SEMESTER: III

CREDIT:5
PART: A 23PMATC33: TOPOLOGY
HOURS:6
CORE– IX

Pre-requisite Real Analysis

Objectives of the To study topological spaces, continuous functions, connectedness,
Course compactness, countability and separation axioms.
Course Outline UNIT-I : Topological spaces : Topological spaces – Basis for a topology –
The order topology – The product topology on X Y – The subspace
topology – Closed sets and limit points.
Chapter 2 : Sections 12 to 17
UNIT-II :Continuous functions: Continuous functions – the product
topology – The metric topology.
Chapter 2 : Sections 18 to 21 (Omit Section 22)
UNIT-III :Connectedness: Connected spaces- connected subspaces of the
Real line – Components and local connectedness.
Chapter 3 : Sections 23 to 25.
UNIT-IV : Compactness : Compact spaces – compact subspaces of the
Real line – Limit Point Compactness – Local Compactness.
Chapter 3 : Sections 26 to 29.
UNIT-V: Countability and Separation Axiom: The Countability
Axioms – The separation Axioms – Normal spaces – The
Urysohn Lemma – The Urysohnmetrization Theorem – The Tietz
extension theorem.
Chapter 4 : Sections 30 to 35.
Extended Professional Questions related to the above topics, from various competitive examinations
Component (is a part UPSC / TRB / NET / UGC – CSIR / GATE / TNPSC / others to be solved
of internal component (To be discussed during the Tutorial hour)
only, Not to be
included in the
External Examination
question paper)
Skills acquired from Knowledge, Problem Solving, Analytical ability, Professional Competency,
this course Professional Communication and Transferrable Skill
Recommended Text James R. Munkres, Topology (2nd Edition) Pearson Education Pve. Ltd., Delhi-
2002 (Third Indian Reprint)
Reference Books 1. J. Dugundji ,Topology , Prentice Hall of India, New Delhi, 1975.
2. George F.Sinmons, Introduction to Topology and Modern Analysis,
McGraw Hill Book Co., 1963
3. J.L. Kelly, General Topology, Van Nostrand, Reinhold Co., New York
4. L.Steen and J.Subhash, Counter Examples in Topology, Holt, Rinehart and
Winston, New York, 1970.
5. S.Willard, General Topology, Addison - Wesley, Mass., 1970
Website and http://mathforum.org, http://ocw.mit.edu/ocwweb/Mathematics,
e-Learning Source http://www.opensource.org , http://en.wikipedia.org

Course Learning Outcome (for Mapping with POs and PSOs)

Students will be able to
CLO1: Define and illustrate the concept of topological spaces and the basic definitions of open sets,
neighbourhood, interior, exterior, closure and their axioms for defining topological space. CLO2:
Understand continuity, compactness, connectedness, homeomorphism and topological properties.
CLO3: Analyze and apply the topological concepts in Functional Analysis.
CLO4: Ability to determine that a given point in a topological space is either a limit point or not for a
given subset of a topological space.
CLO5: Develop qualitative tools to characterize connectedness, compactness, second countable,
Hausdorff and develop tools to identify when two are equivalent (homeomorphic).

Pos PSOs
1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3
CLO1 3 1 3 2 3 3 3 2 1
CLO2 2 1 3 1 3 3 3 2 1
CLO3 3 2 3 1 3 3 3 2 1
CLO4 1 2 3 2 3 3 3 2 1
CLO5 3 1 2 3 3 3 3 2 1
 UNIT – 1

TOPOLOGICAL SPACES

1.1.Topological spaces

The concept of Topological spaces is through out of grew out of the satisfy of
the real line and Euclidean space and the study of continuous functions on these spaces.
In this section unit we define a topological space and we study a number of spaces of
constructing a topology on a set so as to make it into a topological space. We also
consider some of the elementary concepts associated with topological spaces. Open and
closed sets, limit points and continuous functions are introduced as natural
generalisations of the corresponding ideas of real line and Euclidean space.

Definition.

A topology on a set X is a collection 𝒯 of subsets of X having the following

properties.

(i) ∅ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑋 are in 𝒯

(ii) The union of the elements of any sub collection of 𝒯 is in 𝒯
(iii) The intersection of elements of any finite subcollection of 𝒯 is in 𝒯.

A set X function which a topology 𝒯 has been specified is called a topological

space.

Note. A topological space is an ordered pair (𝑋, 𝒯 ) consisting of a set 𝑋 and a topology
𝒯 𝑜𝑛 𝑋 but we often omit specific mention of 𝒯.

Remark.

If 𝑋 is a topological space with topology 𝒯, we say that a subset 𝑈 of 𝑋 is an

open set of 𝑋 if 𝑈 belongs to the collection 𝒯. Using this terminology, we can say that

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a topological space is a set 𝑋 together with a collection of subsets of 𝑋, called open set,
such that ∅ and 𝑋 are both open and such that arbitrary unions and finite intersections
of open sets are open.

Example 1.

Let 𝑋 = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐}. There are many possible topologies on 𝑋. Consider the
following topologies in the Figure 1.1.

Figure 1.1

The diagram in the upper right-hand corner indicates the topology in which the
open sets are 𝑋, 𝜙, {𝑎, 𝑏}, {𝑏}, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 {𝑏, 𝑐}. The topology in the upper left-hand corner
contains only X and 𝜙, while the topology in the lower right-hand corner contains
every subset of X. We can get other topologies on X by permuting a, b and c.

Note. From the above example, we can see that even a three-element set has many
different topologies. But not every collection of subsets of X is a topology on X. For
instance, neither of the collections indicated in the Figure 1.2 is a topology.

Figure 1.2

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Example 2.

If X is any set, the collection of all subsets of X is a topology on X, then it is

called the discrete topology. The collection consisting of X and ∅ only is also a topology
on X, then it is called the indiscrete topology or the trivial topology.

Example 3.

Let X be set. Let 𝒯𝑓 be the collection of all subsets 𝑈 of X such that 𝑋~𝑈 either
is finite (or) is all of X. Then 𝒯𝑓 is a topology on X, is called the finite complement
topology.

For, since 𝑋 − 𝑋 = ∅ is finite (or) 𝑋~∅ = 𝑋, either is finite or is all of X.

∴ Both 𝑋 and ∅ are in 𝒯𝑓 .

