BNMIT, Bangalore Applied Physics (22PHC112/122) Study Material

MODULE V

QUANTUM COMPUTING

Introduction to Quantum computing

Quantum computing is a fascinating and growing field at the intersection of Physics &
Computer science which focuses on developing computing methods based on principles of
Quantum Mechanics.

The key principles which govern the quantum computing are superposition, quantum
measurement and entanglement. Even the Nobel Laureate like Richard Feynman, struggled
with the implications of quantum mechanics which led to his famous quote, “I think I can safely
say that nobody understands quantum mechanics.”

Although the applications of Quantum mechanics are not straight forward, this branch
of Physics opens an entirely new world of possibilities in Science, Technology, and
Information processing. One of the most promising fields is quantum computers. The
significant applications of quantum computing are Quantum simulation, Cryptography,
Optimization, and quantum machine learning. Quantum computing contributes to military
affairs, Finance Industry, Aerospace and Drug designing. Many tech giants like IBM,
Microsoft, Google are currently working in quantum computing field. Since quantum
computers are fragile, even slight vibration will affect the computer and causes decoherency as
the working process of quantum computers is based on the “quantum states”.

Wave function in Dirac Bra-Ket Notation:

A state of a quantum system defined by a wave function can be represented by certain type
of vector known as ket vector. In Quantum mechanics, Dirac Bra-Ket notation is a standard
notation for describing the quantum states. The notation uses angle brackets “< >” and a
vertical line in between “|”. Here ket is denoted by the symbol | ⟩ and Bra is denoted by the
symbol ⟨ | .

Note: In quantum mechanics, the physical state of a system is given by a vector in a Hilbert
space and the possible results of measures of physical quantities correspond to the eigenvalues
of self-adjoint operators.

Hilbert Space is infinite-dimensional vector space that has a natural inner product, or dot
product. where the dimensions represent the energy states of a quantum system.

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Ket Vector:

The standard quantum mechanical notation for a quantum state 𝜓𝜓 in vector space is |𝜓𝜓⟩
pronounced as Ket-Psi.

The notation | ⟩ indicates the object is a vector and is called Ket-Vector.

Ex: Let us consider two kets |𝑎𝑎⟩ & |𝑏𝑏⟩ and two arbitrary complex numbers C1 and C2. The
linear combination can now be written as |𝑉𝑉⟩ = 𝐶𝐶1 |𝑎𝑎⟩ + 𝐶𝐶2 |𝑏𝑏⟩

Bra Vector:

If 𝜓𝜓 is quantum state represented as |𝜓𝜓⟩ hen the complex conjugate of 𝜓𝜓 which is 𝜓𝜓 ∗ is

represented by a Bra notation written as ⟨𝜓𝜓|

The complex conjugate of the vector |𝑉𝑉⟩ = 𝐶𝐶1 |𝑎𝑎⟩ + 𝐶𝐶2 |𝑏𝑏⟩ is ⟨𝑉𝑉| = 𝐶𝐶1∗ ⟨𝑎𝑎| + 𝐶𝐶2∗ ⟨𝑏𝑏| where
⟨𝑎𝑎| , ⟨𝑏𝑏| are Bra Vectors and 𝐶𝐶1∗ , 𝐶𝐶2∗ are Complex conjugate of 𝐶𝐶1 & 𝐶𝐶2 .

For ex:
1. |𝜓𝜓⟩ =2+ib then ⟨𝜓𝜓| = 2-ib
2. |𝜓𝜓⟩ = 𝑎𝑎1 |𝜑𝜑1 ⟩ + 𝑖𝑖𝑎𝑎2 |𝜑𝜑2 ⟩ then ⟨𝜓𝜓| = 𝑎𝑎1 ⟨𝜑𝜑1 | − 𝑖𝑖𝑎𝑎2 ⟨𝜑𝜑2 |
3. |𝜓𝜓⟩ = 2|𝜑𝜑1 ⟩ + 3|𝜑𝜑2 ⟩ then ⟨𝜓𝜓| = 2⟨𝜑𝜑1 | + 3⟨𝜑𝜑2 |

Now using Dirac Bra-Ket notation 𝜓𝜓𝜓𝜓 ∗ can be written as ⟨𝜓𝜓|𝜓𝜓⟩ where⟨𝜓𝜓| is termed as “Bra”
𝜓𝜓 and |𝜓𝜓⟩is termed as “Ket” 𝜓𝜓.

