.

Types of Printers

1. Inkjet Printer
o Sprays tiny droplets of liquid ink directly onto paper through nozzles.
o Can produce high-quality color and photo prints.
o Common in home and small office use.
o Advantages: Good color quality, relatively inexpensive.
o Disadvantages: Ink cartridges can be costly and run out quickly; slower than
laser printers.
2. Laser Printer
o Uses a laser beam to form an electrostatic image on a drum.
o Toner (powdered ink) sticks to the charged areas.
o Heat and pressure fuse toner onto paper.
o Common in offices due to speed and efficiency.
o Advantages: Fast printing, sharp text quality, economical for high volume.
o Disadvantages: Higher initial cost; color laser printers are expensive.
3. Dot Matrix Printer
o Impact printer that strikes an inked ribbon to form characters or images.
o Prints using a matrix of dots.
o Useful for printing multi-part forms (carbon copies).
o Advantages: Can print on multi-layer forms; durable and cheap.
o Disadvantages: Noisy; low print quality compared to inkjet and laser.
4. Thermal Printer
o Uses heat to produce images on special heat-sensitive paper.
o Often used in receipts and labels.
o Advantages: Quiet, fast, low maintenance.
o Disadvantages: Requires special paper; prints fade over time.
Applications of Printers

 Printing documents, letters, and reports.

 Producing photographs and graphic prints.
 Creating labels, tickets, and receipts.
 Printing invoices, bills, and business forms.

Advantages of Printers

 Provides tangible copies of digital information.

 Useful for record-keeping and sharing physical documents.
 Essential for professional, educational, and personal use.

Disadvantages of Printers

 Consumables (ink, toner, paper) add ongoing cost.

 Maintenance may be required (cleaning, fixing jams).
 Environmental impact due to paper use and ink cartridges.

 Monitor

What is a Monitor?

A monitor is an output device that displays visual information generated by the computer. It
shows text, images, videos, and graphical user interfaces.

How Does a Monitor Work?

 The computer sends video signals to the monitor.

 The monitor converts these signals into images visible on the screen.
 Pixels (tiny dots) on the screen light up in different colors and intensities to form
images.

Types of Monitors

1. CRT (Cathode Ray Tube) Monitor

o Older technology using electron beams inside a vacuum tube.
o Electron beams scan the screen to light up phosphor dots.
o Bulky and heavy.
o Advantages: Good color accuracy and refresh rate.
o Disadvantages: Large size, heavy, consumes more power.
2. LCD (Liquid Crystal Display) Monitor
o Uses liquid crystals sandwiched between glass panels.
 oBacklight shines through the crystals, which control light passage to form
images.
o Thin, lightweight, and energy-efficient.
o Advantages: Slim design, low power consumption, less heat.
o Disadvantages: Limited viewing angles and contrast (improved in later
models).
3. LED (Light Emitting Diode) Monitor
o A type of LCD monitor with LED backlighting.
o Brighter display and better color than traditional LCD.
o More energy-efficient.
o Advantages: Improved brightness, color, and energy efficiency.
o Disadvantages: Can be more expensive.
4. OLED (Organic Light Emitting Diode) Monitor
o Each pixel emits its own light.
o Excellent contrast ratios and colors.
o Very thin and flexible displays.
o Advantages: Superior color, contrast, and viewing angles.
o Disadvantages: Higher cost and potential for burn-in.

Applications

 Viewing computer interfaces, software, and games.

 Graphic design and video editing.
 Watching videos and movies.
 Professional and personal computing tasks.

Advantages of Monitors

 Provides immediate visual feedback.

 Supports high resolution and rich colors.
 Enables multitasking with multiple windows and applications.

Disadvantages of Monitors

 Continuous power consumption.

 Eye strain if used improperly for long hours.
 Quality varies by technology and cost.

 Plotter

What is a Plotter?

A plotter is an output device used to produce large-scale, high-precision graphics such as

engineering drawings, architectural plans, and maps.
How Does a Plotter Work?

 Unlike printers that print pixel-based images, plotters draw continuous lines directly
onto paper.
 A pen or multiple pens move over the paper guided by computer-controlled motors.
 The pen can change colors or thickness depending on the design.
 Some modern plotters use cutting tools instead of pens.

Types of Plotters

1. Drum Plotter
o Paper is wrapped around a drum.
o The drum rotates while the pen moves horizontally.
o Suitable for long drawings on continuous paper.
2. Flatbed Plotter
o Paper lies flat on a surface.
o The pen moves in both X (horizontal) and Y (vertical) directions over the paper.
o Offers high precision and is ideal for complex drawings.
3. Cutting Plotter
o Uses blades instead of pens to cut materials like vinyl.
o Used in sign making and stencil creation.

