Unit - 4

Materials at low temperature and Magnetic

Properties
 I NT R O D U CT I O N

• The materials which can be made to

behave like a magnet and which are
easily Influenced by the magnetic field
called as a magnetic materials.
Basic Definitions
1. Magnetic Dipole Moment (M)
The dipole moment is defined as the product of magnetic pole strength
and length of the magnet. It is given by M = ml Am2.
2. Magnetic Field
The space around which the magnetic lines of forces exist is called as
magnetic field. Magnetic field is produced by permanent magnets such as
a horse shoe magnet and temporarily by electromagnets (or)
superconducting magnets.
 Basic Definitions
3. Magnetic Lines of Force
The continuous curve in a magnetic field that exists from north pole
to south pole is called as magnetic lines of force.
4.Magnetic Flux (φ)
The total number of magnetic lines of force passing through a
surface.
Unit : Weber.
5.Magnetic Induction or Magnetic flux Density(B)
The Magnetic induction in any material is the number of lines of
magnetic force passing through unit area perpendicularly. Units:
Wb/m2 or Tesla.
 Basic Definitions
6.Magnetic field intensity (H)
The Magnetic field intensity at any point in the magnetic field is
the force experienced by an unit north pole placed at that point.
Units : A/m
7. Magnetic Permeability (µ)
It is ratio of the magnetic induction (B) to the applied magnetic field
intensity (H).
µ =B/H
Unit: Henry m-1
It is the measure of ability of the material to permit magnetic lines
of force.
8.Relative permeability µr
The ratio of permeability of medium to
the permeability of free space is called
relative permeability µr of the solid.

µr = µ
µ
0
 Basic Definitions

9.Magnetization(I)
• Magnetization refers to the process of converting
a non-magnetic material into a Magnetic
material. It is defined as magnetic moment per
unit volume
• The intensity of Magnetization is directly related
to the applied field H.

IαH I
magnetic susceptibility χ =
H
 Basic Definitions

10. Magnetic Susceptibility ( χ )

It is defined as the ratio of intensity of
magnetization (I) and intensity of magnetic
field (H). χ = I / H.
The sign and magnitude of χ are used to
determine the nature of the magnetic
materials.
 Basic Definitions
11. Bohr Magneton (µB)
The orbital magnetic moment and the spin
magnetic moment of an electron in an atom
can be expressed in terms of atomic unit of
magnetic moment called as Bohr magneton.

1 Bohr magneton = eh /4πm µB

[µB =9.27 * 10-24 Am2 ]
12. Relation between susceptibility (χ) and
Relative permeability ( µr )
when a current is supplied through a
coil, magnetic field is developed. When a
magnetic material is placed inside a
external magnetic field, the magnetic
flux density (B) arises due to applied
magnetic field (H) and also due to the
induced magnetization (I). i.e., the total
flux density,
Bα H
B = µH ........................(1)
B = µ ( H + I )............(2)
0
Comparing (1) & (2)
µH = µ ( H + I )
0
µ µr H = µ ( H + I )
0 0
µr H = ( H + I )
µr = H + I
H
µr =1+ I
H
µr =1+ χ
 Basic Definitions

13. Retentivity or Remanence

When an external field is applied to the specimen it is
magnetized and when the field is removed it is
demagnetized. But some materials do not
completely demagnetize when field is removed.
There is some magnetism left out in the specimen.
“This residual magnetism which is left out even
after the removal of the external magnetic field” is
called as the Retentivity or Remanence.
 Basic Definitions
14. Coercivity
The residual magnetism can be removed
completely from the material by applying a
reverse magnetic field. “The reverse magnetic
field which is used to completely remove the
residual magnetism” is called as the coercivity.
ORIGIN OF MAGNETISM IN MATERIALS

A moving electric charge, macroscopically or “microscopically” is

responsible for Magnetism

Nuclear spin Weak effect

Unpaired electrons required

Origin of Magnetism Spin of electrons
for net Magnetic Moment

Orbital motion of electrons

Magnetic Moment resultant from the spin of a single unpaired electron

→ Bohr Magneton = 9.273 x 10−24 Am2
 Origin of Magnetic Moment

The Magnetic moment in a material originates from the orbital

motion and spinning motion of electrons in an atom.