Matrix form of wave function:

To make the computation easier, the wavefunctions and operators are represented in matrix
form which is simplified by Dirac notations.

Note: If a matrix has only one row or only one column it is called a vector.

If a stat of a physical system is represented by 𝜓𝜓 then the state of the system in terms of its
eigen functions can be written as

𝜓𝜓 = 𝐶𝐶1 𝜑𝜑1 + 𝐶𝐶2 𝜑𝜑2 + 𝐶𝐶3 𝜑𝜑3 … … … 𝐶𝐶𝑛𝑛 𝜑𝜑𝑛𝑛

Where 𝜑𝜑1 , 𝜑𝜑2 , 𝜑𝜑3 … … … 𝜑𝜑𝑛𝑛 are eigen functions and 𝐶𝐶1 , 𝐶𝐶2 , 𝐶𝐶3 … … … 𝜑𝜑𝑛𝑛 are the coefficients of
eigen functions which could be real or complex.

Complex conjugate of wave function 𝜓𝜓 is

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𝜓𝜓 ∗ = 𝑐𝑐1∗ 𝜑𝜑1∗ + 𝑐𝑐2∗ 𝜑𝜑2∗ + 𝑐𝑐3∗ 𝜑𝜑3∗ … … … 𝑐𝑐𝑛𝑛∗ 𝜑𝜑𝑛𝑛∗

Where 𝜑𝜑1∗ , 𝜑𝜑2∗ , 𝜑𝜑3∗ … … … 𝜑𝜑𝑛𝑛∗ are the complex conjugates of 𝜑𝜑1 , 𝜑𝜑2 , 𝜑𝜑3 … … … 𝜑𝜑𝑛𝑛 &
𝑐𝑐1∗ , 𝑐𝑐2∗ , 𝑐𝑐3∗ … … … 𝑐𝑐𝑛𝑛∗ are the complex conjugate of 𝐶𝐶1 , 𝐶𝐶2 , 𝐶𝐶3 … … … 𝜑𝜑𝑛𝑛 .

In Bra-ket notation the functions 𝜓𝜓 & 𝜓𝜓 ∗ can now be written as

|𝜓𝜓⟩ = 𝐶𝐶1 |𝜑𝜑1 ⟩ + 𝐶𝐶2 |𝜑𝜑2 ⟩ + 𝐶𝐶3 |𝜑𝜑3 ⟩ … … … 𝐶𝐶𝑛𝑛 |𝜑𝜑𝑛𝑛 ⟩

|𝜓𝜓⟩ = � 𝐶𝐶𝑛𝑛 |𝜑𝜑𝑛𝑛 ⟩

𝑛𝑛

𝑪𝑪𝒏𝒏 = ⟨𝝋𝝋𝒏𝒏 |𝝍𝝍⟩

In matrix formulation of quantum mechanics, the above “Ket” can now be written as “column
vector”.

〈𝜑𝜑 |𝜓𝜓〉 𝐶𝐶1

⎡ 1 ⎤ ⎡ 𝐶𝐶 ⎤
〈𝜑𝜑 |𝜓𝜓〉
⎢ 2 ⎥ ⎢ 2⎥
⎢〈𝜑𝜑3 |𝜓𝜓〉⎥ ⎢ 𝐶𝐶3 ⎥
|𝜓𝜓⟩ = ⎢ . ⎥ = ⎢ . ⎥
⎢ . ⎥ ⎢ . ⎥
⎢ . ⎥ ⎢ . ⎥
⎣〈𝜑𝜑𝑛𝑛 |𝜓𝜓〉⎦ ⎣𝐶𝐶𝑛𝑛 ⎦

Similarly

⟨𝜓𝜓| = 𝐶𝐶1∗ ⟨𝜑𝜑1 | + 𝐶𝐶2∗ ⟨𝜑𝜑2 | + 𝐶𝐶3∗ ⟨𝜑𝜑3 | … … … 𝐶𝐶𝑛𝑛∗ ⟨𝜑𝜑𝑛𝑛 |

⟨𝜓𝜓| = � 𝐶𝐶𝑛𝑛∗ ⟨𝜑𝜑𝑛𝑛 |

𝑛𝑛

𝑪𝑪𝒏𝒏∗ = ⟨𝝍𝝍|𝝋𝝋𝒏𝒏 ⟩ = 〈𝝋𝝋𝒏𝒏 |𝝍𝝍〉∗

In matrix formulation of quantum mechanics, the “Bra” is written as “Row vector” which is
a Hermitian conjugate (conjugate transpose) of Ket matrix i.e ⟨𝜓𝜓| = |𝜓𝜓⟩ † = |𝜓𝜓⟩ ∗𝑇𝑇