Let {∪𝛼 } be an indexed family of non-empty elements of 𝜏𝑓

To show that ⋃𝛼∈𝐼 𝑈𝛼 ∈ 𝒯𝑓

Now, 𝑋 −∪ 𝑈𝛼 =∩ (𝑋~𝑈𝛼 )

Since each 𝑋~𝑈𝛼 is finite, ∩ (𝑋~𝑈𝛼 ) is finite

∴ 𝑋~ ∪ 𝑈𝛼 is finite

∪ 𝑈𝛼 ∈ 𝒯𝑓

If 𝑈1 , 𝑈2 , … … … 𝑈𝑛 are non-empty elements of 𝒯𝑓

To show that ⋂𝑛𝑖=1 𝑈1 ∈ 𝒯𝑓

Now, 𝑋 − ⋂𝑛𝑖=1 𝑈𝑖 = ⋃𝑛𝑖=1(𝑋 − 𝑈𝑖 )

Since each (𝑋 − 𝑈𝑖 ) is finite

⋃𝑛𝑖=1(𝑋 − 𝑈𝑖 ) is finite

𝑋~ ⋂𝑛𝑖=1 𝑈𝑖

∴ ⋂𝑛𝑖=1 𝑈𝑖 ∈ 𝒯𝑓

Thus 𝒯𝑓 is a topology on X and it is called finite complement topology.

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Example 4.

Let X be a set. 𝒯𝐶 be the collection of all subsets of X. Such that 𝑋~𝑈 is either
countable (or) is all of X. Then 𝒯𝐶 is a topology on X, is called countable complement
topology on X.

For, since 𝒯𝐶 = {𝑈 ≤ 𝑋/𝑋~ 𝑈 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 (𝑜𝑟) 𝑋~𝑈 = 𝑋}

i.e, the countable complement topology on X is the collection of subset = {𝑋} ∪ {𝑈 ≤

𝑋/𝑈 𝐶 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒}

clearly, 𝑋 ∈ 𝒯𝐶

since, ∅𝐶 = 𝑋~∅ = 𝑋 which is a countable set.

∴ ∅ ∈ 𝒯𝐶

Let {𝑈𝛼 } be any arbitrary collection of subsets of X from 𝒯𝐶 .

Then 𝑈𝛼𝐶 is countable for each 𝛼 ∈ 𝐼

Now, (𝑈𝛼∈1 𝑈𝛼 )𝐶 = ⋂𝛼∈𝐼 𝑈𝛼𝐶

The intersection of countable collection of sets is countable ⋂𝛼∈𝐼 𝑈𝛼𝐶 is countable.

∴ (𝑈𝛼∈1 𝑈𝛼 )𝐶 is countable.

⇒ 𝑈𝛼∈𝑇 𝑈𝛼 ∈ 𝒯𝐶

Let 𝑈1 , 𝑈2 , … … … 𝑈𝑛 be a finite collection of subsets for 𝑋 from 𝒯𝐶 .

Then 𝑈𝑖𝐶 is countable for each 𝑖 ∈ 1,2, … … 𝑛

(⋂𝑛𝑖=1 𝑈𝑖 )𝐶 = ⋃𝑛𝑖=1 𝑈𝑖𝐶

Since the finite union of a countable collection of sets is countable, ⋃𝑛𝑖=1 𝑈𝑖𝐶 countable.

∴ (⋂𝑛𝑖=1 𝑈𝑖𝐶 ) is countable

⇒ (⋂𝑛𝑖=1 𝑈𝑖 ) ∈ 𝒯𝐶

Thus 𝒯𝐶 is topology on X, is called countable complement topology on X

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Definition.

Suppose that 𝒯 and 𝒯 ′ are two topologies on a given set 𝑋. If 𝒯 ′ ⊇ 𝒯, we say

that 𝒯 ′ is finer then 𝒯 (or) 𝒯 is coarser then 𝒯 ′ . If 𝒯 ′ ⊃ 𝒯, we say that 𝒯 ′ is strictly
finer then 𝒯 (or) 𝒯 is strictly coarser finer then 𝒯 ′ We say 𝒯 is comparable with 𝒯 ′
of either 𝒯 ′ ⊃ 𝒯 (𝑜𝑟) 𝒯 ⊃ 𝒯 ′

1.2. Basis for a Topology

Definition.

If 𝑋 is a set, a basis for a topology on X is a collection 𝔅 of subsets of X (called

basis elements) such that

(i) For each 𝑥 ∈ 𝑋, there is at least one basis element B containing 𝑥

(ii) If 𝑥 belongs to the intersection of two basis elements 𝐵1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵2 , then there
is a basis element 𝐵3 containing 𝑥 such that 𝐵3 ⊂ 𝐵1 ∩ 𝐵2 .

If 𝔅 satisfies these two conditions, then we define the topology 𝓣 generated by

𝕭 as follows: A subset 𝑈 𝑜𝑓 𝑋 is said to open in 𝑋 (i.e to be an element of 𝒯) if for each
𝑥 ∈ 𝑈, there is a basis element 𝐵 ∈ 𝔅 such that 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵 and 𝐵 ⊂ 𝑈

Note that each basis element is itself an element of 𝒯.

Example 1.

Let 𝔅 be the collection of all circular

region (interior of circles) in the plane. Then 𝔅 is
a basis for the topology on X.

For, since 𝔅 satisfies both conditions for a basis.

The second condition is illustrated in figure 1.2.1.
In the topology generated by 𝔅, a subset U of the
plane is open if every x in U lies in some circular region Figure 1.2.1
contained in U.

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Example 2.

Let 𝔅′ be the collection of all rectangular regions (ie, the interior of the
rectangular) in the plane, where the rectangular have sides parallel to the coordinate
axes. Then 𝔅′ is a basis for the topology on X.

For, since 𝔅′ satisfies both conditions for a basis. The

second condition is illustrated in figure 1.2.2. In this case,
the condition is trivial, because the intersection of any two
basis elements us itself a basis element (or empty).

In the topology generated by 𝔅′, a subset U of the

plane is open if every x in U lies in some rectangular region
contained in U.

Example 3.

If 𝑋 is any set, then the collection 𝒯 of all one-point subsets of X is a basis for
a discrete topology on 𝑋 and the collection 𝒯 generated by the basis 𝔅 is a topology
on 𝑋.

Solution.

If 𝑈 = ∅ then clearly 𝑈 is open

∴𝑈=∅∈𝒯

If for each 𝑥 ∈ 𝑋, there exist a basis element 𝐵 containing 𝑥 and 𝐵 ⊆ 𝑋

∴𝑋∈𝒯

Let us take the indexed family {𝑈𝛼 }𝛼∈𝐽 of the elements of 𝒯

Show that 𝑈 = ⋃𝛼∈𝐽 𝑈𝛼 ∈ 𝒯

Given 𝑥 ∈ 𝑈, there is an index 𝛼 such that 𝑥 ∈ 𝑈𝛼 .

