COMPUTER DEFINITION:

Today’s world is an information-rich world and it has become a necessity for everyone to know
about computers. A computer is an electronic data processing device, which accepts and stores
data input, processes the data input, and generates the output in a required format.
The purpose of this tutorial is to introduce you to Computers and its fundamentals.
Functionalities of a Computer
If we look at it in a very broad sense, any digital computer carries out the following five
functions:
Step 1 - Takes data as input.
Step 2 - Stores the data/instructions in its memory and uses them as required.
Step 3 - Processes the data and converts it into useful information.
Step 4 - Generates the output.
Step 5 - Controls all the above four steps.

Advantages of Computers
Following are certain advantages of computers.
High Speed
Computer is a very fast device.
It is capable of performing calculation of very large amount of data.
The computer has units of speed in microsecond, nanosecond, and even the picosecond.
It can perform millions of calculations in a few seconds as compared to man who will spend
many months to perform the same task.
Accuracy
In addition to being very fast, computers are very accurate.
The calculations are 100% error free.
Computers perform all jobs with 100% accuracy provided that the input is correct.
Storage Capability
Memory is a very important characteristic of computers.
A computer has much more storage capacity than human beings.
It can store large amount of data.
It can store any type of data such as images, videos, text, audio, etc.
Diligence
Unlike human beings, a computer is free from monotony, tiredness, and lack of concentration.
It can work continuously without any error and boredom.
It can perform repeated tasks with the same speed and accuracy.
Versatility
A computer is a very versatile machine.
A computer is very flexible in performing the jobs to be done.
This machine can be used to solve the problems related to various fields.
At one instance, it may be solving a complex scientific problem and the very next moment it
may be playing a card game.
Reliability
A computer is a reliable machine.
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Modern electronic components have long lives.
Computers are designed to make maintenance easy.
Automation
Computer is an automatic machine.
Automation is the ability to perform a given task automatically. Once the computer receives a
program i.e., the program is stored in the computer memory, then the program and instruction
can control the program execution without human interaction.
Reduction in Paper Work and Cost
The use of computers for data processing in an organization leads to reduction in paper work
and results in speeding up the process.
As data in electronic files can be retrieved as and when required, the problem of maintenance
of large number of paper files gets reduced.
Though the initial investment for installing a computer is high, it substantially reduces the cost
of each of its transaction.
Disadvantages of Computers
Following are certain disadvantages of computers.
No I.Q.
A computer is a machine that has no intelligence to perform any task.
Each instruction has to be given to the computer.
A computer cannot take any decision on its own.
Dependency
It functions as per the user’s instruction, thus it is fully dependent on humans.
Environment
The operating environment of the computer should be dust free and suitable.
No Feeling
Computers have no feelings or emotions.
It cannot make judgment based on feeling, taste, experience, and knowledge unlike
humans.
COMPUTER ITS ─ APPLICATIONS

Business
A computer has high speed of calculation, diligence, accuracy, reliability, or versatility which
has made it an integrated part in all business organizations.

Computer is used in business organizations for:

Payroll calculations

Budgeting

Sales analysis

Financial forecasting

Managing employee database

Maintenance of stocks, etc.

Banking
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Today, banking is almost totally dependent on computers.

Banks provide the following facilities:

Online accounting facility, which includes checking current balance, making deposits and
overdrafts, checking interest charges, shares, and trustee records.

ATM machines which are completely automated are making it even easier for customers to
deal with banks.

Insurance

Insurance companies are keeping all records up- to-date with the help of computers. Insurance
companies, finance houses, and stock broking firms are widely using computers for their
concerns.

Insurance companies are maintaining a database of all clients with information showing:

Procedure to continue with policies

Starting date of the policies

Next due installment of a policy

Maturity date

Interests due

Survival benefits

Bonus

Education

The computer helps in providing a lot of facilities in the education system.

The computer provides a tool in the education system known as CBE (Computer Based
Education).

CBE involves control, delivery, and evaluation of learning.

Computer education is rapidly increasing the graph of number of computer students.

There are a number of methods in which educational institutions can use a computer to
educate the students.

It is used to prepare a database about performance of a student and analysis is carried

out on this basis.

Marketing
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In marketing, uses of the computer are following:

Advertising - With computers, advertising professionals create art and graphics, write
and revise copy, and print and disseminate ads with the goal of selling more products.

Home Shopping - Home shopping has been made possible through the use of
computerized catalogues that provide access to product information and permit direct
entry of orders to be filled by the customers.

Healthcare

Computers have become an important part in hospitals, labs, and dispensaries. They are being
used in hospitals to keep the record of patients and medicines. It is also used in canning and
diagnosing different diseases. ECG, EEG, ultrasounds and CT scans, etc. are also done by
computerized machines.

Following are some major fields of health care in which computers are used.

Diagnostic System - Computers are used to collect data and identify the cause of illness.

Lab-diagnostic System - All tests can be done and the reports are prepared by computer.

Patient Monitoring System - These are used to check the patient's signs for abnormality
such as in Cardiac Arrest, ECG, etc.

Pharma Information System - Computer is used to check drug labels, expiry dates,
harmful side effects, etc.

Surgery - Nowadays, computers are also used in performing surgery.

Engineering Design

Computers are widely used for Engineering purpose. One of the major areas is CAD Computer
Aided Design) that provides creation and

modification of images. Some of the fields are:

Structural Engineering - Requires stress and strain analysis for design of ships, buildings,
budgets, airplanes, etc.

Industrial Engineering – Computers deal with design, implementation, and

improvement of integrated systems of people, materials, and equipment.

Architectural Engineering – Computers help in planning towns, designing buildings,

determining a range of buildings on a site using both 2D and 3D drawings.

Military

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Computers are largely used in defense. Modern tanks, missiles, weapons, etc. Military also
employs computerized control systems. Some military areas where a computer has been used
are:

Missile Control

Military Communication

Military Operation and Planning

Smart Weapons

Communication

Communication is a way to convey a message, an idea, a picture, or speech that is received

and understood clearly and correctly by the person for whom it is meant. Some main areas in
this category are:

E-mail

Chatting

Usenet

FTP

Telnet

Video-conferencing

Government

Computers play an important role in government services. Some major fields in this category
are:

Budgets

Sales tax department

Income tax department

Computation of male/female ratio

Computerization of voters lists

Computerization of PAN card

Weather forecasting

COMPUTER GENERATIONS
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A generation refers to the state of improvement in the development of the product This term is
also used in the different advancements of computer technology. Each of the five generations
of computers is characterized by a major technological development that fundamentally
changed the way computers operate, resulting in increasingly smaller, cheaper, more powerful
and more efficient and reliable computing devices.

First Generation

Time Period: The first generation computers were used during 1942-1955.

Technology Used: The first computers used vacuum tubes for circuitry and magnetic drums
for memory, and were often enormous, taking up entire rooms. They were very expensive to
operate and in addition to using a great deal of electricity, generated a lot of heat, which was
often the cause of malfunctions.

Programming Language: First generation computers relied on machine language, the lowest
level programming language understood by computers, to perform operations, and they could
only solve one problem at a time. Input was based on punched cards and paper tape, and output
was displayed on printouts.

Advantages

Vacuum tubes were the only electronic component available during those days.

Vacuum tube technology made possible to make electronic digital computers.

These computers could calculate data in millisecond.

Disadvantages

The computers were very large in size.

They consumed a large amount of energy.

They heated very soon due to thousands of vacuum tubes.

They were not very reliable.

Air conditioning was required.

Constant maintenance was required.

Non-portable.

Costly commercial production.

Limited commercial use.

Very slow speed.

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 Limited programming capabilities.

Used machine language only.

Used magnetic drums which provide very less data storage.

Used punch cards for input.

Not versatile and very faulty.

Some computers of this generation were:

ENIAC

EDVAC

UNIVAC

IBM-701

IBM-650

Second Generation

Time Period: The period of second generation was 1959-1965.