⟨𝜓𝜓| = [⟨𝜓𝜓|𝜑𝜑1 ⟩ ⟨𝜓𝜓|𝜑𝜑2 ⟩ ⟨𝜓𝜓|𝜑𝜑3 ⟩ … … ⟨𝜓𝜓|𝜑𝜑𝑛𝑛 ⟩] = [𝐶𝐶1∗ 𝐶𝐶2∗ 𝐶𝐶3∗ … … 𝐶𝐶𝑛𝑛∗ ]

Or

⟨𝜓𝜓| = [⟨𝜑𝜑1 |𝜓𝜓⟩∗ ⟨𝜑𝜑2 |𝜓𝜓⟩∗ ⟨𝜑𝜑3 |𝜓𝜓⟩∗ … … ⟨𝜑𝜑𝑛𝑛 |𝜓𝜓⟩∗ ] = [𝐶𝐶1∗ 𝐶𝐶2∗ 𝐶𝐶3∗ … … 𝐶𝐶𝑛𝑛∗ ]

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Note:
If |𝜓𝜓𝑖𝑖 ⟩ & |𝜓𝜓𝑗𝑗 �are any to Ket functions then �𝜓𝜓𝑖𝑖 �𝜓𝜓𝑗𝑗 � is the scalar product of the two vectors
∞
defined as �𝜓𝜓𝑖𝑖 �𝜓𝜓𝑗𝑗 � = ∫−∞ 𝜓𝜓𝑖𝑖∗ (𝑥𝑥)𝜓𝜓𝑗𝑗 (𝑥𝑥)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
1. Orthogonal condition:

In Dirac notation, if the vectors are given by ⟨ѱ𝑖𝑖 |ѱ𝑗𝑗 � = 𝛿𝛿𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 ,

Then ⟨ѱ𝑖𝑖 |ѱ𝑗𝑗 � = 0 (𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑖𝑖 ≠ 𝑗𝑗) and

⟨ѱ𝑖𝑖 |ѱ𝑗𝑗 � = 1 (𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑖𝑖 = 𝑗𝑗) which is the normalization condition

For ex: ⟨0|1⟩ = 0, ⟨0|0⟩ = 1

2. Normalization condition:

We know ∫ 𝜓𝜓 𝜓𝜓 ∗ dτ = 1, it can be written in Dirac notation as ⟨𝜓𝜓|𝜓𝜓⟩ = 1

Operators

Operators are the mathematical functions which acts on the wavefunction vectors and causes
transformation. For example, If |𝜓𝜓𝑖𝑖 ⟩ & |𝜓𝜓𝑗𝑗 � are any to Ket functions and an operator 𝐴𝐴� , then
the operation of 𝐴𝐴� is as follows
�𝜓𝜓𝑖𝑖 � 𝐴𝐴� �𝜓𝜓𝑗𝑗 � = ⟨ѱ𝑖𝑖 | 𝐴𝐴� ѱ𝑗𝑗 � = �𝐴𝐴� ѱ𝑖𝑖 | ѱ𝑗𝑗 �

Some of Operators in quantum mechanics are

• Identity Operator • Inverse Operator
• Linear Operator • Unitary Operator
• Hermitian Operator • Parity Operator
• Adjoint Operator • Projection Operator

Identity Operator: (I)

It is the operator which operates on a qubit states/vectors and leaves the qubit states/vectors
unchanged.
i.e., 𝐼𝐼� |𝑎𝑎⟩ = |𝑎𝑎⟩
Where 𝐼𝐼� is called the Identity operator.
1 0 0
1 0
Matrix form of Identity operator for order 2 and 3 is given by 𝐼𝐼� = � � & 𝐼𝐼� = �0 1 0�.
0 1
0 0 1

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Moore’s law and its end:

Moore’s law states, “Number of transistors in a dense integrated chip doubles every two
years.”