Since 𝑈𝛼 is open, there is a basis element B such that 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵 ∈ 𝑈𝛼 .

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Then 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 ⊂ 𝑈.

∴ By definition, U is open

∴ 𝑈 = ⋃𝛼∈𝐼 𝑈𝛼 ∈ 𝒯

Next, we show that ⋂𝑛𝑖=1 𝑈𝑖 ∈ 𝒯

Now, let us take two elements 𝑈1 and 𝑈2 of 𝒯 and show that 𝑈1 ∩ 𝑈2 ∈ 𝒯

Given, 𝑥 ∈ 𝑈1 ∩ 𝑈2, choose a basis of element 𝐵1 containing 𝑥 such that 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵1 ⊂ 𝑈1

and also choose a basis element 𝐵2 containing such that 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵2 ⊂ 𝑈2 .

Then, by definition, we have to choose a basis element 𝐵3 containing 𝑥 such that 𝑥 ∈

𝐵3 ⊂ 𝐵1 ∩ 𝐵2 .

Then 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵3 and 𝐵3 ⊂ 𝑈1 ∩ 𝑈2

∴ 𝑈1 ∩ 𝑈2 ∈ 𝒯 … … … … (1)

Finally, we show by induction that any finite intersection

𝑈1 ∩ 𝑈2 ∩ … … … ∩ 𝑈𝑛 ∈ 𝒯

This fact is trivial when 𝑛 = 1

Suppose it is true for 𝑛 − 1 and prove it for 𝑛

Now, 𝑈1 ∩ 𝑈2 ∩ … … … ∩ 𝑈𝑛 = (𝑈1 ∩ 𝑈2 ∩ … … … ∩ 𝑈𝑛−1 ) ∩ 𝑈𝑛

By induction hypothesis 𝑈1 ∩ 𝑈2 ∩ … … … ∩ 𝑈𝑛−1 ∈ 𝒯 and by result (1)

(𝑈1 ∩ 𝑈2 ∩ … … … ∩ 𝑈𝑛−1 ) ∩ 𝑈𝑛 ∈ 𝒯

i.e., 𝑈1 ∩ 𝑈2 ∩ … … … ∩ 𝑈𝑛 ∈ 𝒯

∴ The result is true for 𝑛

Thus, the collection of open sets generated by a basis 𝔅 is a topology.

Lemma 1.2.1.

Let 𝑋 be a set. Let 𝔅 be the basis for a topology 𝒯 on 𝑋. Then 𝒯 equals the
collection of all unions of elements of 𝔅.

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Proof.

Let X be a set and 𝔅 be the basis for the topology 𝒯 on X.

Given a collection of elements of 𝔅, they are also an element of 𝒯

Since 𝒯 is a topology, then their union is in 𝒯

Conversely, given, 𝑈 ∈ 𝒯

For each 𝑥 ∈ 𝑈, choose an element 𝐵𝑥 of 𝔅 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵𝑥 ⊂ 𝑈.

Then 𝑈 = ⋃𝑥∈𝑈 𝐵𝑥

Hence 𝑈 equals a union of elements of 𝔅.

Lemma 1.2.2.

Let 𝑋 be a topological space. Suppose that 𝒞 is a collection of open sets of X

such that for each open set 𝑈 of X and each 𝑥 in 𝑈, there is an element 𝐶 of 𝒞 such that
𝑥 ∈ 𝐶 ⊂ 𝑈. Then 𝒞 is a basis for the topology of 𝑥.

Proof.

We show that 𝒞 is a basis

Given 𝑥 ∈ 𝑋. Since 𝑋 itself an open. Then by hypothesis there is an element 𝐶 of

𝒞 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑥 ∈ 𝐶 ⊂ 𝑋.

Let 𝑥 ∈ 𝐶1 ∩ 𝐶2, where 𝐶1 , 𝐶2 ∈ 𝒞

Since 𝐶1 and 𝐶2 are open, 𝐶1 ∩ 𝐶2 is open.

By hypothesis, there exist an element 𝐶3 𝑜𝑓 𝒞 such that 𝑥 ∈ 𝐶3 ⊂ 𝐶1 ∩ 𝐶2

∴ 𝒞 is a basis.

Let 𝒯 be the collection of open sets of X.

We show that, the topology 𝒯 ′ generated by 𝒞 equals the topology 𝒯.

First note that, if 𝑈 ∈ 𝒯 and 𝑥 ∈ 𝑈, then by the hypothesis, there is an element

𝐶 𝑜𝑓 𝒞 such that 𝑥 ∈ 𝐶 ⊂ 𝑈

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∴ 𝑈 ∈ 𝒯′

Conversely, if 𝑊 ∈ 𝒯 ′ , then by lemma 1.2.1 W equals a union of elements of 𝒞 .

Since, each element of 𝒞 belongs to 𝒯 and 𝒯 is a topology.

∴ 𝑊 ∈ 𝒯.

Thus 𝒯 = 𝒯 ′

Hence, 𝒞 is a basis for the topology of 𝑋.

Lemma 1.2.3.

Let 𝔅 and 𝔅′ to the bases for the topologies 𝒯 and 𝒯 ′ respectively on 𝑋. Then the
following are equivalent.

i) 𝒯 ′ is finite than 𝒯
ii) For each 𝑥 ∈ 𝑋 and each basis element 𝐵 ∈ 𝔅 containing 𝑥, there is a basis
element 𝐵 ′ ∈ 𝔅′ . Such that 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵 ′ ⊂ 𝐵.

Proof.

(𝑖𝑖) ⇒ (𝑖)

Given an element 𝑈 ∈ 𝒯

We show that 𝑈 ∈ 𝒯 ′

Let 𝑥 ∈ 𝑈

Since 𝔅 generates 𝒯, there is an element 𝐵 ∈ 𝔅 such that 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵 ⊂ 𝑈

By (2), there exist basis element 𝐵 ′ ∈ 𝔅′ such that 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵 ′ ⊂ 𝐵

Then 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵 ′ ⊂ 𝑈

So, by definition, 𝑈 ∈ 𝒯 ′

∴ 𝒯 ′ is finer than 𝒯

(𝑖) ⇒ (𝑖𝑖)

Given 𝑥 ∈ 𝑋 and 𝐵 ∈ 𝔅 with 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵

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Then by definition 𝐵 ∈ 𝒯 and 𝒯 ′ ⊃ 𝒯, by (i)

∴ 𝐵 ∈ 𝒯′

Since, 𝒯 ′ is the topology generated by 𝔅′ , there is an element 𝐵 ′ ∈ 𝔅′ such that 𝑥 ∈

𝐵′ ⊂ 𝐵

Definition.