Technology Used: Transistors replaced vacuum tubes and ushered in the second generation of
computers. The transistor was invented in 1947 but did not see widespread use in computers
until the late 1950s. The transistor was far superior to the vacuum tube, allowing computers to
become smaller, faster, cheaper, more energy-efficient and more reliable than their first-
generation predecessors. Though the transistor still generated a great deal of heat that subjected
the computer to damage, it was a vast improvement over the vacuum tube. Second-generation
computers still relied on punched cards for input and printouts for output.
Programming Language: Second-generation computers moved from cryptic binary machine
language to symbolic, or assembly, languages, which allowed programmers to specify
instructions in words. High-level programming languages were also being developed at this
time, such as early
versions of COBOL and FORTRAN. These were also the first computers that stored their
instructions in their memory, which moved from a magnetic drum to magnetic core technology.
Advantages

Smaller in size as compared to the first generation computers.

The 2nd generation Computers were more reliable

Used less energy and were not heated.

Wider commercial use

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 Better portability as compared to the first generation computers.

Better speed and could calculate data in microseconds

Used faster peripherals like tape drives, magnetic disks, printer etc.

Used Assembly language instead of Machine language.

Accuracy improved.

Disadvantages

Cooling system was required

Constant maintenance was required

Commercial production was difficult

Only used for specific purposes

Costly and not versatile

Punch cards were used for input.

Some computers of this generation were:

IBM 1620

IBM 7094

CDC 1604

CDC 3600

UNIVAC 1108

Third Generation

Time Period: The period of third generation was 1965-1971.

Technology Used: The development of the integrated circuit was the hallmark of the third
generation of computers. Transistors were miniaturized and placed on silicon chips, called
semiconductors, which drastically increased the speed and efficiency of computers.

Instead of punched cards and printouts, users interacted with third generation computers
through key boards and monitors and interfaced with an operating system, which allowed the
device to run many different applications at one time with a central program that monitored
the memory.

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Programming Language: The language used was high-level programming languages, such as
C, C++, and Java. Moving away from the cryptic commands of Assembly Language, a third
generation (programming) language introduced significant enhancements to second generation
languages, primarily intended to make the programming language more programmer-friendly.

Some computers of this generation were:

IBM-360 series

Honeywell-6000 series

PDP(Personal Data Processor)

IBM-370/168

TDC-316

Advantages

Smaller in size as compared to previous generations.

More reliable.

Used less energy

Produced less heat as compared to the previous two generations of computers.

Better speed and could calculate data in nanoseconds.

Used fan for heat discharge to prevent damage.

Maintenance cost was low because hardware failure is reare.

Totally general purpose

Could be used for high-level languages.

Good storage

Versatile to an extent

Less expensive

Better accuracy

Commercial production increased.

Used mouse and keyboard for input.

Disadvantages

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 Air conditioning was required.

Highly sophisticated technology required for the manufacturing of IC chips.

Fourth Generation

Time Period: The period of fourth generation was 1971-1980.

Technology Used: The fourth generation computers started with the invention of
Microprocessor. The Microprocessor contains thousands of ICs . The technology of integrated
circuits improved rapidly. The LSI (Large Scale Integration) circuit and VLSI (Very Large
Scale Integration) circuit was designed. VLSI circuits having about 5000 transistors and other
circuit elements and their associated circuits on a single chip made it possible to have
microcomputers of fourth generation. Fourth generation computers became more powerful,
compact, reliable, and affordable. As a result, it gave rise to personal computer (PC) revolution.
In this generation time sharing, real time, networks, distributed operating system were used.

Programming Language: Often abbreviated 4GL, fourth-generation languages are

programming languages closer to human languages than typical high-level programming
languages. 4GLs are more programmer-friendly and enhance programming efficiency with
usage of English-like words and phrases, and when appropriate, the use of icons, graphical
interfaces and symbolical representations.

Some computers of this generation were:

DEC 10

STAR 1000

PDP 11

CRAY-1(Super Computer)

CRAY-X-MP(Super Computer)

Advantages

More powerful and reliable than previous generations.

Small in size

Fast processing power with less power consumption

Fan for heat discharging and thus to keep cold.

No air conditioning required.

Totally general purpose

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 Commercial production

Less need of repair.

Cheapest among all generations

All types of High level languages can be used in this type of computers

Disadvantages

The latest technology is required for manufacturing of Microprocessors.

Fifth Generation

Time Period: The period of fifth generation is 1980-till date.

Technology Used: n the fifth generation, the VLSI technology became ULSI (Ultra Large
Scale Integration) technology, resulting in the production of microprocessor chips having ten
million electronic components. This generation is based on parallel processing hardware and
AI (Artificial Intelligence) software. AI is an emerging branch in computer science, which
interprets means and method of making computers think like human beings.

Programming Language: The fifth-generation languages, or 5GL are programming languages

that contain visual tools to help develop a program. A good example of a fifth generation
language is Visual Basic. Languages used for artificial intelligence and neural networks.

The main features of fifth generation are:

ULSI technology

Development of true artificial intelligence

Development of Natural language processing

Advancement in Parallel Processing

Advancement in Superconductor technology

More user friendly interfaces with multimedia features

Availability of very powerful and compact computers at cheaper rates

Some computer types of this generation are:

Desktop

Laptop

Note Book

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 UltraBook

ChromeBook

COMPUTER MEMORY and its Types

The computer’s memory stores data, instructions required during the processing of data, and output
results. Storage may be required for a limited period of time, instantly, or, for an extended period of
time. Different types of memories, each having its own unique features, are available for use in a
computer. The cache memory, registers, and RAM are fast memories and store the data and
instructions temporarily during the processing of data and instructions. The secondary memory like
magnetic disks and optical disks has large storage capacities and store the data and instructions
permanently, but are slow memory devices.

The memories are organized in the computer in a manner to achieve high levels of performance at
the minimum cost. In this lecture, we discuss different types of memories, their characteristics and
their use in the computer.

MEMORY REPRESENTATION

The computer memory stores different kinds of data like input data, output data, intermediate results,
etc., and the instructions. Binary digit or bit is the basic unit of memory. A bit is a single binary digit,
i.e., 0 or 1. A bit is the smallest unit of representation of data in a computer. However, the data is
handled by the computer as a combination of bits. A group of 8 bits form a byte.

One byte is the smallest unit of data that is handled by the computer.

One byte (8 bit) can store 28 = 256 different combinations of bits, and thus can be used to represent
256 different symbols. In a byte, the different combinations of bits fall in the range 00000000 to
11111111. A group of bytes can be further combined to form a word. A word can be a group of 2, 4
or 8 bytes.

1 bit = 0 or 1

1 Byte (B) = 8 bits

1 Kilobyte (KB) = 210 = 1024 bytes

1 Megabyte (MB) = 220 = 1024KB

1 Gigabyte (GB) = 230 = 1024 MB = 1024 *1024 KB

1 Terabyte (TB) = 240= 1024 GB = 1024 * 1024 *1024 KB

CHARACTERISTICS OF MEMORIES

Volatility

Volatile {RAM}
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Non-volatile {ROM, Flash memory}

Mutability

Read/Write {RAM, HDD, SSD, RAM, Cache, Registers…}

Read Only {Optical ROM (CD/DVD…), Semiconductor ROM}

Accessibility

Random Access {RAM, Cache}

Direct Access {HDD, Optical Disks}

Sequential Access {Magnetic Tapes}

MEMORY HIERARCHY

The memory is characterized on the basis of two key factors: capacity and access time.

Capacity is the amount of information (in bits) that a memory can store.

Access time is the time interval between the read/ write request and the

availability of data. The lesser the access time, the faster is the speed of memory. Ideally, we want the
memory with fastest speed and largest capacity. However, the cost of fast memory is very high. The
computer uses a hierarchy of memory that is organized in a manner to enable the fastest speed and
largest capacity of memory.

The hierarchy of the different memory types is shown in Figure.

Figure 4.2 Memory hierarchy

The Internal Memory and External Memory are the two broad categories of memory used in the
computer. The Internal Memory consists of the CPU registers, cache memory and primary memory.
The internal memory is used by the CPU to perform the computing tasks. The External Memory is also

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called the secondary memory. The secondary memory is used to store the large amount of data and
the software.