In 1965, Gordon Moore, the Co-founder of

intel, suggested that the computational
progress will become significantly faster,
smaller, and more efficient over time. The
computer industry has followed this
prediction since then. The following plot
shows the 50 years of Moore’s law.

The question that arises is how long can Moore’s law

continues to hold and what are the ultimate limitations.
According to the semiconductor size data the size has
reached 5 nanometre in 2021. The Size data is as show in
the table.

Limitation of Moore’s Law

To keep up with Moore’s law, number of transistors must keep increasing which in turn means
the size of the transistor must reduce. But there is a limit in size reduction, as the source and
drain regions of the transistor come closer and closer, Quantum effects like quantum
tunnelling cascades into the micro scale realm causing problems for current micro-electronics
as it is difficult to make a barrier high enough to stop the electrons from tunnelling. This is
the limitation of Moore’s law.

Bits in Classical Computing:

In classical computers, information is represented as the binary digits “0” or ”1”. These are
called Bits. For example, the number 1 in an 8-bit binary representation is written as 0000
0001 and the number 2 is represented as 0000 0010 and so on. Every number is represented
as 8 bits, which is called Byte. The document, we read or the video, we watch is encoded in
the computer binary language in terms of these 1’s and 0’s. The hardware understands the
Bit’1’ as an electrical current flowing through the wire while the ‘0’ bit is the absence of an
electrical current in a wire. These electrical signals can be thought of as “ON” (the 1 bit) or
“OFF” (the O bit). Then computer decodes the classical 1 or 0 bits into words or videos.

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Concept of Qubit:

A Quantum bit or qubit is the basic unit of information in quantum computing. Qubits are the
counter parts of classical bits in quantum computing.
In a qubit there are two measurable states called the ‘0’ and ‘1’ states and in addition, the
qubits can also be in a superposition state of these ‘0’ and ‘1’ states.
The fundamental quantum principles that define a qubit are Superposition, Entanglement and
Tunnelling. Taken together these qualities enormously enhance computing power.
Certain computations that normally need to be performed on ‘0’ or ‘1’ separately on a
classical computer, can be completed in a single operation using a qubit on a quantum
computer which makes the computations much faster.
Properties of Qubits:

1. Superposition:
A qubit can also exist in the superposed states of the two states ‘0 and ‘1’. A superposition
is a weighted sum or difference of two or more states or it is the linear combination of
states.
2. Quantum entanglement:
Quantum entanglement is the state where two systems are so strongly correlated that
gaining information about one system will give immediate information about the other no
matter how far apart these systems are.
In quantum computers, changing the state of an entangled qubit will change the state of
the paired qubit immediately. Therefore, entanglement improves the processing speed of
quantum computers.
3. Tunnelling:
Tunnelling is a quantum mechanical phenomenon in which a particle penetrates through a
potential energy barrier that is higher in energy than the particle's kinetic energy.
Quantum Tunnelling is what gives quantum computers the potential to not only complete
tasks faster but also to potentially complete tasks that a classical computer simply cannot
do.
4. No Cloning Principle:
Owing to the quantum nature, the qubit changes its state at once when subjected to
measurement. This means, one cannot copy information from qubits as in the classical
computers, as there will be no similarity between the copy and the original. This is known
as “no cloning principle”

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5. Probabilistic nature of qubits:

If measurements are carried out with a qubit in super-posed state, then the results that we
get are probabilistic unlike how it is deterministic in a classical computer.

Note: A classical bit can either be ‘0’ or ‘1’ but a quantum bit can also be in a superposition of
both ‘0’ and ‘1’

Dirac Bra- Ket notation for qubits:

To work with qubits, it is useful to express quantum mechanical states in Dirac’s “Bra- Ket”
notation. A qubit for a state, |ѱ⟩ could be in a |0⟩ and |1⟩ state which in turn is a superposition
of both |0⟩ and |1⟩. This is written as

|ѱ⟩ = 𝛼𝛼|0⟩ + 𝛽𝛽 |1⟩

where α and β are called the amplitudes of the states and the amplitudes are generally complex
numbers. This allows us to mathematically represent all the possible superposition states.

Amplitudes are very important as it implies the probability of finding the particle in state |0⟩
is |𝛼𝛼|2 and the probability of measuring the particle in the state |1⟩ is |𝛽𝛽|2 . Squaring α and β,
to find the probability, is like squaring a wave amplitude to find the energy of the wave.