If 𝔅 is the collection of open intervals in the real line, (𝑎, 𝑏) = {𝑥/𝑎 < 𝑋 < 𝑏},
the topology generated by 𝔅 is called the S on the real line.

If 𝔅′ is the collection of all half-open intervals of the form [𝑎, 𝑏) = {𝑥/𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 <
𝑏}, where 𝑎 < 𝑏, the topology generated by 𝔅′ is called the lower limit topology. When
ℝ is given the lower limit topology, we denote it by ℝ𝑙 .

1
Let 𝐾 denote the set of all numbers of the form for 𝑛 ∈ ℤ and let 𝔅′′ be the
𝑛

collection of all open intervals (𝑎, 𝑏), along with all lets of the form (𝑎, 𝑏) − 𝐾. The
topology generated by 𝔅′′ is called the 𝑲 −topology on ℝ. When ℝ is given this
topology, we denote it by ℝ𝐾 .

Lemma 1.2.4.

The topologies of ℝ𝑙 and ℝ𝐾 are strictly finer than the standard topology on ℝ,
but are not comparable with one another.

Proof.

Let 𝒯, 𝒯′ and 𝒯 ′′ be the topologies of ℝ, ℝ𝑙 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ℝ𝐾 respectively.

Given a basis element (𝑎, 𝑏) for 𝒯 and a point 𝑥 ∈ (𝑎, 𝑏) the basis element [𝑥, 𝑏) for
𝒯 ′ contains 𝑥 and lies in (𝑎, 𝑏). On the other hand, given the basis element [𝑥, 𝑑) for
𝒯 ′ , there is no open interval (𝑎, 𝑏) that contains 𝑥 and lies on [𝑎, 𝑑).

Thus 𝒯 ′ is strictly finer than 𝒯.

A similar argument applies to ℝ𝐾 .

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Given a basis element (𝑎, 𝑏) for 𝒯 and a point 𝑥 ∈ (𝑎, 𝑏), this same interval is a basis
element for 𝒯 ′′ that contains x. On the other hand, given the basis element 𝐵 =
(−1,1) − 𝐾 and the point 0 𝑜𝑓 𝐵, there is no open interval that contains 0 and lies in
B.

sThus 𝒯 ′′ is strictly finer than 𝒯.

By definition of ℝ, ℝ𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ℝ𝐾 topologies we have that ℝ𝑙 and ℝ𝐾 are strictly finer

than ℝ.

But we cannot arrive that 𝑇 ′ ⊂ 𝑇 ′′ and 𝑇 ′′ ⊂ 𝑇 ′

Hence ℝ𝑙 and ℝ𝐾 are not comparable.

Definition.

A subbasis 𝒮 for a topology on 𝑋 is a collection of subsets of 𝑋 whose union

equals 𝑋. The topology generated by the subbasis 𝓢 is defined to be the collection 𝒯 of
all unions of finite intersection of elements of 𝒮.

1.3.The order Topology

Definition.

If X is a simply ordered set, there is a standard topology for X, defined using

the order relation. It is called the order topology.

Suppose that X is a set having a simple order relation <. Given elements a and
b of X such that 𝑎 < 𝑏, there are four subsets of X that are called the intervals
determined by a and b. They are the following:

(𝑎, 𝑏) = {𝑥|𝑎 < 𝑥 < 𝑏},

(𝑎, 𝑏] = {𝑥|𝑎 < 𝑥 ≤ 𝑏},

[𝑎, 𝑏) = {𝑥|𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 < 𝑏},

[𝑎, 𝑏] = {𝑥|𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑏}.

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A set of the first type is called an open interval in X, a set of the last type is called a
closed interval in X, and sets of the second and third types are called half-open
intervals.

Definition.

Let X be a set with a simple order relation; assume X has more than one
element. Let 𝔅 be the collection of all sets of the following types:

(1) All open intervals (𝑎, 𝑏) in X.

(2) All intervals of the form [𝑎0 , 𝑏), where 𝑎0 is the smallest element (if any) of X.

(3) All intervals of the form (𝑎, 𝑏0 ], where 𝑏0 is the largest element (if any) of X.

The collection 𝔅 is a basis for a topology on X, which is called the order topology.

If X has no smallest element, there are no sets of type (2), and if X has no largest
element, there are no sets of type (3).

Example 1.

The standard topology on R is the order topology derived from the usual order
on R.

Example 2.

Consider the set ℝ × ℝ in the dictionary order; we shall denote the general
element of
ℝ×ℝ by
𝑥 × 𝑦. The
set ℝ × ℝ
has neither
a largest
nor a
smallest Figure 1.3.1

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element, so the order topology on ℝ × ℝ has as basis the collection of all open intervals
of the form (a × b, c × d) for a < c, and for a = c and b < d. These two types of
intervals are indicated in Figure 1.3.1. The subcollection consisting of only intervals of
the second type is also a basis for the order topology on ℝ × ℝ.

Example3.

The positive integers 𝑍+ form an ordered set with a smallest element. The order
topology on 𝑍+ is the discrete topology, for every one-point set is open: If 𝑛 > 1, then
the one-point set {𝑛} = (𝑛 − 1, 𝑛 + 1) is a basis element; and if 𝑛 = 1, the one-
point set {1} = [1, 2) is a basis element.

Example 4.

The set 𝑋 = {1, 2} × 𝑍+ in the dictionary order is another example of an

ordered set with a smallest element. Denoting 1 × 𝑛 by 𝑎𝑛 and 2 × 𝑛 by 𝑏𝑛 , we can
represent X by

𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , . . . ; 𝑏1 , 𝑏2 , …

The order topology on X is not the discrete topology. Most one-point sets are open, but
there is an exception—the one-point set {𝑏1 }. Any open set containing 𝑏1 must contain a
basis element about 𝑏1 (by definition), and any basis element containing 𝑏1 contains
points of the 𝑎𝑖 sequence.

Definition.

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 If X is an ordered set, and 𝑎 is an element of X, there are four subsets of X that
are called the rays determined by a. They are the following:

(𝑎, +∞) = {𝑥 | 𝑥 > 𝑎},

(−∞, 𝑎) = {𝑥 | 𝑥 < 𝑎},

[𝑎, +∞) = {𝑥 | 𝑥 ≥ 𝑎},

(−∞, 𝑎] = {𝑥 | 𝑥 ≤ 𝑎}.