µlm
e
Consider an atom & each electron in that,
orbiting around the nucleus produces a loop
current
i=q/t
i=qf
Where f is a frequency of electron..
If L is the angular momentum of electron, the
Magnetic moment of the electron

µlm = (Area of loop) x (Current)

µ = (πr 2 )( q
t)
lm
µ = (πr 2 )(qf )
lm
µ = (πr 2)( q × 2πf )
lm 2π
µ = (πr 2)( q ×ω )
lm 2π
µ = (πr 2)( q × vr )
lm 2π
µ = qvr
lm 2
µ = q .mvr
lm 2m
µ = q .L
lm 2m
 h
L = mvr = l (l + 1)
2π
q
µlm = .L
2m
q h
µlm = . l (l + 1)
2m 2π
qh
µlm = . l (l + 1)
4πm
µlm = µ B . l (l + 1)
qh
where., µ B ( Bohrmagneton) = → 9.27408 × 10 −24 Am 2
4πm
Classification of Magnetic Materials

1. Dia
2. Para
3. Ferro
4. Anti Ferro
5. Ferri Magnetic materials.
 Diamagnetic substances
• The diamagnetic substances are those in which
the individual atoms or ions do not possess any
net magnetic moment on their own.
• When such substances are placed in an external
magnetizing field, they get feebly magnetized in
a direction opposite to a magnetizing field.
 Paramagnetic Substances
• Paramagnetic substances are those in which each
individual atom or molecule or ion has a net non
zero magnetic moment of its own.
• When such substances are placed in an external
magnetic field, they get feebly magnetized in the
direction of the magnetizing field.
 Ferromagnetic materials
Ferromagnetic
Domains in Materials
Ferromagnetic
material are those
in which each
individual atom or
molecule has a non
zero magnetic
moment
 Dia magnetic materials

 Definition
In a diamagnetic material the electron orbits are randomly
oriented and the orbital magnetic moments get cancelled.
Similarly, all the spin moments are paired i.e., having even number
of electrons. Therefore, the electrons are spinning in two opposite
directions and hence the net
magnetic moment is zero.
Effect of magnetic field
When an external magnetic field is applied, the electrons re-orient
and align perpendicular to the applied field, i.e., their magnetic
moment opposes the external
magnetic field.
In the above diagram, there is no penetration of magnetic lines through the
diamagnetic material.
Diamagnetic materials Properties
1. They repel the magnetic lines of force, if placed in a magnetic field .
2. The susceptibility is negative and it is independent to temperature and applied
field strength. (χ = –ve)
3. The permeability is less than one (µ<1)
4. There is no permanent dipole moment.
5. When the temperature is greater than the critical temperature diamagnetic
becomes normal material.
6. It has superconducting property.
Examples : Gold, germanium, silicon, antimony, bismuth, silver, lead, copper,
hydrogen, Water and alcohol.
 Paramagnetic Materials

Definition
Para magnetism is due to the presence of few unpaired electrons which gives rise
to the spin magnetic moment. In the absence of external magnetic field, the
magnetic moments (dipoles) are randomly oriented and possess very less
magnetization in it.
Effect of magnetic field
When an external magnetic field is applied to paramagnetic material, the
magnetic moments align themselves along the field direction and the material
is said to be magnetized. This effect is known as paramagnetism.
Properties
1. The magnetic lines of force pass through the materials.
2. The susceptibility is positive and is given by χ=C / (T -θ)
(Curie-Weiss law)
3. The permeability is greater than one (µ >1) .
4. There is a permanent magnetic moment.
5. When the temperature is less than the Curie temperature,
paramagnetic materials become diamagnetic materials.
6. It spin alignment is random in nature.
Examples : Platinum, CuSO4 ,MnSO4 , Aluminum, etc
 Ferromagnetic materials