Since the total probability of observing all the states of the quantum system must add up to
100%, the amplitude must follow the normalization rule: |𝛼𝛼|2 + |𝛽𝛽|2 =1. The coefficients of
α and β can always be rescaled by some factor to normalize the quantum state.

Matrix representation:

To represent one qubit in matrix representation which is a superposition of |ѱ⟩ = 𝛼𝛼|0⟩+β |1⟩,
is written as a two-dimensional vector where the amplitudes are the components of the vector:
𝛼𝛼
|ѱ⟩ = � �
𝛽𝛽
The states |0⟩ and |1⟩are represented as

|0⟩ = �10� and |1⟩ = �01�

A qubit state can be changed by physical actions such as applying magnetic field or
electromagnetic radiation. Mathematically, changing a qubit’s state is represented by
multiplying the qubit vector |ѱ⟩ by some unitary matrix U so that after the change, the state
is now |ѱ′⟩ = 𝑈𝑈|ѱ⟩.

A matrix is said to be Unitary if the condition 𝑈𝑈 † 𝑈𝑈 = 𝐼𝐼, is satisfied.

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Unitary matrix U can only act on the qubit in such a way that |𝛼𝛼|2 + |𝛽𝛽|2 does not change.
This is significant, as in all the mathematical construction of quantum mechanics, one
fundamental assumption is that each (matrix) operator must be unitary. This ensures that after
changing the state through some action, the total probability to observe all possible states still
adds up to 100%. This physical action of interaction with the state corresponds
mathematically to applying a unitary operator.

Operation of Identity operator 𝑰𝑰� on qubits |𝟎𝟎⟩ &|𝟏𝟏⟩:

We know that,
1 0
𝐼𝐼̂ = � �, |0⟩ = �10� and |1⟩ = �01�
0 1

1 0 1 1
Now, 𝐼𝐼� |0⟩ = � � � � = � � = |0⟩.
0 1 0 0

1 0 0 0
Similarly, 𝐼𝐼� |1⟩ = � � � � = � � = |1⟩
0 1 1 1

Representation of Qubits by Bloch Sphere:

Bloch Sphere is a visual tool that is used in quantum computing which helps in understanding
the state of qubits. Bloch Sphere is the geometrical representation of quantum states of two-
level quantum system. Any two-level quantum system can form a qubit. Bloch Sphere has a
unit radius.

• The Arrow on the sphere represents the state of the Qubit. The north and south poles are
used to represent the basis states |0⟩ and |1⟩ is called the computational basis.
• The other locations are the superpositions of |0⟩ and |1⟩ respectively therefore the general
pure state of the qubit in this basis is |ѱ⟩ = 𝛼𝛼|0⟩+β |1⟩. Thus, a Qubit can be any point on
the Bloch Sphere.

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• Each qubit is a vector on Bloch’s sphere. Each vector on Bloch sphere can be understood
as in two basis θ and Φ, where θ is the angle between the vector and the Z axis and Φ is
angle between the vector and positive X axis measuring the counter clockwise.
• All possible states can be achieved on the Bloch sphere using these two angles with
limitations on them. The limitations are θ is always between 0 and π inclusive and Φ is
always between 0 and 2π inclusive.
• Now all the states can be represented on the sphere using the vector

𝜃𝜃 𝜃𝜃
|ѱ⟩ = cos � � |0⟩ + 𝑒𝑒 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 sin � � |1⟩
2 2

where 0 ≤ θ ≤ π and 0 ≤ Φ ≤ 2π

Single, Two qubits, Three qubits and Extension to N qubits

Single Qubit System:

A Single Qubit has two computational basis states |0⟩ 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 |1⟩ which can be represented as
follows.
|0⟩ , |1⟩
Basis = � 1 0
� �,� �
0 1
The general state of a single qubit is = 𝛼𝛼|0⟩ + 𝛽𝛽 |1⟩
When the basis matrices are written as columns of a matrix, then the matrix will be an identity
matrix
1 0
Basis as column of the matrix is � � which is a identity matrix of order 2
0 1
Two Qubits System:
A two-qubit system has four basis states denoted as |00⟩, |01⟩, |10⟩ 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 |11⟩ which can be
represented as Note: The above basis sets are obtained by Kronecker
|00⟩, |01⟩, |10⟩, |11⟩ multiplying or Kronecker product.
⎧ ⎫
⎪ 1 0 0 0 ⎪ for ex.
Basis = 0 1 0 0
⎨�0� , �0� , �1� , �0�⎬ |00⟩ = |0⟩ ∙ |0⟩ similarly, |10⟩ = |1⟩ ∙ |0⟩
⎪ ⎪
⎩ 0 0 0 1 ⎭ 1 0
1 1 0 1
= � � ∙ � � = �0� = � � ∙ � � = �0 �
0 0 0 1 0 1
0 0