In general, referring to the computer memory usually means the internal memory.

Internal Memory

The key features of internal memory are:

Limited storage capacity.

Temporary storage.

Fast access.

High cost.

Registers, cache memory, and primary memory constitute the internal memory. The primary memory
is further of two kinds: RAM and ROM. Registers are the fastest and the most expensive among all the
memory types. The registers are located inside the CPU, and are directly accessible by the CPU. The
speed of registers is between 1-2 ns (nanosecond). The sum of the size of registers is about 200B.
Cache memory is next in the hierarchy and is placed between the CPU and the main memory. The
speed of cache is between 2-10 ns. The cache size varies between 32 KB to 4MB. Any program or data
that has to be executed must be brought into RAM from the secondary memory.

Primary memory is relatively slower than the cache memory. The speed of RAM is around 60ns. The
RAM size varies from 512KB to 64GB.

Secondary Memory

The key features of secondary memory storage devices are:

Very high storage capacity.

Permanent storage (non-volatile), unless erased by user.

Relatively slower access.

Stores data and instructions that are not currently being used by CPU but may be

required later for processing.

Cheapest among all memory.

To get the fastest speed of memory with largest capacity and least cost, the fast memory is
located close to the processor. The secondary memory, which is not as fast, is used to store
information permanently, and is placed farthest from the processor.

With respect to CPU, the memory is organized as follows:

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Registers are placed inside the CPU (small capacity, high cost, very high speed)

Cache memory is placed next in the hierarchy (inside and outside the CPU)

Primary memory is placed next in the hierarchy

Secondary memory is the farthest from CPU (large capacity, low cost, low speed)

The speed of memories is dependent on the kind of technology used for the memory. The registers,
cache memory and primary memory are semiconductor memories. They do not have any moving
parts and are fast memories. The secondary memory is magnetic or optical memory has moving parts
and has slow speed.

CPU REGISTERS

Registers are very high-speed storage areas located inside the CPU. After CPU gets the data and
instructions from the cache or RAM, the data and instructions are moved to the registers for
processing. Registers are manipulated directly by the control unit of CPU during instruction execution.
That is why registers are often referred to as the CPU’s working memory. Since CPU uses registers for
the processing of data, the number of registers in a CPU and the size of each register affect the power
and speed of a CPU.

The more the number of registers (ten to hundreds) and bigger the size of each register (8 bits to 64
bits), the better it is.

CACHE MEMORY

Cache memory is placed in between the CPU and the RAM. Cache memory is a fast memory, faster
than the RAM. When the CPU needs an instruction or data during processing, it first looks in the cache.
If the information is present in the cache, it is called a cache hit, and the data or instruction is retrieved
from the cache. If the information is not present in cache, then it is called a cache miss and the
information is then retrieved from RAM.

Type of Cache memory

Cache memory improves the speed of the CPU, but it is expensive. Type of Cache Memory is divided
into different levels that are L1, L2, L3:

Level 1 (L1) cache or Primary Cache

L1 is the primary type cache memory. The Size of the L1 cache very small comparison to others that
is between 2KB to 64KB, it depends on computer processor. It is an embedded register in the
computer microprocessor (CPU). The Instructions that are required by the CPU that are firstly
searched in L1 Cache.

Example of registers are accumulator, address register, Program counter etc.

Level 2 (L2) cache or Secondary Cache

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L2 is secondary type cache memory. The Size of the L2 cache is more capacious than L1 that is between
256KB to 512KB. L2 cache is located on computer microprocessor. After searching the Instructions in
L1 Cache, if not found then it searched into L2 cache by computer microprocessor. The high-speed
system bus interconnecting the cache to the microprocessor.

Level 3 (L3) cache or Main Memory

The L3 cache is larger in size but also slower in speed than L1 and L2, its size is between 1MB to 8MB.
In Multicore processors, each core may have separate L1 and L2, but all core share a common L3
cache. L3 cache double speed than the RAM.

The advantages and disadvantages of cache memory are as follows:

Advantages

The advantages of cache memory are as follows:

Cache memory is faster than main memory.

It consumes less access time as compared to main memory.

It stores the program that can be executed within a short period of time.

It stores data for temporary use.

Disadvantages

The disadvantages of cache memory are as follows:

Cache memory has limited capacity.

It is very expensive.

PRIMARY MEMORY (Main Memory)

Primary memory is the main memory of computer. It is a chip mounted on the motherboard of
computer. Primary memory is categorized into two main types:

Random access memory (ram) and read only memory (rom). RAM is used for the temporary storage
of input data, output data and intermediate results. The input data entered into the computer using
the input device, is stored in RAM for processing.

After processing, the output data is stored in RAM before being sent to the output device. Any
intermediate results generated during the processing of program are also stored in RAM. Unlike RAM,
the data once stored in ROM either cannot be changed or can only be changed using some special
operations. Therefore, ROM is used to store the data that does not require a change.

Types of Primary Memory

RAM (Random Access Memory)

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The Word “RAM” stands for “random access memory” or may also refer to short term memory. It’s
called “random” because you can read store data randomly at any time and from any physical
location. It is a temporal storage memory. RAM is volatile that only retains all the data as long as the
computer powered. It is the fastest type of memory. RAM stores the currently processed data from
the CPU and sends them to the graphics unit.

There are generally two broad subcategories of RAM:

Static RAM (SRAM): Static RAM is the form of RAM and made with flip-flops and used for primary
storage are volatile. It retains data in latch as long as the computer powered. SRAM is more expensive
and consumes more power than DRAM. It used as Cache Memory in a computer system. As
technically, SRAM uses more transistors as compared to DRAM. It is faster compared to DRAM due to
the latching arrangement, and they use 6 transistors per data bit as compared to DRAM, which uses
one transistor per bit.

Dynamic Random Access Memory (DRAM): It is another form of RAM used as Main Memory, its
retains information in Capacitors for a short period (a few milliseconds) even though the computer
powered. The Data is Refreshed Periodically to maintain in it. The DRAM is cheaper, but it can store
much more information. Moreover, it is also slower and consumes less power than SRAM.

ROM (Read Only Memory)

ROM is the long-term internal memory. ROM is “Non-Volatile Memory” that retains data without the
flow of electricity. ROM is an essential chip with permanently written data or programs. It is similar
to the RAM that is accessed by the CPU. ROM comes with pre-written by the computer manufacturer
to hold the instructions for booting-up the computer.

There is generally three broad type of ROM:

PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory): PROM stands for programmable ROM. It can be
programmed only be done once and read many. Unlike RAM, PROMs retain their contents without
the flow of electricity. PROM is also nonvolatile memory. The significant difference between a ROM
and a PROM is that a ROM comes with pre-written by the computer manufacturer whereas PROM
manufactured as blank memory. PROM can be programmed by PROM burner and by blowing internal
fuses permanently.

EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory):

EPROM is pronounced ee-prom. This memory type retains its contents until it exposed to
intense ultraviolet light that clears its contents, making it possible to reprogram the memory.

EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory):

EEPROM can be burned (programmed) and erased by first electrical waves in a millisecond. A single
byte of a data or the entire contents of device can be erased.

To write or erase this memory type, you need a device called a PROM burner.