Definition
Ferromagnetism is due to the presence of more unpaired electrons. Even in the
absence of external field, the magnetic moments align parallel to each other.
So that it has large magnetism. This is called spontaneous magnetization.
Effect of magnetic field
If a small external magnetic field is applied the magnetic moments align in the
field direction and become very strong magnets.
Domains and Hysteresis

Domains in a ferromagnetic or Ferrimagnetic material; arrows represent atomic magnetic

dipoles.
Within each domain, all dipoles are aligned, whereas the direction of alignment varies from one
domain to another.
Gradual change in magnetic dipole
orientation across a domain wall.

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Properties of ferromagnetic materials
1. All the magnetic lines of force pass through the material.
2. Its susceptibility is high positive and it is given by χ = C /(T-θ)
3. The permeability is very much greater than one.
4. They have enormous permanent dipole moment.
5. When the temperature is greater than the Curie temperature, the
Ferromagnetic material becomes paramagnetic material.
6. The ferromagnetic material has equal magnitude dipole lying parallel to
each other.
Examples: Nickel, iron, Cobalt, Steel, etc.
(Curie temperature - The temperature below which a material can acts as
ferromagnetic material and above which it can acts as paramagnetic
material is called Curie temperature.)
 DOMAIN THEORY OF FERROMAGNETISM

This theory was proposed by Weiss in 1907. It explains the hysteresis and the
properties of ferromagnetic materials.
Magnetic Domains
A ferromagnetic material is divided into a large number of small region is called
domains. Each direction is spontaneously magnetized. The direction of
magnetization varies from domain to domain and the net magnetization is
zero, in the absence external magnetic field. The boundary line which
separates two domains is called domain wall or Block wall. When the magnetic
field is applied to the Ferromagnetic material, the magnetization is produced
by two ways.
1. By the motion of domain walls.
2. By the rotation of domains.
 DOMAIN THEORY OF FERROMAGNETISM

Process of Domain magnetization

There are two ways to align a random domain structure by applying an external
magnetic field.
1. By the motion of Domain walls
When a small amount of magnetic field is applied, the domains having dipoles
parallel to the applied magnetic field increases in area by the motion of
domain walls.
2. By the rotation of Domains
If the applied magnetic field is further increased, the domains are rotated
parallel to the field direction by the rotation of domains.
DOMAIN THEORY OF FERROMAGNETISM
B versus H

ferromagnetic or
ferrimagnetic material
initially unmagnetized

Domain configurations during

several stages of

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magnetization

Saturation flux density, Bs

Magnetization, Ms,
initial permeability µi
Magnetic flux density versus
magnetic field strength

ferromagnetic material
subjected to forward and
reverse saturations (S & S’).

hysteresis loop (red)

initial magnetization (blue)
remanence, Br
coercive force, Hc
 Comparison magnetic versus nonmagnetic

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 Energies involved in the domain growth (or) Origin
of Domain theory of Ferromagnetism

The total internal energy of the domain structure in a

ferromagnetic material is made up from the following
contributions.
1. Exchange energy (or) Magnetic field energy.
2. Crystalline energy (or) Anisotropy energy.
3. Domain wall energy (or) Bloch wall energy.
4. Magnetostriction energy
 Exchange energy (or) Magnetic Field energy

“The interaction energy which makes the adjacent dipoles align themselves” is the
called exchange energy (or) magnetic field energy.
 Anisotropy energy
The excess energy required to magnetize a specimen in particular direction over
that required to magnetize it along the easy direction is called the crystalline
anisotropy energy.
In ferromagnetic materials there are two types of directions of magnetization
namely,
a) Easy direction and
b) hard directions.
In easy direction of magnetization, weak field can be applied and in hard direction
of magnetization, strong field should be applied.
.
 Anisotropy energy
Crystalline anisotropy energy is energy of magnetization which is
the function of crystal orientation.
 Domain wall energy or Bloch wall energy