The general state of a two- qubit is = 𝛼𝛼00 |00⟩ + 𝛼𝛼01 |01⟩ + 𝛼𝛼10 |10⟩ + 𝛼𝛼11 |11⟩

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When the basis matrices are written as the columns of a matrix, then the matrix will be an
identity matrix
1 0 0 0
Basis as column of the matrix is �0 1 0 0� which is an identity matrix of order 4
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1
Three Qubits system:
A three-qubit system has eight basis states denoted as |000⟩, |001⟩, |010⟩, |011⟩, |100⟩,
|101⟩, |110⟩ 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 |111⟩ which can be represented as
|000⟩, |001⟩, |010⟩, |011⟩, |100⟩, |101⟩, |110⟩, |111⟩
⎧ 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 ⎫
⎪ ⎡0⎤ ⎡1⎤ ⎡1⎤ ⎡0⎤ ⎡0⎤ ⎡0⎤ ⎡0⎤ ⎡0⎤ ⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎪ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎪
0 0 0 0 0
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ 0 0 0
Basis = 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
⎨ ⎢0⎥ , ⎢0⎥ , ⎢0⎥ , ⎢0⎥ , ⎢1⎥ , ⎢0⎥ , ⎢0⎥ , ⎢0⎥ ⎬
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎪ ⎢0⎥ ⎢0⎥ ⎢0⎥ ⎢0⎥ ⎢0⎥ ⎢1⎥ ⎢0⎥ ⎢0⎥ ⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎪ ⎢0⎥ ⎢0⎥ ⎢0⎥ ⎢0⎥ ⎢0⎥ ⎢0⎥ ⎢1⎥ ⎢0⎥ ⎪
⎩ ⎣0⎦ ⎣0⎦ ⎣0⎦ ⎣0⎦ ⎣0⎦ ⎣0⎦ ⎣0⎦ ⎣1⎦ ⎭
The general state of a two- qubit is = 𝛼𝛼000 |000⟩ + 𝛼𝛼001 |001⟩ + 𝛼𝛼010 |010⟩ + 𝛼𝛼011 |011⟩ +
𝛼𝛼100 |100⟩ + 𝛼𝛼110 |110⟩+𝛼𝛼111 |111⟩
When the basis matrices are written as the columns of a matrix, then the matrix will be an
identity matrix. Basis as column of the matrix is given by

10000000
⎡ 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0⎤
⎢ ⎥
⎢ 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0⎥
⎢ 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0⎥ which is an identity matrix of order 8
⎢ 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0⎥
⎢ 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0⎥
⎢ 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0⎥
⎣ 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1⎦

Extension to N qubits:

A multi qubit system of N qubits has 2n basis states. Thus, for N qubit states the computational
basis states are denoted as |00 … 00⟩, |00 … 01⟩, |00 … 10⟩, |00 … 11⟩, … … |11 … 11⟩ .

Classical Information:

• Bits are the Fundamental units of information.

• Information is stored in bits which takes the discrete values “0” or ”1”.
• A classical computer has a memory made of bits where each bit holds either “0” or “1”.

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• The device computes by manipulating those bits with the help of logical gates (AND,
OR, NOT etc.) which are not materials but the electrical effects that follows the physical
laws which are classical in nature.
• The information is obtained through High and Low state in an electrical circuit.
• Bits are slow.
• Classical information can be easily cloned.

Quantum Information:

• Qubit is the fundamental unit of quantum information

• Information is stored in qubits in terms of the superposition of |0⟩ and |1⟩, states. i.e.,
𝛼𝛼|0⟩+β |1⟩, where α and β are complex numbers.
• A qubit is made up of two bits at a time, so ‘n’ qubits can have 2𝑛𝑛 values.
• The device computes by manipulating those qubits with the help of quantum logic gates.
• The information is obtained through the entities such as photons or nuclear or electron
spin which obeys the quantum laws.
• Qubits are faster.
• Quantum information cannot be cloned.
• Quantum information is exponentially denser than classical information

Quantum Gates:

Classical computers manipulate bits using classical logic gates, such as OR, AND, NOT,
NAND etc. Similarly, quantum computers manipulate qubits using quantum gates. The gates
are applied to qubits and the state of the qubit changes depending on the gate applied.

