1.What is software? explain types of software.
Software is a set of instructions, data, or programs used to operate computers and perform
specific tasks. It is the non-physical part of a computer system, in contrast to hardware.
Types of software:
1. System Software – Manages hardware and basic system operations (e.g., Windows,
Linux).
2. Application Software – Helps users perform tasks like writing, drawing, or browsing
(e.g., MS Word, Chrome).
3. Programming Software – Provides tools for developers to write code (e.g., compilers,
text editors).
4. Utility Software – Performs maintenance tasks (e.g., antivirus, file manager).
Would you like examples or diagrams added?
2.What is operating system? and explain computer system.
Operating System (OS) is system software that manages computer hardware and software
resources and provides services for application programs. It acts as an interface between the
user and the hardware (e.g., Windows, macOS, Linux).
Computer System consists of both hardware (physical parts like CPU, RAM, etc.) and software
(programs and OS) that work together to perform computing tasks. It includes input devices,
processing unit, storage, and output devices.
3.Explain functions of operating system.
The functions of an Operating System (OS) include:
1. Process Management – Handles the creation, scheduling, and termination of
processes.
2. Memory Management – Allocates and manages main memory for processes.
3. File Management – Organizes, stores, and accesses data on storage devices.
4. Device Management – Controls hardware devices through drivers.
5. User Interface – Provides a way for users to interact with the system (GUI or command
line).
4.Explain type of operating system.
Types of Operating Systems:
1. Batch Operating System – Executes batches of jobs with minimal user interaction
(used in early computers).
2. Time-Sharing OS – Allows multiple users to share system resources simultaneously
(e.g., UNIX).
3. Distributed OS – Manages a group of computers and makes them appear as a single
system.
4. Real-Time OS – Responds to inputs instantly, used in embedded systems like medical
devices or robotics.
5. Network OS – Supports networking features like file sharing and remote access (e.g.,
Novell NetWare).
6. Mobile OS – Designed for smartphones and tablets (e.g., Android, iOS).
5.What is process in operating system and explain process life
cycle and process state diagram.
A process in an operating system is an instance of a program in execution. It includes the
program code, current activity, and resources like memory and CPU time.
Process Life Cycle & States:
The process goes through several states:
1. New – Process is being created.
2. Ready – Waiting to be assigned to the CPU.
3. Running – Instructions are being executed.
4. Waiting – Waiting for some event (like I/O).
5. Terminated – Process has finished execution.
These states are shown in the Process State Diagram, which visually represents transitions
between each state.
6.Explain process control block (PCB).
A Process Control Block (PCB) is a data structure used by the operating system to store all
information about a process. It acts like an identity card for each process.
PCB contains:
1. Process ID – Unique identifier for the process.
2. Process State – Current state (e.g., Ready, Running).
3. Program Counter – Points to the next instruction to execute.
4. CPU Registers – Holds current values used by the process.
5. Memory Management Info – Details like page tables or segment tables.
6. I/O and File Info – List of I/O devices and files used by the process.
7.Explain thread and types of thread.
A thread is the smallest unit of a CPU's execution. It is part of a process, and each process can
have multiple threads, allowing for concurrent execution. Threads share resources like memory
but execute independently.
Types of Threads:
1. Single-threaded – A process with only one thread of execution.
2. Multi-threaded – A process with multiple threads, allowing it to perform multiple tasks
simultaneously (e.g., modern web browsers).
3. Kernel-level threads – Managed directly by the OS kernel, allowing for better
multitasking.
4. User-level threads – Managed by user-level libraries, the OS is unaware of these
threads.
8.What is process scheduling and types of scheduling and
CPU scheduling algorithms.
Process Scheduling is the method by which the operating system decides which process or
thread gets to use the CPU at a given time. It ensures efficient CPU utilization and
responsiveness.
Types of Scheduling:
1. Preemptive Scheduling – The CPU can be taken away from a running process if a
higher-priority process arrives.
2. Non-Preemptive Scheduling – The running process is allowed to continue until it
completes or voluntarily releases the CPU.
CPU Scheduling Algorithms:
1. First-Come, First-Served (FCFS) – Processes are executed in the order they arrive.
2. Shortest Job Next (SJN) – The process with the shortest execution time is executed first.
3. Round Robin (RR) – Each process gets a fixed time slice to execute.
4. Priority Scheduling – Processes are executed based on priority.
9.Explain physical and virtual memory.
Physical Memory refers to the actual hardware memory (RAM) in a computer system, where
data and programs are temporarily stored for quick access by the CPU. It has a limited size and
is used to store active processes and data.
Virtual Memory is an abstraction that allows programs to use more memory than physically
available by swapping data between RAM and disk storage (via paging or segmentation). It
creates an illusion of a larger, continuous memory space, making systems more efficient.
10.Explain fragmentation and its types.
Fragmentation occurs when memory is allocated and deallocated in a way that leaves small,
unused spaces between allocated memory blocks. It can lead to inefficient use of memory.
Types of Fragmentation:
1. External Fragmentation – Happens when free memory is scattered in small blocks
outside allocated memory, preventing large enough contiguous memory space from
being used.
2. Internal Fragmentation – Occurs when allocated memory is larger than needed, leaving
unused space within allocated blocks.
11.What is contiguous memory allocation?
Contiguous Memory Allocation is a memory management technique where each process is
allocated a single contiguous block of memory. This method is simple and efficient, as it allows
direct access to the allocated memory without overhead.
However, it can lead to external fragmentation over time as processes are loaded and
unloaded, leaving gaps in memory. It also makes it difficult to handle large processes that
require more memory than available in a single block.