Sets of the first two types are called open rays, and sets of the last two types are called
closed rays.

1.4.The Product Topology on 𝑿 × 𝒀

If X and Y are topological spaces, there is a standard way of defining a

topology on
the cartesian product 𝑋 × 𝑌.

Definition.

Let X and Y be topological spaces. The product topology on 𝑋 × 𝑌 is the

topology having as basis the collection 𝔅 of all sets of the form 𝑈 × 𝑉, where U is
an open subset of X and V is an open subset of Y.

Note. The collection 𝔅 of all sets of the form 𝑈 × 𝑉, where U is an open subset of X
and V is an open subset of Y. Then 𝔅 is a basis for 𝑋 × 𝑌 but not a topology on 𝑋 × 𝑌.

For, the first condition is trivial, since 𝑋 × 𝑌 is itself a basis element.

Let 𝑈1 × 𝑉1 , 𝑈2 × 𝑉2 ∈ 𝔅.
Then
(𝑈1 × 𝑉1 ) ∩ (𝑈2 × 𝑉2 ) = (𝑈1 ∩ 𝑈2 ) × (𝑉1 ∩ 𝑉2 ),

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 Since 𝑈1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑈2 are open in X, 𝑈1 ∩ 𝑈2 is open in X.
Similarly, 𝑉1 ∩ 𝑉2 is open in Y.
Therefore, (𝑈1 ∩ 𝑈2 ) × (𝑉1 ∩ 𝑉2 ) is a basis
element
⇒ (𝑈1 × 𝑉1 ) ∩ (𝑈2 × 𝑉2 ) is a basis element.
∴ the second condition for a basis is satisfied.
Thus 𝔅 is a basis for 𝑋 × 𝑌. See Figure 1.4.1.
Figure 1.4.1

Note that the collection 𝔅 is not a topology on X × Y. The union of the two
rectangles pictured in Figure 1.4.1, for instance, is not a product of two sets, so it
cannot belong to 𝔅; however, it is open in X × Y.

Theorem 1.4.1.

If ℬ is a basis for the topology of X and 𝒞 is a basis for the topology of Y, then
the collection 𝒟 = {B × C | B ∈ ℬ and C ∈ 𝒞 } is a basis for the topology of X × Y.

Proof.

We apply Lemma 1.2.1,

Given an open set W of X × Y and a point x × y of W

Then by definition of the product topology, there is a basis element U × V such that
𝑥 × 𝑦 ∈ 𝑈 × 𝑉 ⊂ 𝑊.

Because ℬ and 𝒞 are bases for X and Y , respectively, we can choose an element B of ℬ
such that x ∈ B ⊂ U, and an element C of 𝒞 such that y ∈ C ⊂ V. Then x × y ∈ B × C
⊂ W.

Thus, the collection 𝒟 meets the criterion of Lemma 13.2, so 𝒟 is a basis for X × Y.

Example 1.

We have a standard topology on ℝ: the order topology. The product of this

topology with itself is called the standard topology on ℝ × ℝ = ℝ2 . It has as basis the
collection of all products of open sets of R, but the theorem 1.4.1 tells us that the much

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smaller collection of all products (𝑎, 𝑏) × (𝑐, 𝑑) of open intervals in R will also serve
as a basis for the topology of ℝ2 . Each such set can be pictured as the interior of a
rectangle in ℝ2 .

Definition.

Let 𝜋1 ∶ 𝑋 × 𝑌 → 𝑋 be defined by the equation 𝜋1 (𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑥; let 𝜋2 ∶

𝑋 × 𝑌 → 𝑌 be defined by the equation 𝜋2 (𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑦. The maps 𝜋1 and 𝜋2 are called
the projections of X × Y onto its first and second factors, respectively.

Remark.

If U is an open subset of X, then the set

𝜋1−1 (𝑈) = 𝑈 × 𝑌 , which is open in 𝑋 × 𝑌. Similarly,
if V is open in Y , then 𝜋2−1 (𝑉) = 𝑋 × 𝑉, which is
also open in 𝑋 × 𝑌 . The intersection of these two sets
is the set 𝑈 × 𝑉, as indicated in Figure 1.4.2.

Figure 1.4.2

Theorem 1.4.2.

The collection 𝒮 = {𝜋1−1 (𝑈) | 𝑈 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑋} ∪ {𝜋1−1 (𝑉)| 𝑉 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑌 } is a

subbasis for the product topology on 𝑋 × 𝑌.

Proof.

Let 𝒯 denote the product topology on 𝑋 × 𝑌 ;

Let 𝒯′ be the topology generated by 𝒮.

Because every element of 𝒮 belongs to 𝒯 , so do arbitrary unions of finite intersections

of elements of 𝒮.

Thus 𝒯′ ⊂ 𝒯 .

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On the other hand, every basis element 𝑈 × 𝑉 for the topology 𝒯 is a finite intersection
of elements of 𝒮, since 𝑈 × 𝑉 = 𝜋1−1 (𝑈) ∩ 𝜋2−1 (𝑉).

Therefore, 𝑈 × 𝑉 ∈ 𝒯, so that 𝒯 ⊂ 𝒯′ as well.

1.5. The Subspace Topology

Definition.

Let X be a topological space with topology 𝒯 . If Y is a subset of X, the collection

𝒯𝑌 = {𝑌 ∩ 𝑈|𝑈 ∈ 𝒯 } is a topology on Y, called the subspace topology. With this
topology, Y is called a subspace of X; its open sets consist of all intersections of open
sets of X with Y.

Lemma 1.5.1.

If ℬ is a basis for the topology of X then the collection

ℬ𝑌 = {𝐵 ∩ 𝑌|𝐵 ∈ ℬ}

is a basis for the subspace topology on Y.

Proof.

Consider U is open in X.

Given ℬ is a basis for the topology of X.

We can choose an element B of ℬ such that 𝑦 ∈ 𝐵 ⊂ 𝑈.

Then 𝑦 ∈ 𝐵 ∩ 𝑌 ⊂ 𝑈 ∩ 𝑌 , since ℬ𝑌 = {𝐵 ∩ 𝑌|𝐵 ∈ ℬ}.

It follows from Lemma 1.2.2 that ℬ𝑌 is a basis for the subspace topology on Y.

Definition.

If Y is a subspace of X, we say that a set U is open in Y (or open relative to Y)

if it belongs to the topology of Y; this implies in particular that it is a subset of Y. We
say that U is open in X if it belongs to the topology of X.