In Quantum computing, a quantum logic gate is a basic quantum circuit operating on a small
number of qubits. They are the building blocks of quantum circuits. Quantum gates are unitary
operators and are described as unitary matrices relative to some basis. A gate which acts on
“n” qubits is represented by a 2𝑛𝑛 x2𝑛𝑛 unitary matrix. As the Quantum gates are unitary
operators, we need the basis states to construct the unitary operator.

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Single Qubit Quantum Gates:

(i) Pauli’s X Gate:

Pauli’s X gate is also known as “Bit flip” gate. It rotates the quantum state around the X
axis by π radian.

X 0 1
Schematic representation: Matrix form: � �
1 0

Operating on |𝟎𝟎⟩ & |𝟏𝟏⟩

0 1 1 0
X |0⟩ = � � � � = � � = |1⟩
1 0 0 1

0 1 0 1
X |1⟩ = � � � � = � � = |0⟩
1 0 1 0

Representation of gate operation

(1) |0⟩ X |1⟩

(2) |1⟩ X |0⟩

Truth Table:

Input Output

|𝟎𝟎⟩ |1⟩

|𝟏𝟏⟩ |0⟩

If Pauli’s X gate operates on qubit state, it flips the state of the qubit. Pauli’s X gate in
quantum computer plays the role of NOT gate in classical computer.

(ii) Pauli’s Y Gate:

It is also a bit and phase flip gate that causes the quantum state to rotate around the Y axis
by π radian

Y 0 −𝑖𝑖
Schematic representation: Matrix form: � �
𝑖𝑖 0

Operating on |𝟎𝟎⟩ & |𝟏𝟏⟩

0 −𝑖𝑖 1 0
Y |0⟩ = � � � � = � � = 𝑖𝑖 |1⟩
𝑖𝑖 0 0 𝑖𝑖

0 −𝑖𝑖 0 −𝑖𝑖
Y |1⟩ = � � � � = � � = −𝑖𝑖|0⟩
𝑖𝑖 0 1 0
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Representation of gate operation

|0⟩ Y 𝑖𝑖|1⟩

|1⟩ Y −𝑖𝑖|0⟩

Truth Table:
Input Output

|𝟎𝟎⟩ i|1⟩

|𝟏𝟏⟩ -i|0⟩

(iii) Pauli’s Z Gate:

It is a phase flip gate that rotates the quantum state around the Z axis by π radian

Z 1 0
Schematic representation: Matrix form : � �
0 −1

Operating on |𝟎𝟎⟩ & |𝟏𝟏⟩

1 0 1 1
Z |0⟩ = � � � � = � � = |0⟩
0 −1 0 0

1 0 0 0
Z |1⟩ = � � � � = � � = −|1⟩
0 −1 1 −1
Representation of gate operation:

|0⟩ Z |0⟩

|1⟩ Z −|1⟩
Truth Table:
Input Output

|𝟎𝟎⟩ |0⟩

|𝟏𝟏⟩ −|1⟩

If Pauli’s Z gate operates on qubit state |0⟩, it leaves the state unchanged. If Pauli’s Z gate
operates on qubit state |1⟩,it causes phase change in the qubit state.

(iv) Hadamard Gate:

H
1 1 1
Schematic representation: Matrix form: � �
√2 1 −1

Operating on |𝟎𝟎⟩ & |𝟏𝟏⟩

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1 1 1 1 1 1 1
H |0⟩ = � �� � = � � = (|0⟩ + |1⟩
√2 1 −1 0 √2 1 √2

1 1 1 0 1 1 1
H |1⟩ = � � � � = � � = (|0⟩ - |1⟩)
√2 1 −1 1 √2 −1 √2

Representation of gate operation:

1
|0⟩ H (|0⟩ + |1⟩)
√2

1
|1⟩ H (|0⟩ - |1⟩)
√2

Truth Table:

Input Output
1
|𝟎𝟎⟩ (|0⟩ + |1⟩)
√2
1
|𝟏𝟏⟩ (|0⟩ - |1⟩)
√2

Hadamard gate provides the superposition states/linear combination of states.