Applications

 Engineering and architectural drawing.

 CAD (Computer-Aided Design) outputs.
 Cartography and mapping.
 Creating large posters and banners.

Advantages

 Produces highly accurate and detailed line drawings.

 Can handle very large paper sizes.
 Ideal for vector graphics (lines and curves) rather than pixel images.

Disadvantages

 Slower than printers for regular document printing.

 Usually more expensive and bulky.
 Limited to specific uses like technical drawing.
 Storage unit

The storage unit in a computer stores data and instructions needed for processing. It mainly
includes different types of memory such as RAM, ROM, PROM, and EPROM.

1. RAM (Random Access Memory)

 Type: Volatile memory (loses data when power is off).

 Purpose: Temporarily stores data and programs currently in use by the CPU.
 Key Features:
o Data can be read and written.
o Very fast access speed.
o Used to run applications and operating system.
 Example: When you open a game or app, it loads into RAM.

Types of RAM:

 SRAM (Static RAM) is a fast type of memory that doesn’t require refreshing to maintain data. It
uses flip-flop circuits to store each bit and is commonly used as CPU cache (L1, L2, L3) because of
its speed. However, it is more expensive and has lower storage capacity compared to other RAM
types.
 DRAM (Dynamic RAM) is slower than SRAM and needs constant refreshing since it stores data in
tiny capacitors that leak charge. Despite this, DRAM is cheaper and can hold much more data,
making it ideal for main system memory (RAM) in computers and laptops.

2. ROM (Read-Only Memory)

 Type: Non-volatile memory (retains data even without power).

 Purpose: Stores permanent instructions needed to start the computer.
 Key Features:
o Data is pre-written and cannot be changed easily.
o Contains firmware like BIOS.
 Example: The startup instructions for your computer are stored in ROM.

3. PROM (Programmable Read-Only Memory)

 Type: Non-volatile memory.

 Purpose: Can be programmed once after manufacturing.
 Key Features:
o Data is written once using a PROM programmer.
o After programming, it works like ROM.
 Example: Used when custom firmware needs to be stored.
4. EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory)

 Type: Non-volatile memory.

 Purpose: Can be erased and reprogrammed multiple times.
 Key Features:
o Data can be erased using UV light.
o Can be rewritten using a PROM programmer.
 Example: Used in BIOS chips which sometimes need updating.

Summary Table

Memory Type Volatility Can Data Be Changed? Typical Use

RAM Volatile Yes (read/write) Running programs & data
ROM Non-volatile No (fixed data) Startup firmware (BIOS)
PROM Non-volatile Programmable once Custom firmware
EPROM Non-volatile Erasable & reprogrammable Firmware updates
 Secondary Storage Devices

Secondary storage devices are used to store data and programs permanently, even when the
computer is turned off. They provide large storage capacity and are slower than primary
memory but essential for long-term data storage.

1. Floppy Disk

 Description: Magnetic storage medium in a thin flexible disk inside a square plastic
shell.
 Capacity: Typically 1.44 MB (very small by today’s standards).
 Use: Earlier used for transferring small files and backup.
 Limitations: Slow, low capacity, and now obsolete.

2. Optical Disk

 Types: CD (Compact Disc), DVD (Digital Versatile Disc), Blu-ray Disc.

 How It Works: Uses laser light to read/write data on the disc surface.
 Capacity: CD (~700 MB), DVD (~4.7 GB), Blu-ray (~25+ GB).
 Use: Storing music, videos, software, and backups.

3. Magnetic Disk (Hard Disk Drive - HDD)

 Description: Uses magnetic storage on spinning platters.

 Capacity: Ranges from hundreds of GBs to several TBs.
 Use: Primary secondary storage for most computers; stores OS, files, programs.
 Advantages: Large capacity, relatively fast access speed.
 Disadvantages: Mechanical parts can wear out.

4. Magnetic Tape

 Description: Magnetic storage on reels or cassettes of tape.

 Use: Mostly used for backup and archival storage due to low cost.
 Advantages: High capacity, inexpensive.
 Disadvantages: Sequential access (slow to retrieve specific data).
Summary Table

Capacity
Device Storage Type Common Use Advantages Disadvantages
Range

Floppy Small file Very low capacity,

Magnetic ~1.44 MB Portable, cheap
Disk transfer (old) obsolete

Optical 700 MB – Music, video, Durable, Slower write

Optical (laser)
Disk 25+ GB software portable speeds

Hundreds OS, files, Large capacity, Mechanical failure

Hard Disk Magnetic
GB – TBs programs fast risk

Magnetic Magnetic Backup, Low cost, high Slow random

Very large
Tape (sequential) archiving capacity access