A thin boundary or region that separates adjacent domains

magnetized in different directions is called domain wall or Bloch
wall.
The size of the Bloch walls is about 200 to 300 lattice constant
thickness. In going from one domain to another domain, the
electron spin changes gradually as shown in figure. The energy of
domain wall is due to both exchange energy and anisotropic
energy.
Based on the spin alignments, two types of Bloch walls may
arise, namely
a) Thick wall: When the spins at the boundary are
misaligned and if the direction of the spin changes
gradually as shown figure, it leads to a thick Bloch wall.
Here the misalignments of spins are associated with
exchange energy
b) Thin wall: When the spins at the boundaries changes
abruptly, then the anisotropic energy becomes very less.
Since the anisotropic energy is directly proportional to
the thickness of the wall, this leads to a thin Bloch wall.
 Magnetostriction energy

When a material is magnetized, it is found that it

suffers a change in dimensions. This phenomenon is
known as Magnetostriction. This deformation is
different along different crystal directions.
 Hysteresis

Hysteresis means “Lagging” i.e., The Lagging

of magnetic induction(B) behind the
intensity of magnetic field (H).
Explanation of hysteresis on the basis of Domains
 Explanation of hysteresis on the basis of Domains

• OA - Due to smaller reversible domains wall

movement.
• AB - Due to larger irreversible domain wall
movement.
• BS - Due to smaller irreversible domain rotation.
• S - Point of saturation.
 Explanation of hysteresis on the basis of Domains

 When a field is applied, for small H, the domain walls are

displaced and gives rise to small value of magnetization. [OA in
the graph]. Now, the field is removed, the domains return to its
original state known as reversible domains.
 When the field is increased, a large number of domains
contribute to the magnetization and I increases rapidly with H.
 Now, when the field is removed the domain boundaries do not
come back to the original position due to the domain wall
movement to a very large distance (AB in the graph). These
domains are called irreversible domains.
 Explanation of hysteresis on the basis of Domains

 Now if the field is further increased, domains start rotating

along the field direction and anisotropic energy is stored and it is
represented as BC in the graph.
 Thus the specimen is said to attain maximum magnetization at
this position even after the removal of the field. The material is
having magnetism called Retentivity. This Retentivity can be
destroyed by applying a high reverse magnetic field called
coercivity.
 Thus the reversible and irreversible domain wall movements
give rise to hysteresis in the Ferromagnetic materials.
Difference between Hard and
Soft magnetic materials
 ANTIFERROMAGNETIC MATERIALS

Definition
In this material, the spins are aligned in anti-parallel
manner due to unfavorable exchange interaction among
them, resulting in zero magnetic moment. Even when the
magnetic field is increased, it has almost zero induced
magnetic moment.
 Properties
1. Its susceptibility is very small and it is positive.
2. The susceptibility is given by χ= C/(T±T N)
T >TN [where TN –Neel temp]
3. Initially, when the temperature increases, susceptibility [χ] value of the anti
Ferro magnetic material also increases and reaches a maximum at a
particular temperature this temperature called as Neel temperature,
susceptibility decreases with increase in temperature and the material
changes into paramagnetic material.
(Neel temperature - The temperature at which susceptibility is
maximum is called Neel temperature).
Examples : Ferrous oxide, FeCl 4 ,MnO 4 ,MnS and some ionic compounds etc.
 FERRIMAGNETIC MATERIALS