Two qubit gates:

CNOT gate:

It is called as Controlled NOT gate which contain a control bit and a target bit. The target
qubit state flips only if the control qubit is 1.

Schematic representation:

Control gate

Target gate

1 0 0 0
Transformation matrix: �0 1 0 0�
0 0 0 1
0 0 1 0

1 0 0 0 1 1
CNOT |00⟩ = �0 1 0 0� �0� = �0� = |00⟩
0 0 0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 0

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1 0 0 0 0 0
CNOT |01⟩ = �0 1 0 0� �1� = �1� = |01⟩
0 0 0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 0

1 0 0 0 0 0
CNOT |10⟩ = �0 1 0 0� �0� = �0� = |11⟩
0 0 0 1 1 0
0 0 1 0 0 1

1 0 0 0 0 0
CNOT |11⟩ = �0 1 0 0� �0� = �0� = |10⟩
0 0 0 1 0 1
0 0 1 0 1 0
Truth Table:
Input Output
Control Target Control Target
|0⟩ |0⟩ |0⟩ |0⟩
|0⟩ |1⟩ |0⟩ |1⟩
|1⟩ |0⟩ |1⟩ |1⟩
|1⟩ |1⟩ |1⟩ |0⟩

Three Qubit gate:

Toffoli Gate:

• The Toffoli gate is a three-qubit gate, also known as CCNOT gate with 2 control bits and 1
target bit
• The first two bits are control bits which remains unaffected by the action of Toffoli gate and
third bit is the Target bit which gets inverted if both the control bits are '1’
• It performs ‘X’ on target if and only if both controls are in the state |1⟩. i.e., Toffoli gate
flips target depending on C1 and C2 .
• It is a universal reversible logic gate.

Toffoli gate is represented as follows:

Control gate 1

Control gate 2

Target gate

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Truth Table:
Inputs Output
𝑪𝑪𝟏𝟏 𝑪𝑪𝟐𝟐 T 𝑪𝑪𝟏𝟏 𝑪𝑪𝟐𝟐 T
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 1
0 1 0 0 1 0
0 1 1 0 1 1
1 0 0 1 0 0
1 0 1 1 0 1
1 1 0 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 0

Matrix form of Toffoli gate: It is expressed as 8X8 matrix

1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
⎛0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0⎞
⎜0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0⎟
Toffoli gate = ⎜ ⎟
⎜0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0⎟
⎜0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0⎟
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
⎝0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0⎠

It can be verified that this matrix is unitary and thus the Toffoli gate is a legitimate
quantum gate. The quantum Toffoli gate can be used to simulate irreversible classical logic
gates and ensures that the quantum gate is capable of performing any computation that a
classical computer can do.

Difference between the Classical computing and Quantum computing:

Sl.no Quantum computing Classical computing

1 Calculates with qubits which can Calculates with transistors, which can
represent “0” and “1” at the same time represent either “0” or “1”
2 Power increases exponentially in Power increases in a 1:1 relationship
proportion to the number of qubits with the number of transistors.
3 Quantum computers have high error rates Classical computers have less error rates
and need to be kept cold and can operate at room temperature
4 Well suited for the tasks like optimization Most of the everyday processing is
problems, data analysis and simulations handled by classical computers

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Difference between Classical computers & Quantum computers

Sl.no Classical computers Quantum computers

1 It is large scale integrated multipurpose It is a high-speed parallel computer based
computer on quantum mechanics
2 Information storage is bit based on Information storage is quantum bit based
voltage or charge on direction of an electron spin
3 Information processing is carried out Information processing is carried out by
by logic gates quantum logic gates
4 Circuit behaviour is controlled by Circuit behaviour is governed explicitly by
classical mechanics quantum mechanics
5 Classical computers are binary codes Quantum computers use qubits i.e., ‘0’,’1’,
i.e., bits ‘0’ or ‘1’ to represent ‘0 and 1’ (superposition) simultaneously to
information run machine faster
6 Operations are defined by Boolean Operations are defined by linear algebra
algebra and can be represented by unitary matrices
with complex elements
7 No restrictions exist on copying or Severe restrictions exist on copying and
measuring signals measuring signals

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