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OPERATING SYSTEM

Integrated set of programs that controls the resources (the CPU, memory, I/O devices, etc.) of
a computer system
§ Provides its users with an interface or virtual machine that is more convenient to use than
the bare machine
§ Two primary objectives of an OS are:
Making a computer system convenient to use
Managing the resources of a computer system

Logical Architecture of Operating System:

Main functions of an OS TYPES OF OS

§Process management § single-user

§ Memory management § multi-user
§ File management § real-time OS
§ Security § Distributed os
§ Command interpretation § Multiprocessor system

PROCESS MANAGEMENT

A process (also called job) is a program in execution

§ Process management manages the processes submitted to a system in a manner to
minimize idle time of processors (CPUs, I/O processors, etc.) of the system

Process management mechanism

§ Manual loading mechanism: Jobs were manually loaded one after another in a computer
by the computer operator
§ Batch processing mechanism: Batch of jobs was submitted together to the computer and
job-to-job transition was done automatically by the operating system
§ Job Control Language (JCL): Control statements were used to facilitate job loading and
unloading

MS-DOS:

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Stands for Microsoft Disk Operating System.
Single-user OS for IBM and IBM-compatible personal computers (PC)
Structured in three layers – BIOS (Basic Input Output System), kernel, and shell
Very popular in the 1980s, now not in much use and development with the launch of
Microsoft Windows OS in 1990s
TIME
Displays current time and allows it to be changed.
Syntax: TIME
DATE
Displays current date and allows it to be changed.
Syntax: DATE
CLS
Clears the screen.
Syntax: CLS
DIR
Shows directory information of a diskette: name, size, and the date and time stamp of files.
Syntax: DIR [d:][path]
Optional switches:
/p Display dir info and pauses display when the screen is full
/w Display names and extensions only in five columns

To display a file directory listing for D:\DATA\LETTER\ANNUAL from different current

directories:
D:\DATA\LETTER\ANNUAL> DIR
D:\DATA> DIR LETTER\ANNUAL
C:\WINDOWS> DIR D:\DATA\LETTER\ANNUAL
COPY
Copies a file. Name of copy may be the same as original, or different. Syntax:
COPY [d:][path][name.ext] [d:][path][name.ext]
Optional switches:
/v Verify, copies the file and compares it with the original
/b Binary file

To copy a file from D:\BATCH to the root of A: drive

A:\> COPY D:\BATCH\CL.BAT (from A: drive)
D:\BATCH> COPY CL.BAT A:\ (from D:\BATCH)
To copy a file from the root of C: to A: drive and change its name
A:\> COPY C:\MSDOS.SYS MSDOSSYS.BAK (from A:)
C:\> COPY MSDOS.SYS A:\MSDOSSYS.BAK (from the root of C:)
To copy all of the files from the root of A: to D:\CCV\ENGCOMP
A:\> COPY *.* D:\CCV\ENGCOMP (from A:)
D:\CCV\ENGCOMP> COPY *.* A:\ (from D:\CCV\ENGCOMP)
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TYPE
Displays the contents of a file.
Syntax: TYPE [d:][path][name.ext]

To display the contents of the file MY.LET to the screen

A:\> TYPE MY.LET
DEL
Deletes a file from disk.
Syntax: DEL [d:][path][name.ext]

To delete one file:

A:\> DEL A:\MY.LET
To del all files in current directory
A:\> DEL *.*
REN
Renames a file.
Syntax: REN [d:][path][name.ext] [d:][path][newname.ext]

To change the name of the file D:\LET\ANNUAL\99.DOC to 1999.DOC

D:\LET> REN ANNUAL\99.DOC 1999.DOC (from D:\LET)
D:\DATA> REN \LET\ANNUAL\99.DOC 1999.DOC (from D:\DATA)
C:\WINDOWS> REN D:\LET\ANNUAL\99.DOC 1999.DOC (from C:\WINDOWS)
MD
Makes (creates) a new directory.
Syntax: MD [d:][path][dirname]

To create a directory named HERMIT in the root of D: drive

D:\> MD HERMIT (from D:\)
C:\> MD D:\HERMIT (from C:\)
RD
Removes an existing directory (directory must be empty).
Syntax: RD [d:][path][dirname]

To remove the HERMIT sub-directory:

D:\> RD HERMIT (from D:\)
C:\> RD D:\HERMIT (from C:\)
CD
Changes the current directory.
Syntax: CD [path][dirname]

To make D:\HERMIT the current directory

D:\> CD HERMIT (from D:\)
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D:\DATA> CD \HERMIT (from D:\DATA)
D:\DATA\SOURCE> CD \HERMIT (from D:\DATA\SOURCE)
D:\DATA\SOURCE> CD .. (from D:\DATA\SOURCE)
PATH
The PATH command is used to help the command interpreter find external commands which
are not in the current directory. The command interpreter looks into the DOS environment
for "PATH=" and then searches the paths (each separated from the next by a semicolon) that
follow.
Syntax:
PATH=[path;path;...]

To set the DOS PATH:

PATH=C:\DOS;C:\PCW;\C:\BIN
To display the current path:
PATH
SET PROMPT
Used to specify the appearance of the DOS prompt.
Syntax: SET PROMPT= (from the command line)

PROMPT= (in a batch file)

DOS PROMPT Characters

$b | $d system date
$e esc char $g >
$h destructive bk space $i <
$n default drive $p full path description
$q = $t system time
$v DOS version no $_ CR and LF
$$ the $ sign

To display current drive & current path followed by ">" as prompt

SET PROMPT=$P$G
To display the current date, time, and drive on separate lines
SET PROMPT $D$_$T$_$N$G
To redefine F9 to CD\Windows\Start Menu\Programs\Startup
SET PROMPT $e[0,67;"'CD\Windows\Start Menu\Programs\Startup'";13p
MICROSOFT WINDOWS:
Developed by Microsoft to overcome limitations of MSDOS operating system
Single-user, multitasking OS
Native interface is a GUI
Designed to be not just an OS but also a complete operating environment
OS of choice for most PCs after 1990
21
 MICROSOFT WINDOWS NT

§ Multi-user, time-sharing OS developed by Microsoft

§ Designed to have UNIX-like features so that it can be used for powerful workstations, network, and database se
§ Supports multiprogramming and is designed to take advantage of multiprocessing on systems having multiple p
§ Native interface is a GUI
§ Built-in networking and communications features
§ Provides strict system security
§ Rich set of tools for software development

Hospital Management System (HMS)

What is Hospital Management System (HMS):

Hospital management system is a computer system that helps manage the information related
to health care and aids in the job completion of health care providers effectively. They manage
the data related to all departments of healthcare such as,

Clinical

Financial

Laboratory

Inpatient

Outpatient

Operation theater

Materials

Nursing

Pharmaceutical

Radiology

Pathology etc.

22
HMS came into the picture of hospital management as early as 1960 and have ever since been
evolving and synchronizing with the technologies while modernizing healthcare facilities. In
today’s world, the management of healthcare starts from the hands of the patients through their
mobile phones and facilitates the needs of the patient.

Why is HMS important for a hospital?

HMS was introduced to solve the complications coming from managing all the paper works of
every patient associated with the various departments of hospitalization with confidentiality.
HMS provides the ability to manage all the paperwork in one place, reducing the work of staff
in arranging and analyzing the paperwork of the patients. HMS does many works like:

Maintain the medical records of the patient

Maintain the contact details of the patient

Keep track of the appointment dates

Save the insurance information for later reference

Tracking the bill payments.

The advantages of HMS can be pinpointed to the following:

Time-saving Technology

Improved Efficiency by avoiding human errors

Reduces scope for Error

Data security and correct data retrieval made possible

Cost effective and easily manageable

Easy access to patient data with correct patient history

Improved patient care made possible

Easy monitoring of supplies in inventory

Better Audit controls and policy compliance.

Features of Hospital Management System:

Appointment Management

For hospitals having their own site, appointment widgets will be integrated onto the site.
Patients visiting the hospital’s website can book online appointments with ease.

Billing Management
23
Integrated Billing with treatments, Lab and Radiology. Alerts will be sent on Discount
Authorisation. Automatic due capture, Option to bill before and after consultation.

Prescription Management

Manage commonly and recently used medicines. Option to show medicines available in the
pharmacy. SMS prescriptions to Patients.

Discharge Summary

Template based Discharge Summary. ICD10 integration. Option to prevent discharge

summary till IP bill is closed.

Operation Theatre Management

Automatic notification can be sent to customers on test results. Lab notifications like email,
SMS of the test reports sent from the Automated Lab notification module.

Pharmacy Management

Comprehensive Pharmacy Management handles stock, Prescription Integration, Ward

Request, Stock Management, Stock Moment and intelligent reports.