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Lemma 1.5.2.

Let Y be a subspace of X. If U is open in Y and Y is open in X, then U is open

in X.

Proof.

Given U is open in Y and Y is open in X.

Since U is open in Y and Y is a subspace of X then 𝑈 = 𝑌 ∩ 𝑉 where V is open

in X.

Since Y and V are both open in X, 𝑌 ∩ 𝑉 is open in X.

Therefore, U is open in X.

Theorem 1.5.3.

If A is a subspace of X and B is a subspace of Y, then the product topology on

𝐴 × 𝐵 is the same as the topology 𝐴 × 𝐵 inherits as a subspace of 𝑋 × 𝑌.

Proof.

The set 𝑈 × 𝑉 is the general basis element for 𝑋 × 𝑌, where U is open in X and V is
open in Y.

Then (𝑈 × 𝑉) ∩ (𝐴 × 𝐵) is the general basis element for the subspace topology on

𝐴 × 𝐵. Now

(𝑈 × 𝑉 ) ∩ (𝐴 × 𝐵) = (𝑈 ∩ 𝐴) × (𝑉 ∩ 𝐵).

Since 𝑈 ∩ 𝐴 and 𝑉 ∩ 𝐵 are the general open sets for the subspace topologies on A and
B respectively, the set (𝑈 ∩ 𝐴) × (𝑉 ∩ 𝐵) is the general basis element for the product
on 𝐴 × 𝐵.

The bases for the subspace topology on 𝐴 × 𝐵 and for the product topology on 𝐴 × 𝐵
are the same.

Hence the topologies are the same.

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Remark.

Now let X be an ordered set in the order topology, and let Y be a subset of X.
The order relation on X, when restricted to Y , makes Y into an ordered set. However,
the resulting order topology on Y need not be the same as the topology that Y inherits
as a subspace of X. We give one example where the subspace and order topologies on
Y agree, and two examples where they do not.

Example 1.

Consider the subset 𝑌 = [0,1] of the real line ℝ, in the subspace topology.

The subspace topology has as basis all sets of the form (𝑎, 𝑏) ∩ 𝑌, where (𝑎, 𝑏) is an
open interval in ℝ. Such a set is of one of the following types:

(𝑎, 𝑏) 𝑖𝑓 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑌,

[0, 𝑏) 𝑖𝑓 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑏 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑌 ,
(𝑎, 𝑏) ∩ 𝑌 =
(𝑎, 1] 𝑖𝑓 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑎 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑌 ,
{𝑌 𝑜𝑟 ∅ 𝑖𝑓 𝑛𝑒𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑎 𝑛𝑜𝑟 𝑏 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑌

By definition, each of these sets is open in Y. But sets of the second and third types are
not open in the larger space R.

Note that these sets form a basis for the order topology on Y. Thus, we see that in the
case of the set Y = [0, 1], its subspace topology (as a subspace of R) and its order
topology are the same.

Example 2.

Let Y be the subset [0,1) ∪ {2} of ℝ. In the subspace topology on Y the one-
3 5
point set {2} is open, because it is the intersection of the open set (2 , 2) with Y. But in

the order topology on Y, the set {2} is not open. Any basis element for the order topology
on Y that contains 2 is of the form

{𝑥 | 𝑥 ∈ 𝑌 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎 < 𝑥 ≤ 2}

for some 𝑎 ∈ 𝑌; such a set necessarily contains points of Y less than 2.

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Example 3.

Let I = [0,1]. The dictionary order on 𝐼 × 𝐼 is just the restriction to 𝐼 × 𝐼 of the

dictionary order on the plane 𝑅 × 𝑅.

However, the dictionary order topology on 𝐼 × 𝐼 is not the same as the subspace
topology on 𝐼 × 𝐼 obtained from the dictionary order topology on 𝑅 × 𝑅!.

For example, the set {1/2} × (1/2,1] is open in 𝐼 × 𝐼 in the subspace topology, but not
in the order topology. See Figure 1.5.1.

Figure 1.5.1

The set I×I in the dictionary order topology will be called the ordered square,
and denoted by 𝐼02 .

Definition.

Given an ordered set X, let us say that a subset Y of X is convex in X if for

each pair of points a < b of Y , the entire interval (a, b) of points of X lies in Y . Note
that intervals and rays in X are convex in X.

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Theorem 1.5.4.

Let X be an ordered set in the order topology; let Y be a subset of X that is

convex in X. Then the order topology on Y is the same as the topology Y inherits as a
subspace of X.

Proof.

Consider the ray (𝑎, +∞) in X.

If 𝑎 ∈ 𝑌 , then (𝑎, +∞) ∩ 𝑌 = {𝑥|𝑥 ∈ 𝑌 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 > 𝑎}; this is an open ray of the
ordered set Y.

If 𝑎 ∉ 𝑌 , then a is either a lower bound on Y or an upper bound on Y, since Y is

convex.

If 𝑎 ∈ 𝑌 , the set (𝑎, +∞) ∩ 𝑌 equals all of Y. If 𝑎 ∉ 𝑌 , it is empty.

Similarly the intersection of the ray (−∞, 𝑎) ∩ 𝑌 is either an open ray of Y, or Y itself
or empty.

Since the sets (𝑎, +∞) ∩ 𝑌 and (−∞, 𝑎) ∩ 𝑌 form a subbasis for the subspace
topology on Y and since each is open in the order topology, the order topology
contains the subspace topology.

Conversely, Y equals the intersection of X with Y, that is 𝑋 ∩ 𝑌 = 𝑌.

So, it is open in the subspace topology on Y. The order topology is

contained in the subspace topology. Therefore, the order topology and
subspace topology are same.

1.6. Closed Sets and Limit Points

Definition.

A subset A of a topological space X is said to be 𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 if the set

𝑋 − 𝐴 is open.

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Example 1.

(i)The subset [𝑎, 𝑏] of ℝ is closed because its complement

ℝ − [𝑎, 𝑏] = (−∞, 𝑎) ∪ (𝑏, +∞), is open.

(ii)Similarly, [𝑎, +∞) is closed, because its complement (−∞, a) is open.

(iii)The subset [𝑎, 𝑏) of ℝ is neither open nor closed.

Example 2.

In the plane ℝ2 , the set {𝑥 × 𝑦| 𝑥 ≥ 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 ≥ 0} is closed,

because its complement is the union of the two sets (−∞, 0) × ℝ and
ℝ × (−∞, 0), each of which is a product of open sets of ℝ and is, therefore,
open in ℝ2 .