12.What is non continuous memory allocation?
Non-contiguous Memory Allocation is a memory management technique where processes
are stored in different, non-adjacent blocks of memory, rather than in a single contiguous block.
This allows for better utilization of memory, especially in systems where memory is fragmented.
There are two main types of non-contiguous allocation:
1. Paging – Divides memory into fixed-size blocks called pages, and processes are
allocated these pages, which can be scattered throughout memory.
2. Segmentation – Divides memory into variable-sized segments based on the logical
divisions of a process, such as code, data, and stack.
Non-contiguous allocation reduces external fragmentation but can introduce overhead due to
management of the pages or segments.
13.Explain file and director related commands.
File and Directory Related Commands are used to manage files and directories in an
operating system. These commands allow users to create, delete, view, and manipulate files
and directories.
Common commands include:
1. ls – Lists the files and directories in the current directory (Linux/Unix).
2. mkdir – Creates a new directory.
3. rmdir – Removes an empty directory.
4. cp – Copies files or directories.
5. mv – Moves or renames files or directories.
6. rm – Removes files or directories (with options like -r for recursive deletion).
These commands help users organize and manage the file system efficiently.
14.Explain tools for displaying date and time.
Tools for displaying date and time are utilities that allow users to view or manipulate the
system's current date and time.
Common tools include:
1. date – Displays the current date and time (Linux/Unix). It can also be used to set the
system date/time.
2. time – Measures the time taken to execute a command or process.
3. clock – Used in some operating systems to display or set the hardware clock.
4. timedatectl – A command in Linux for managing system time, date, and time zones.
These tools are essential for managing time-related operations and troubleshooting time-based
errors.
15.What is Shell script? How to write Shell script?
A Shell script is a text file containing a series of commands that are executed by a Unix/Linux
shell. It automates repetitive tasks and simplifies complex command sequences.
Writing a Shell Script:
1. Create a file with a .sh extension (e.g., script.sh).
2. Start with a shebang (#!/bin/bash) to specify the shell interpreter.
3. Write commands like echo, ls, or mkdir in the script file.
4. Make the script executable using chmod +x script.sh.
5. Run the script using ./script.sh from the terminal.
16.Explain shell script keywords and operators in shell script.
In a Shell Script, keywords and operators are used to control flow and perform operations.
Keywords:
1. if, then, else – Used for conditional statements.
2. for, while, until – Used for loops to repeat actions.
3. case – For pattern matching.
4. break, continue – Used to control loop flow.
5. exit – Exits from the script or loop.
Operators:
1. Arithmetic operators – +, -, *, /, % (used for mathematical operations).
2. Relational operators – -eq, -ne, -lt, -gt (used for comparison).
3. Logical operators – && (AND), || (OR), ! (NOT) for logical conditions.
These keywords and operators allow you to create dynamic and functional scripts.
17.Explain looping statements and Decision making
statements in shell scripting.
Looping Statements in Shell Scripting:
1. for loop – Iterates over a list of items or a range of numbers.
Example: for i in 1 2 3; do echo $i; done
2. while loop – Continues as long as a condition is true.
Example: while [ $n -le 5 ]; do echo $n; n=$((n+1)); done
3. until loop – Runs until a condition becomes true.
Example: until [ $n -gt 5 ]; do echo $n; n=$((n+1)); done
Decision Making Statements:
1. if – Executes commands if the condition is true.
Example: if [ $n -eq 5 ]; then echo "n is 5"; fi
2. if-else – Executes one set of commands if the condition is true, and another if false.
Example: if [ $n -gt 5 ]; then echo "greater"; else echo "less"; fi
3. case – Matches variables to specific patterns.
Example: case $var in 1) echo "one";; 2) echo "two";; esac
These allow shell scripts to execute tasks conditionally and repeatedly.
18.Explain GNU,GPL,Open Source software and Free ware.
GNU (GNU's Not Unix):
GNU is a free software project initiated by Richard Stallman to create a Unix-like operating
system composed entirely of free software. It promotes the idea of software freedom and the
ability for users to run, modify, and share software.
GPL (General Public License):
The GPL is a widely-used free software license that ensures the software remains open and free.
It allows users to modify and redistribute the software, but any modified versions must also be
open and licensed under the GPL.
Open Source Software:
Open-source software is software whose source code is available to the public for use,
modification, and distribution. Examples include Linux and Apache.
Freeware:
Freeware refers to software that is provided free of charge but may not necessarily be open-
source. The source code is not available, and users cannot modify or redistribute it.
19.Explain Firewall and FTP server.
Firewall:
A firewall is a security system designed to monitor and control incoming and outgoing network
traffic based on predefined security rules. It acts as a barrier between trusted internal networks
and untrusted external networks, protecting systems from unauthorized access and cyber
threats.
FTP Server:
An FTP (File Transfer Protocol) server is a network server that uses FTP to transfer files
between systems over the internet or a local network. It allows users to upload, download, or
manage files remotely. FTP servers typically require authentication (username and password)
for secure access.
20.Explain samba server and Apache server.
Samba Server:
A Samba server is a software suite that enables file and printer sharing between computers
running different operating systems, particularly between Linux/Unix and Windows. It
implements the SMB (Server Message Block) protocol, allowing Linux systems to act as a file
server for Windows clients, and vice versa.
Apache Server:
An Apache server (or Apache HTTP Server) is an open-source web server software used to
serve web pages over the internet. It supports various web technologies like PHP, Python, and
Perl and is highly customizable with modules to suit various needs. Apache is one of the most
widely used web servers globally.