Lab Management

Comprehensive Lab Management handles complete order management, Custom Reports,

Smart Notifications, Credit Settlement, detailed MIS Reports, Analytics and App for
Phlebotomist.

Master Information Systems

Lets you access entire MIS data from your palm.

Manage Multiple Locations

Any number of branches can be added and managed using a single account.

Benefits of Hospital Management System:

We have so far clarified on the importance of HMS, it is your responsibility to pick out the
right kind of HMS for your needs and purposes. Here we give more information on the benefits
of various HMS and the impact it creates on hospital systems.

Easy Patient data retrieval:

HMS makes it possible to access all the data related to a patient via a system by the means of
a few simple clicks. Information like patient history, current illness, doctors involved, tests
reports taken, billing information and many more can be made visible to the user. These data

24
will help to connect the dots about the patient, like specific diagnosis, related treatment, and
medication.

The Electronic Medical Record (EMR) or Electronic Health Record (EHR):

This electronic-based medical record system can be viewed as a patient’s health chart. It
retrieves information based on the patient’s name or medical record number or the physician’s
record number.

Increased Data security:

The patient data can be kept a hundred percent safe by using HMS in your hospital. It can be
made accessible by only a limited amount of authorized personnel. With HMS, all the data is
stored on a server or cloud and kept safe by just securing the login information safe.

Improve Visibility and Transparency:

Hospital Management System (HMS) improves the visibility and transparency in the complete
management process and in all records.

Streamline Accurate Reporting:

It helps in streamlining the accurate reporting with the help of updated and accurate records.

Improved Quality Control:

Hospital Management System improves the quality control on the products and services of the
hospital.

Improved Management Visibility:

It also improves the management visibility of hospital, all information, and data regarding the
patient, doctor and medicine could be seen by any department easily.

Ease to Access System Facilities:

Hospital Management System makes it easy to get access to the management system facilities
for the authorized users and keep it safe from unauthorized users.

Cost Effective:

HMS not only saves time in the hospital but also is cost-effective in decreasing the number of
people working on the system of manual entry of data and paperwork. The implementation of
His will decrease the human intervention into the system thereby avoiding human-caused
errors.

Every hospital has different needs, analyze what is best for your requirement and install the
apt HMS system.

25
What is Medical Imaging?

Medical Imaging is the use of imaging modalities and processes to get

pictures of the human body, which can assist diagnosis and treatment of
patients. It can also be used to track any ongoing issues, and can therefore
help with treatment plans.

There are many different types of medical imaging techniques, which use
different technologies to produce images for different purposes. This page
will give an introduction to the most common imaging techniques, and the
page on uses of AI in radiology will show how some of these techniques,
combined with AI, will pave the way for more accurate imaging.

CT Scanners
What is a CT Scanner?

A computerised tomography scan, more commonly called a CT scan, can

create a detailed image of the inside of the body using x-rays and computers.
It is different to an x-ray because it produced a cross-sectional image of the
body, similar to an MRI, making them better at looking at soft tissue and
more subtle parts of the image that an x-ray may not pick up.

What do they produce images of?

They can be used to visualise bones, internal organs and blood vessels.
Upper body, such as the brain, neck, spine, chest and sinuses are commonly
scanned.

What are some common uses?

They are frequently used in diagnosis, for example to find tumours, or to

see broken bones. Another use is to find more detail after another scan,
such as an x-ray. Monitoring is also an important use of CT scanners, as
regular scans allow progress to be kept of any developing conditions,
e.g. cancer.

How does it work?

As shown in the image below, the patient lies on their back on a panel. This
panel passes into the scanner, which rotates around the section of your body
currently in the scanner. The patient needs to lay still so that the scan can
get a clear image. Usually, the radiologist who is operating the machine
stands in another room to avoid the radiation, but can communicate with the
26
patient via an intercom. The scan can take from 10 to 20 minutes, but results
are available as soon as a computer has analysed the scans.

Figure 1: Picture of a CT Scanner

What are any advantages and disadvantages?

Advantages

CT scans are fairly short - they only last about 10 - 20 minutes.

The results are extremely fast compared to some other types of scans.

CT scans are painless, as they are non-invasive.

Disadvantages

As with lots of scans, your body is exposed to some radiation. The more of
the patient’s body that is scanned, the more radiation they are exposed to.
However, they are designed to minimise radiation exposure.

There is the possibility of an allergic reaction to the dye used.

27
MRI Scanners
What is an MRI Scanner?

A magnetic resonance imaging scan, more commonly known as an MRI

scan, is a detailed cross-sectional image of a part of the body. It is similar to
a CT scan, but has a higher quality, so it is easier to see differences in
tissues, as shown in the picture below.

Figure 2: A CT scan vs an MRI scan

What do they produce images of?

MRIs can be used to get images of the brain and spinal cord, bones, the
heart, blood vessels and different internal organs.

What are some common uses?

The uses are similar to those of a CT scanner: diagnosis, getting

more detail for treatment planning, and monitoring of ongoing treatment.

How does it work?

Unlike a CT scanner, an MRI surrounds the whole body. The patient is

pushed into a thin tube, about 24 inches in diameter, and extremely strong
magnets and radio waves are used to created detailed images. Similarly
again to a CT scanner, the radiographer will stand in another room viewing
the results and communicating via an intercom, but the MRI is much louder
than a CT scanner. They can take from 15 to 90 minutes.

28
What are any advantages and disadvantages?
Advantages

MRI scans are painless and safe, as the magnetic fields and radio waves
have no known negative impact on the patient.

They don’t involve any x-ray radiation exposure, so can be used by pregnant
women and babies if necessary.

Disadvantages

MRI scans enclose lots of the body, so make people with claustrophobia
uncomfortable.

Metal cannot go inside of an MRI scanner, so people with certain implants

such as pacemakers cannot use them.

Nuclear Medicine Imaging (Positron Emission Tomography)

What is a PET Scanner?

A PET scan can create a 3D image of the inside of the body. They can be
combined with CT and MRI scans to create an even clearer image to show
what is going on. They can also be focused on specific parts of the body,
and show how well a part of the body is working. The image below shows
how a PET scan and CT scan can be combined.

29
Figure 3: Combination of a CT scan and a PET scan

What do they produce images of?

They are used to detect the progress of cancer, and can be used to get high
resolution images of the brain.

What are some common uses?

They are commonly used in people who have already been diagnosed
with cancer, as they can clearly show how far a cancer has spread or
responded to treatments such as chemotherapy. They are also used in
the planning of surgery, such as brain or heart operations. Dementia can
also be diagnosed with a PET scan, as it can show if the brain’s normal
function is changed.

30
How does it work?

A radiotracer, usually fluorodeoxyglucose (FDG), is injected into your arm,

and this gives off radiation. The PET scanner can detect this radiation when
it collects in certain parts of your body. If there is an area where the FDG is
not building up, then there is a certain body function which isn’t working
there. Cancerous cells use glucose at a faster rate than normal, and
therefore by checking the FDG concentration, cancer can be identified and
tracked in the body. The PET scanner machine looks similar to an MRI
machine. The scan takes about 30 minutes.

What are any advantages and disadvantages?

Advantages

The radiotracer fluorodeoxyglucose is used is similar to glucose, so the body

treats it in a similar way.

The scan only takes about 30 minutes.

The PET scan can reveal cell level metabolic changes occurring in an organ
or tissue, which a CT or MRI cannot.

Disadvantages

The PET scan exposes you to radiation, which may lead to cancer. However,
the amount is quite small. The radioactive tracer has a short half life.

Patients should avoid people who shouldn’t be exposed to radiation, such

as pregnant women, for a few hours after the scan.

Ultrasound
What is an Ultrasound Machine?

An ultrasound uses high-frequency waves to show what is inside a part of

the body. It is also known as a sonogram.

What do they produce images of?

Ultrasounds can produce images of unborn children in real time, as shown

below.

31
Figure 4: An ultrasound image of an unborn baby

What are some common uses?