Example 3.

In the finite complement topology on a set X, the closed sets consist

of X itself and all finite subsets of X.

Example 4.

In the discrete topology on the set X, every set is open; it follows that
every set is closed as well.

Example 5.

Consider the following subset of the real line:

𝑌 = [0,1] ∪ (2,3),

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in the subspace topology. In this space, the set [0,1] is open, since it is the
1 3
intersection of the open set (− , ) of ℝ with Y. Similarly, (2, 3) is open
2 2

as a subset of Y; it is even open as a subset of ℝ. Since [0,1] and (2,3) are

complements in Y of each other, we conclude that both [0,1] and (2,3) are
closed as subsets of Y.

Theorem 1.6.1.

Let X be a topological space. Then the following conditions hold:

(1) ∅ and X are closed.

(2) Arbitrary intersections of closed sets are closed.

(3) Finite unions of closed sets are closed.

Proof.

(1) ∅ and 𝑋 are closed because they are the complements of the open set 𝑋
and ∅ respectively.

(2) Consider a collection of closed sets {𝐴𝛼 }𝛼∈𝐽 , we apply De Morgan’s

law,

𝑋 − ⋂ 𝐴𝛼 = ⋃(𝑋 − 𝐴𝛼 )
𝛼∈𝐽 𝛼∈𝐽

Since the sets 𝑋 − 𝐴𝛼 are open. By definition of closed sets, the right side
of this equation represents an arbitrary union of open sets and is thus open.

Therefore, ⋂𝛼∈𝐽 𝐴𝛼 is closed.

(3) Similarly, if 𝐴𝑖 is closed for 𝑖 = 1, 2,· · · , 𝑛. Consider the equation

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 𝑛 𝑛

𝑋 − ⋃ 𝐴𝑖 = ⋂(𝑋 − 𝐴𝑖 )
𝑖=1 𝑖=1

The set on the right side of this equation is a finite intersection of open
sets and is therefore open. Hence ⋃𝑛𝑖=1 𝐴𝑖 is closed.

Definition.

If Y is a subspace of X, we say that a set A is closed in Y if A is a

subset of Y and if A is closed in the subspace topology of Y (that is, if 𝑌 −
𝐴 is open in Y).

Theorem 1.6.2.

Let Y be a subspace of X. Then a set A is closed in Y if and only if it equals

the intersection of a closed set of X with Y.

Proof.

Assume that 𝐴 = 𝐶 ∩ 𝑌 , where C is closed in X. See Figure 1.6.1.

Then 𝑋 − 𝐶 is open in X, so that (𝑋 − 𝐶) ∩ 𝑌 is open in Y.

By the definition of the subspace topology, but (𝑋 − 𝐶) ∩ 𝑌 = 𝑌 − 𝐴.

Hence 𝑌 − 𝐴 is open inY, so that A is closed in Y.

Conversely, assume that A is closed in Y. See

Figure 1.6.1

Then 𝑌 − 𝐴 is open in Y.

By definition, it equals the intersection of an open set U of X with Y.

The set 𝑋 − 𝑈 is closed in X and 𝐴 = 𝑌 ∩ (𝑋 − 𝑈).

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Hence A equals the intersection of a closed set of X with Y.

Theorem 1.6.3.

Let Y be a subspace of X. If A is closed in Y and Y is closed in X,

then A is closed in X.

Proof.

Given A is closed in Y and Y is closed in X.

Since A is closed in Y and Y is a subspace of X.

Let 𝐴 = 𝑌 ∩ (𝑋 − 𝐵) where 𝑋 − 𝐵 is open in X. Then B is closed in X.

Since Y and B are both closed in X. 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑌 ∩ (𝑋 − 𝐵) is closed in X.

Therefore, A is closed in X.

Closure and Interior of a Set

Definition.

Given a subset A of a topological space X, the interior of A is

defined as the union of all open sets contained in A, and the closure of A
is defined as the intersection of all closed sets containing A.

The interior of A is denoted by 𝐼𝑛𝑡 𝐴 and the closure of A is

denoted by 𝐶𝑙 𝐴 or by 𝐴̅. Obviously Int A is an open set and A is a closed
set; furthermore,

𝐼𝑛𝑡 𝐴 ⊂ 𝐴 ⊂ 𝐴̅.

If A is open, 𝐴 = 𝐼𝑛𝑡 𝐴; while if A is closed, 𝐴 = 𝐴̅.

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Theorem 1.6.4.

Let Y be a subspace of X; let A be a subset of Y; let 𝐴̅ denote the

closure of A in X. Then the closure of A in Y equals 𝐴̅ ∩ 𝑌.

Proof.

Let B denote the closure of A in Y. The set A is closed in X, so A∩Y is

closed in Y.

By Theorem 1.6.4, since 𝐴̅ ∩ 𝑌 contains A and since B is closed.

By definition B equals the intersection of all closed subsets of Y

containing A, we must have 𝐵 ∩ (𝐴̅ ∩ 𝑌).

On the other hand, we know that B is closed in Y. By Theorem 1.6.4, 𝐵 =

𝐶 ∩ 𝑌 for some set C closed in X.

Then C is a closed set of X containing A; because A is the intersection of

all such closed sets, we conclude that A ⊂ C. Then

(𝐴 ∩ 𝑌) ⊂ (𝐶 ∩ 𝑌) = 𝐵. Therefore, 𝐵 = 𝐴̅ ∩ 𝑌.

Note. We shall say that a set A intersects a set B if the intersection A ∩ B

is not empty.

Theorem 1.6.5.

Let A be a subset of the topological space X.

(a) Then x∈𝐴̅ if and only if every open set U containing x intersects A.

(b) Supposing the topology of X is given by a basis, then 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴̅ if and only

if every basis element B containing x intersects A.

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Proof. (a)We prove this theorem by contrapositive method.

If x is not in A, since A is closed, A = A. The set U = X − A is an open set

containing x that does not intersect A.

Conversely, if there exists an open set U containing x which does not

intersect

A. Then X − U is a closed set containing A.

By definition of the closure A, the set X − U must contain A, since x ∈ U.

Therefore, x cannot be in A.

(b) Write the definition of topology generated by basis,if every open set x
intersects

A, so does every basis element B containing x, because B is an open set.

Conversely, if every basis element containing x intersects A, so does every

open

set U containing x, because U contains a basis element that contains x.

Definition.