Definition
Ferrimagnetic materials or Ferrites are much similar to Ferromagnetic
materials. The magnetic dipoles are aligned anti-parallel with unequal
magnitudes. If small value of magnetic field is applied, it will produce
the large value of magnetization.
Ferrimagnetic materials are widely used in high frequency applications
and computer memories.
Definition
FERRITES
Ferrites or Ferrimagnetic materials are the modified
structure of iron without carbon. In Ferrites the spins of
adjacent ion is the presence of a magnetic field are in
opposite directions with different magnitudes.
 Properties
These are made from ceramic ferromagnetic compounds.
It has low tensile strength and it is brittle and soft.
In these materials all valence electrons are tied up by ionic bonding.
These are bad conductors with high resistivity of the order of 1011
Ωm.
Ferrites have low eddy current loss and low hysteresis loss.
 Ferrites
The general formula for Ferrites is X²+ (Fe2)3+o4 where
X- is a metal (divalent metal) such as Mg, Ni, Mn, Zn, etc.
Ferrites are manufactured by powder metallurgical process by
mixing, compacting and then sintering at high temperatures
followed by age hardening
in magnetic fields.
 Ferrites and its structure
If X 2+is replaced by Fe 2+ then ferrous ferrite is
formed (Fe²+ Fe23+o4 )
The physical properties of ferrites are intimately
related to its structure of these solids.
They belong to the large class of compounds
having “Spinel structure” .
Tetrahedral site Octahedral site

metal ion metal ion

A-site B-site
 Regular spinel structure

Metal ions occupy this A-site and B-sites in this structure

each divalent metal ion(Fe 2+ )occupies A-site and each
trivalent metal ion on (Fe 3+ )occupies the
B-site. Hence the sites A &B combine together to form
regular spinel structure.
 Regular spinel structure

Fe 3+ Fe 3+
B-site

Fe 2+
A-site
 Inverse spinel structure
• In this structure, the trivalent metal ion occupies
the A-site and half of B-site. The remaining B-site
is occupied by divalent metal ion. Such an
arrangement is known as inverse spinel
structure.
 Inverse spinel structure

Fe 3+ Fe 2+
B-site

Fe 3+
A-site
Magnetic moment of a ferrite molecule
• In ferrous ferrite there are two types of ions Fe2+ and Fe3+
• Fe2+ has six electrons in 3d shell. Out of six electrons, two
electrons are paired with one another and hence left four
unpaired electrons. Thus Fe2+ give rise to 4µB.
• Fe3+ has five electrons in 3d shell and hence all these five
are unpaired electrons. Thus Fe3+ give rise to 5µB.
• Fe2+ (4µB)

• Fe3+ (5µB)
• Since there is 2Fe3+, total contribution is 10µB.
• Therefore total magnetization= 14µB
 Magnetic moment of a ferrite
molecule
• Theoretically the total magnetization is 14µB but
experimentally, the total magnetic moment is
4.08µB. The reason for this discrepancy is explained
as follows,
• If all the spins are aligned parallel the total
magnetization is 14µB .But in ferrites, half of the
magnetic spins of Fe3+2 ions are parallel to one
direction and the remaining of Fe3+2 ions are parallel
in opposite direction and hence they cancel each
other.

• =4µB
 Application of Ferrites

1. Ferrites are used to produce ultrasonic wave by

Magnetostriction principle.
2. Ferrites are used in audio and video transformers.
3. Ferrites rods are used in radio receivers to increase
the sensitivity.
4. Ferrites are widely used in non-reciprocal
microwave devices such as gyrator, circulator and
Isolator.
 Application of Ferrites
6. Ferrites are used in parametric amplifiers so
that the input can be amplified with low
noise.
7. They are used in computers and data
processing circuits.
8. Bi-stable elements, Ferro cube (Ferrite with
square hysteresis loop), magnetic shift
register, and magnetic bubbles are also
examples for Ferrites.
• Gyrator : It transmits the power freely in both
directions with a phase shift of radians.
• Circulator : It provides sequential transmission of
power between the ports.
• Isolator : It is used to display differential
attenuation.