The most common use are to monitor unborn babies, however they are
also used in diagnosis and during certain procedures
for guiding surgeons.

How does it work?

The device has a probe, which emits high-frequency sound waves. They
bounce off of different parts of the body, creating echoes, and when these
bounce back to the probe, it can also detect them. This can create a live
image on another scanner. The scan can last from 15 to 45 minutes. They
can be done externally, internally or endoscopically.

32
What are any advantages and disadvantages?
Advantages

Usually there are no after-effects of ultrasound scans. This means normal

activity can be resumed straight after.

The results are seen in real time, so there is no need to wait.

Disadvantages

Some probe covers have latex, which can be a problem if the patient is
allergic to latex.

Endoscopic ultrasounds can cause a sore throat or bloating, or in extreme

cases, internal bleeding.

X-Rays
What is an X-Ray?

An x-ray is a very common procedure used to get images of inside of the

body. It uses radiation in the x-ray part of the electromagnetic spectrum.

What do they produce images of?

They are used to produce images of bones, usually to see if and where there
are breaks. They are also used by dentists and orthodontists to look at teeth.
Bone tumours can also be seen on x-rays.

What are some common uses?

They can be used to guide surgeons as they are operating. They can also
be used to detect broken bones, and to plan the best course of treatment
for this.

How does it work?

X-rays, which are a type of electromagnetic radiation invisible to humans,

pass through the body. The energy is absorbed by different parts of the body
at different rates, and a detector on the other side of the person will see how
much was absorbed, and will be able to generate an image from this. Denser
parts of the body, such as bone, show up as white, as few x-rays could pass
through. Sometimes a contrast agent is given to the patient in order for soft

33
tissues to be seen more easily on the image. The x-ray is extremely fast,
and the whole procedure should only take a few minutes.

Figure 5: Diagram of how an x-ray scanner works

What are any advantages and disadvantages?

Advantages

The machine does not surround the whole body, so will not cause anxiety in
people with claustrophobia.

The procedure only takes a few minutes.

Disadvantages

Some contrast agents may cause unwanted side effects.

X-rays expose the patient to unwanted radiation, which could potentially

cause cancer, however the amount of radiation given off is minimal.

34
What are EMR and EHR systems?
EMR - (Electronic Medical Record) is a digital version of the patient file for a single institution.
The EMR includes the patient's medical history, diagnosis and treatments performed by a
particular doctor, nurse, specialist, dentist, surgeon or clinic.

The advantages of EMR over paper documentation are:

the ability to track data over time,

reminders regarding patient screening and preventive examinations,

improving the quality of health care by reducing the number of mistakes.

EHR - (Electronic Health Record) is also a digital version of the patient's file, but much more
accessible. Electronic health registers in this case can be made available to other medical
facilities, so that authorized persons will be able to immediately gain access to extensive
patient's medical records.

Advantages of the EHR system:

updating documentation in real time,

full documentation, which may contain both parameters (e.g. blood pressure) and laboratory
results, allergies or imaging results - X-ray, CT, MR.

enables the use of medical data from various specialists, in laboratories, imaging facilities,
pharmacies, ambulance units, as well as abroad.

Both EMR and EHR are designed to improve the course of a visit to the doctor, as well as meet
patient requirements related to accelerating visit registration etc.

In Poland, a considerable amount of time during medical consultations is occupied by

completing medical records, which means less attention is given to the actual problem the
patient comes in with and the solution the doctor is able to provide. Each additional minute
your doctor is able to devote to your illness can speed up treatment. In this case, EMR and
EHR systems come to the rescue, they effectively minimize the time the doctor spends filling
out the documentation.

Key features of the above systems:

35
they are a secure archive of patient documents (such as: medical history, observations,
interviews, parameters - blood pressure, vaccinations, medications taken, etc.),

all of the information about a given patient is in one place,

the readability of the documentation increases significantly, which reduces the risk of errors,

easier access to information makes prescribing medicines safer,

they avoid redundant tests that may have been done in the past,

they enable a user-friendly presentation of medical data,

thanks to modern search mechanisms, they allow easier access to desired information,

they ensure the security of patient records by encrypting data.

What makes EHR different?

While EMR is the digital version of the traditional paper documentation with limited
functionality, the electronic patient record allows access not only in the facility where a given
part of the documentation is created, but wherever it is needed (regardless of whether it is a
private or public facility, out-patient or hospital).

This solution significantly facilitates the work of doctors and medical staff, saving them time
on unnecessary formalities and giving them the opportunity to make a better diagnosis. The
doctor, based on information about the patient's medical history available in the EHR system,
can help a person who goes to the hospital unconscious or who misses information that is
crucial from the diagnosis point of view in a faster and more effective way. Importantly, it is
also possible to consult and evaluate the test results with another doctor, regardless of where
they are at any given moment.

What is Internet

The Internet is a global interconnected network of computers. Using the Internet you can look
at documents and images even view videos or listen to sound files from anywhere in the world
using your computer. You can also use the Internet to publish, so that others can look at your
information in any of a number of standard file formats.

You can also use the Internet to send messages through e-mail, as long as you know the e-mail
address of the recipient. The Internet can also be used to transfer files between any two people
or computers. The Internet also creates new communities of individuals, belonging to
newsgroups where information is shared between people with similar interests, even though
individuals could be geographically dispersed. Letters and files can be posted to newsgroups,
where others can share them.

Internet is the world's largest computer network, the network of networks, scattered all over
the world. It was created nearly 25 years ago as a project for the U.S. Department of Defense.
36
Its goal was to create a method for widely separated computers to transfer data efficiently even
in the event of a nuclear attack. From a handful of computer and users in the 1960s, today the
Internet has grown to thousands of regional networks that can connect millions of users. Any
single individual, company, or country does not own this global network.

How Internet works

When you connect computers together, you get a "network" which allows computers to "talk"
to each other. This communication was originally part of the "operating system" of a computer.
The Internet originally arose as a bunch of UNIX-based (UNIX is an operating system)
computers linked together, so a lot of the terms on the Internet have their origins in the UNIX
world. This means a lot of weird cryptic terms or acronyms are used (words made up from
initial letters of longer words). The standard for communicating on the Internet is called
"TCP/IP" (pronounced as TCPIP without the '/') which is short for Transmission Control
Protocol/Internet Protocol.

The key concept in TCP/IP is that every computer has to know or can figure out where all other
computers are on the network, and can send data by the quickest route, even if part of the route
is down. The reason the route is down might include a computer is shut down or a phone line
disconnected or in repair. This is done by maintaining indexes of all IP addresses in a domain
at multiple servers strategically spread around the country, so that messages are quickly routed
along the fastest path.

TCP/IP transfers information in small chunks called "packets." Each packet includes the
following information: the computer (or last few computers) the data came from, the computer
to which it is headed, the data itself, and error-checking information (to ensure that the
individual packet was accurately and completely sent and received). The elegance of TCP/IP
is that a large file can be broken into multiple packets, each sent over different paths in the
network. These packets then re-assembled at the other end into one file and saved on the
destination computer.

To access the Internet you need an Internet Service Provider or "ISP". The ISP is connected to
the Internet "backbone" which is the permanent cabling of the Internet. This backbone may
consist of copper wire, fiber optic cable, microwave, and even satellite connections between
any two points. To you it doesn't matter – the Internet's TCP/IP works this out for you. You
can connect to the Internet in one of two basic ways, dialing into an Internet Service Provider's
computer, or with a direct connection to an Internet Service Provider. The difference is mainly
in the speed and cost.

37
The previous figure gives a pictorial representation of how Internet works. You want to access
a web site that is hosted on a server somewhere in the world (say USA) and you want to access
the information from India. You connect (using a computer and modem - Dial up access) to
your local Internet Access Provider, then you type in the address of your site. Your request is
sent form the local ISP's server through the different computers in the network (Internet
backbone) till it reaches the server where you have hosted your site. It is like a letter traveling
though the various postal networks and reaching the addressee’s place. Then the information
stored on the web site that you are trying to access is sent back to your computer so that you
can access it.