If A is a subset of the topological space X and if x is a point of X, we

say that x is a limit point(or ”cluster point” or ”point of accumulation”)
of A if every neighborhood of x intersects A in some point other than x
itself. Said differently, x is a limit point of A if it belongs to the closure of
A − {x}. The point x may lie in A or not; for this definition it does not
matter.

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Theorem 1.6.6.

Let A be a subset of the topological space X; let A′ be the set of all

̅ ∪ A′.
limit points of A. Then A = A

Proof.

Let A′be the set of all limit points of 𝐴.

If x ∈ 𝐴′, every neighborhood of x intersects of A in a point different from

x. By

Theorem 1.6.5, x ∈ A. Then 𝐴′⊂ 𝐴̅.

By definition of closure, 𝐴 ⊂ 𝐴̅. Therefore, 𝐴 ∪ 𝐴′ ⊂ 𝐴̅.

Conversely, let x ∈ 𝐴̅

To show that 𝐴̅ ⊂ A ∪ A′

If x ∈ A then it is trivially true for x ∈ A ∪ A′

Suppose 𝑥 ∉ 𝐴. Since x ∈ 𝐴̅, by 0.6.8, we know that every neighborhood

U of x

intersect A, because x ∉ A, the set U must intersect A in a point different

from

x. Then x ∈ A′ so that x ∈ A ∪ A′

Then 𝐴̅ ⊂ A ∪ A′

Therefore, A = A ∪ A′

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Corollary 1.6.7.

A subset of a topological space is closed if and only if it contains all

its limit points.

Proof.

The set A is closed iff 𝐴 = 𝐴̅ . By Theorem 1.6.7, 𝐴′ ⊂ 𝐴.

Definition.

A topological space X is called a Hausdroff space if for each pair

𝑥1 , 𝑥2 of distinct points of X, there exist neighborhoods 𝑈1 and 𝑈2 of 𝑥1
and 𝑥2 respectively, that are disjoint.

Theorem 1.6.8.

Every finite point set in a Hausdorff space X is closed.

Proof.

It is enough to show that every one-point set {𝑥0 } is closed.

If x is a point of X different from 𝑥0 , then x and 𝑥0 have disjoint

neighborhoods

U and V respectively.

Since U does not intersect {𝑥0 }, the point x cannot belong to the closure of
the

set {𝑥0 }.

As a result, the closure of the set {𝑥0 } is {𝑥0 } itself.

Therefore, {𝑥0 } is closed.

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Note: The condition that finite point sets be closed is in fact weaker than
the Hausdroff condition. For example, the real line ℝ in the finite
complement topology is not a Hausdorff space, but it is a space in which
finite point sets are closed. The condition that finite point sets be closed
has been given a name of its own; it is called the 𝑇1 axiom.

Theorem 1.6.9.

Let X be a space satisfying the T1 axiom; let A be a subset of X. Then

the point x is a limit point of A if and only if every neighborhood of x
contains infinitely many points of A.

Proof.

If every neighborhood of x intersects A in infinitely many points, it

certainly intersects A in some point other than x itself, so that x is a limit
point of A.

Conversely, suppose that x is a limit point of A and suppose some

neighborhood U of x intersects A in only finitely many points.

Let {𝑥1 , 𝑥2 ,· · · , 𝑥𝑚 } be the points of 𝑈 ∩ (𝐴 − {𝑥}).

The set 𝑋 − {𝑥1 , 𝑥2 ,· · · , 𝑥𝑚 } is an open set of X, since the finite point set
{𝑥1 , 𝑥2 ,· · · , 𝑥𝑚 } is closed then

𝑈 ∩ (𝑋 − {𝑥1 , 𝑥2 ,· · · , 𝑥𝑚 })

is a neighborhood of x that does not intersects the set 𝐴 − {𝑥}.

Since {𝑥1 , 𝑥2 ,· · · , 𝑥𝑚 }be points of 𝑈 ∩ (𝐴 − {𝑥}).

This contradicts the assumption that x is a limit point of A.

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Theorem 1.6.10.

If X is a Hausdorff space, then a sequence of points of X converges

to at most one point of X.

Proof.

Suppose that 𝑥𝑛 is a sequence of points of X that converges to x.

If 𝑦 ≠ 𝑥, let U and V be disjoint neighborhoods of x and y respectively.

Since U contains 𝑥𝑛 for all but finitely many values of n, the set V cannot
contains 𝑥𝑛 .

Therefore, 𝑥𝑛 cannot converge.

If the sequence 𝑥𝑛 of points of the Hausdorff space X converges to the point

x of

X, we often write 𝑥𝑛 → 𝑥.

Therefore, x is the limit of the sequence 𝑥𝑛 .

Theorem 1.6.11.

Every simply ordered set is a Hausdorff space in the order topology.

The product of two Hausdorff spaces is a Hausdorff space. A subspace of
a Hausdorff space is a Hausdorff space.

Proof.

Let X and Y be two Hausdorff spaces.

To prove 𝑋 × 𝑌 is Hausdorff.

Let 𝑥1 × 𝑦1 and 𝑥2 × 𝑦2 be two distinct points of 𝑋 × 𝑌 .

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Then 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 are distinct points of X and X is a Hausdorff space, there exists
neighborhood 𝑈1 and 𝑈2 of 𝑥1 and 𝑥2 such that 𝑈1 ∩ 𝑈2 = ∅

Similarly, 𝑦1 , 𝑦2 are distinct point of Y and Y is a Hausdorff space, there

exists neighborhood 𝑉1 and 𝑉2 of 𝑦1 and 𝑦2 such that 𝑉1 ∩ 𝑉2 = ∅.

Then clearly 𝑈1 × 𝑉1 and 𝑈2 × 𝑉2 are open sets in 𝑋 × 𝑌 containing

𝑥1 × 𝑦1 and

𝑥2 × 𝑦2 such that (𝑈1 × 𝑉1 ) ∩ (𝑈2 × 𝑉2 ) = ∅.

Therefore, 𝑋 × 𝑌 is a Hausdorff space.

Let X be a Hausdorff space and let Y be a subspace.

To prove Y is a Hausdorff space.

Let 𝑦1 , 𝑦2 be two distinct points of Y and Y containing X. Then 𝑦1 and 𝑦2

are distinct points in X and X is Hausdorff there exists neighborhood 𝑈1
and 𝑈2 of 𝑦1 and 𝑦2 such that 𝑈1 ∩ 𝑈2 = ∅. Then 𝑈1 ∩ 𝑌 and 𝑈2 ∩ 𝑌 are
distinct neighborhoods of 𝑦1 and 𝑦2 in Y .

Therefore, Y is a Hausdorff space.

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