Networking Basics

The Internet protocol suite is the set of protocols that implement the protocol stack on which the
Internet runs. It is sometimes called the TCP/IP protocol suite, after two of the many protocols that
make up the suite: the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and the Internet Protocol (IP), which were
the first two defined. The authoritative reference on this subject is RFC 1122.

The Internet protocol suite can be described by analogy with the OSI model, which describes the layers
of a protocol stack, not all of which correspond well with Internet practice. In a protocol stack, each
layer solves a set of problems involving the transmission of data, and provides a well-defined service
to the higher layers. Higher layers are logically closer to the user and deal with more abstract data,
relying on lower layers to translate data into forms that can eventually be physically manipulated.

The Internet model was produced as the solution to a practical engineering problem. The OSI model,
on the other hand, was a more theoretical approach, and was also produced at an earlier stage in the
evolution of networks. Therefore, the OSI model is easier to understand, but the TCP/IP model is the
one in actual use. It is helpful to have an understanding of the OSI model before learning TCP/IP, as

38
the same principles apply, but are easier to understand in the OSI model. The following diagram
attempts to show where various TCP/IP and other protocols would reside in the original OSI model:

7 Application e.g. HTTP, SMTP, SNMP, FTP, Telnet, NFS

6 Presentation e.g. XDR, ASN.1, SMB, AFP

5 Session e.g. ISO 8327 / CCITT X.225, RPC, NetBIOS, ASP

4 Transport e.g. TCP, UDP, RTP, SPX, ATP

3 Network e.g. IP, ICMP, IGMP, X.25, CLNP, ARP, OSPF, RIP, IPX, DDP

2 Data Link e.g. Ethernet, Token ring, PPP, HDLC, Frame relay, ISDN, ATM

1 Physical e.g. electricity, radio, laser

Commonly, the top three layers of the OSI model (Application, Presentation and Session) are
considered as a single Application Layer in the TCP/IP suite. Because the TCP/IP suite has no
unified session layer on which higher layers are built, these functions are typically carried out
(or ignored) by individual applications. A simplified TCP/IP interpretation of the stack is
shown below:

As we see on the diagram above, computers running on the Internet communicate to each other using
either the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) or the User Datagram Protocol (UDP). When you write
Java programs that communicate over the network, you are programming at the application layer.
Typically, you don't need to concern yourself with the TCP and UDP layers. Instead, you can use the
classes in the java.net package. These classes provide system-independent network
communication. However, to decide which Java classes your programs should use, you do need to
understand how TCP and UDP differ.

39
TCP

When two applications want to communicate to each other reliably, they establish a connection and
send data back and forth over that connection. This is analogous to making a telephone call. If you
want to speak to Aunt Beatrice in Kentucky, a connection is established when you dial her phone
number and she answers. You send data back and forth over the connection by speaking to one
another over the phone lines. Like the phone company, TCP guarantees that data sent from one end
of the connection actually gets to the other end and in the same order it was sent. Otherwise, an error
is reported.

TCP provides a point-to-point channel for applications that require reliable communications.
The Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP), File Transfer Protocol (FTP), and Telnet are all
examples of applications that require a reliable communication channel. The order in which
the data is sent and received over the network is critical to the success of these applications.
When HTTP is used to read from a URL, the data must be received in the order in which it
was sent. Otherwise, you end up with a jumbled HTML file, a corrupt zip file, or some other
invalid information.

Definition: TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) is a connection-based protocol that provides a

reliable flow of data between two computers.

UDP

The UDP protocol provides for communication that is not guaranteed between two applications on
the network. UDP is not connection-based like TCP. Rather, it sends independent packets of data,
called datagrams, from one application to another. Sending datagrams is much like sending a letter
through the postal service: The order of delivery is not important and is not guaranteed, and each
message is independent of any other.

Definition: UDP (User Datagram Protocol) is a protocol that sends independent packets of data,
called datagrams, from one computer to another with no guarantees about arrival. UDP is not
connection-based like TCP.

For many applications, the guarantee of reliability is critical to the success of the transfer of
information from one end of the connection to the other. However, other forms of
communication don't require such strict standards. In fact, they may be slowed down by the
extra overhead or the reliable connection may invalidate the service altogether.

Consider, for example, a clock server that sends the current time to its client when requested
to do so. If the client misses a packet, it doesn't really make sense to resend it because the time
will be incorrect when the client receives it on the second try. If the client makes two requests
and receives packets from the server out of order, it doesn't really matter because the client can
figure out that the packets are out of order and make another request. The reliability of TCP is
unnecessary in this instance because it causes performance degradation and may hinder the
usefulness of the service.

40
Another example of a service that doesn't need the guarantee of a reliable channel is the ping
command. The purpose of the ping command is to test the communication between two
programs over the network. In fact, ping needs to know about dropped or out-of-order packets
to determine how good or bad the connection is. A reliable channel would invalidate this
service altogether.

The UDP protocol provides for communication that is not guaranteed between two applications
on the network. UDP is not connection-based like TCP. Rather, it sends independent packets
of data from one application to another. Sending datagrams is much like sending a letter
through the mail service: The order of delivery is not important and is not guaranteed, and each
message is independent of any others.

Note: Many firewalls and routers have been configured not to allow UDP packets. If you're having
trouble connecting to a service outside your firewall, or if clients are having trouble connecting to
your service, ask your system administrator if UDP is permitted.

Understanding Ports

Generally speaking, a computer has a single physical connection to the network. All data destined for
a particular computer arrives through that connection. However, the data may be intended for
different applications running on the computer. So how does the computer know to which application
to forward the data? Through the use of ports.

Data transmitted over the Internet is accompanied by addressing information that identifies the
computer and the port for which it is destined. The computer is identified by its 32-bit IP
address, which IP uses to deliver data to the right computer on the network. Ports are identified
by a 16-bit number, which TCP and UDP use to deliver the data to the right application.

In connection-based communication such as TCP, a server application binds a socket to a

specific port number. This has the effect of registering the server with the system to receive all
data destined for that port. A client can then rendezvous with the server at the server's port, as
illustrated here:

Definition: The TCP and UDP protocols use ports to map incoming data to a particular process running
on a computer.

In datagram-based communication such as UDP, the datagram packet contains the port number
of its destination and UDP routes the packet to the appropriate application, as illustrated in this
figure:

41
Port numbers range from 0 to 65,535 because ports are represented by 16-bit numbers. The port
numbers ranging from 0 - 1023 are restricted; they are reserved for use by well-known services such
as HTTP and FTP and other system services. These ports are called well-known ports. Your applications
should not attempt to bind to them.

Networking Classes in the JDK

Through the classes in java.net, Java programs can use TCP or UDP to communicate over the
Internet. The URL, URLConnection, Socket, and ServerSocket classes all use TCP to
communicate over the network. The DatagramPacket, DatagramSocket, and MulticastSocket
classes are for use with UDP.

The Internet Protocol Suite

The java.net package provides a set of classes that support network programming using the
communication protocols employed by the Internet. These protocols are known as the Internet
protocol suite and include the Internet Protocol (IP), the Transport Control Protocol (TCP),
and the User Datagram Protocol (UDP) as well as other, less-prominent supporting protocols.
Although this section cannot provide a full description of the Internet protocols, it gives you
the basic information that you need to get started with Java network programming. In order to
take full advantage of this chapter, you need an Internet connection.

What Is the Internet and How Does It Work?

Asking the question What is the Internet? may bring about a heated discussion in some circles.
In this book, the Internet is defined as the collection of all computers that are able to
communicate, using the Internet protocol suite, with the computers and networks registered
with the Internet Network Information Center (InterNIC). This definition includes all
computers to which you can directly (or indirectly through a firewall) send Internet Protocol
packets.

Computers on the Internet communicate by exchanging packets of data, known as Internet

Protocol, or IP, packets. IP is the network protocol used to send information from one computer
to another over the Internet. All computers on the Internet (by our definition in this book)
communicate using IP. IP moves information contained in IP packets. The IP packets are
routed via special routing algorithms from a source computer that sends the packets to a
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destination computer that receives them. The routing algorithms figure out the best way to send
the packets from source to destination.

In order for IP to send packets from a source computer to a destination computer, it must have
some way of identifying these computers. All computers on the Internet are identified using
one or more IP addresses. A computer may have more than one IP address if it has more than
one interface to computers that are connected to the Internet.

IP addresses are 32-bit numbers. They may be written in decimal, hexadecimal, or other
formats, but the most common format is dotted decimal notation. This format breaks the 32-
bit address up into four bytes and writes each byte of the address as unsigned decimal integers
separated by dots. For example, one of my IP addresses is 0xccD499C1. Because 0xcc = 204,
0xD4 = 212, 0x99 = 153, and 0xC1 = 193, my address in dotted decimal form is
204.212.153.193.

IP addresses are not easy to remember, even using dotted decimal notation. The Internet has
adopted a mechanism, referred to as the Domain Name System (DNS), whereby computer
names can be associated with IP addresses. These computer names are referred to as domain
names. The DNS has several rules that determine how domain names are constructed and how
they relate to one another. For the purposes of this chapter, it is sufficient to know that domain
names are computer names and that they are mapped to IP addresses.

The mapping of domain names to IP addresses is maintained by a system of domain name

servers. These servers are able to look up the IP address corresponding to a domain name.
They also provide the capability to look up the domain name associated with a particular IP
address, if one exists.

As I mentioned, IP enables communication between computers on the Internet by routing data

from a source computer to a destination computer. However, computer-to-computer
communication only solves half of the network communication problem. In order for an
application program, such as a mail program, to communicate with another application, such
as a mail server, there needs to be a way to send data to specific programs within a computer.

Ports are used to enable communication between programs. A port is an address within a
computer. Port addresses are 16-bit addresses that are usually associated with a particular
application protocol. An application server, such as a Web server or an FTP server, listens on
a particular port for service requests, performs whatever service is requested of it, and returns
information to the port used by the application program requesting the service.

Internet services

Servers in Internet provide various services, accessible by the Internet users. Examples of such
services are WWW, FTP, IRC, E-Mail, etc.

Popular Internet application protocols are associated with well-known ports and wel-known
Internet services. The server programs implementing these protocols listen on these ports for
service requests. The well-known ports for some common Internet application protocols are:

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 Port Protocol Service description
21 File Transfer Protocol (FTP) Transfers files
Allows secure remote administration
22 SSH (Secure Shell Protocol)
through standard shell (console)
25 Simple Mail Transfer Protocol Send email
Accesse the WWW (World Wide
80 HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP)
Web)
11
Post Office Protocol Receive email
0

The well-known ports are used to standardize the location of Internet services.

What is WWW

A technical definition of the World Wide Web is: all the resources and users on the Internet that are
using the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP). A broader definition is:

"The World Wide Web is the universe of network-accessible information, an embodiment of human
knowledge."

Actually, World Wide Web is a distributed information system of Internet servers that support
specially formatted documents. The documents are formatted in a markup language called
HTML (HyperText Markup Language) that supports links to other documents, as well as
graphics, audio, and video files. This means you can jump from one document to another
simply by clicking on hot spots. Not all Internet servers are part of the World Wide Web. World
Wide Web is not synonymous with the Internet!

There are several applications called Web browsers that make it easy to access the World Wide
Web; Two of the most popular being Netscape Navigator (Mozilla) and Microsoft's Internet
Explorer.

Connection-Oriented Versus Connectionless Communication

Transport protocols are used to deliver information from one port to another and thereby enable
communication between application programs. They use either a connection-oriented or
connectionless method of communication. TCP is a connection-oriented protocol and UDP is
a connectionless transport protocol.

The TCP connection-oriented protocol establishes a communication link between a source

port/IP address and a destination port/IP address. The ports are bound together via this link
until the connection is terminated and the link is broken. An example of a connection-oriented
protocol is a telephone conversation. A telephone connection is established, communication
takes place, and then the connection is terminated.

The reliability of the communication between the source and destination programs is ensured
through error-detection and error-correction mechanisms that are implemented within TCP.
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TCP implements the connection as a stream of bytes from source to destination. This feature
allows the use of the stream I/O classes provided by java.io.

The UDP connectionless protocol differs from the TCP connection-oriented protocol in that it
does not establish a link for the duration of the connection. An example of a connectionless
protocol is postal mail. To mail something, you just write down a destination address (and an
optional return address) on the envelope of the item you're sending and drop it in a mailbox.
When using UDP, an application program writes the destination port and IP address on a
datagram and then sends the datagram to its destination. UDP is less reliable than TCP because
there are no delivery-assurance or error-detection and -correction mechanisms built into the
protocol.

Application protocols such as FTP, SMTP, and HTTP use TCP to provide reliable, stream-
based communication between client and server programs. Other protocols, such as the Time
Protocol, use UDP because speed of delivery is more important than end-to-end reliability.

The Client/Server Computing Model and the Internet

The Internet provides a variety of services that contribute to its appeal. These services include
e-mail, newsgroups, file transfer, remote login, and the Web. Internet services are organized
according to a client/server architecture. Client programs, such as Web browsers and file
transfer programs, create connections to servers, such as Web and FTP servers. The clients
make requests of the server, and the server responds to the requests by providing the service
requested by the client.

The Web provides a good example of client/server computing. Web browsers are the clients
and Web servers are the servers. Browsers request HTML files from Web servers on your
behalf by establishing a connection with a Web server and submitting file requests to the server.
The server receives the file requests, retrieves the files, and sends them to the browser over the
established connection. The browser receives the files and displays them to your browser
window.

Sockets and Client/Server Communication

Clients and servers establish connections and communicate via sockets. Connections are
communication links that are created over the Internet using TCP. Some client/server
applications are also built around the connectionless UDP. These applications also use sockets
to communicate.

Sockets are the endpoints of Internet communication. Clients create client sockets and connect
them to server sockets. Sockets are associated with a host address and a port address. The host
address is the IP address of the host where the client or server program is located. The port
address is the communication port used by the client or server program. Server programs use
the well-known port number associated with their application protocol.

A client communicates with a server by establishing a connection to the socket of the server.
The client and server then exchange data over the connection. Connection-oriented

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 communication is more reliable than connectionless communication because the underlying
TCP provides message-acknowledgment, error-detection, and error-recovery services.

When a connectionless protocol is used, the client and server communicate by sending
datagrams to each other's socket. The UDP is used for connectionless protocols. It does not
support reliable communication like TCP.

What is MS Word?
Used to make professional-quality documents, letters, reports, etc., MS Word is a word processor
developed by Microsoft. It has advanced features which allow you to format and edit your files and
documents in the best possible way.
Where to find MS Word on your personal computer?
Follow these simple steps to open MS Word on your personal computer:
Start → All Programs → MS Office → MS Word.
What are the uses of MS Word?
MS Word enables users to do write-ups, create documents, resumes, contracts, etc. This is one of
the most commonly used programs under the Office suite.
How to create an MS Word document?
To create an MS Word doc, follow the steps mentioned above to open Microsoft Word. Then once
the program is open, click on “File” followed by “New”. This opens a new doc where something new
can be created.
Since it is used by people of all age groups, in schools, in colleges and for official purposes, having
proper knowledge of Microsoft Word is a must. The preview of the MS Doc file once it is opened is
given below:
For a better understanding of how MS Word works and the features that are included in it, you can
refer to the video given below and analyse its functioning easily.

Features of MS Word
Now let us read more about the features and components of an MS Word doc file in detail.
The image given below shows the different elements and categories which are available in MS Word
doc:

 Home

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This has options like font colour, font size, font style, alignment, bullets, line spacing, etc. All the
basic elements which one may need to edit their document is available under the Home option.

 Insert
Tables, shapes, images, charts, graphs, header, footer, page number, etc. can all be entered in the
document. They are included in the “Insert” category.

 Design
The template or the design in which you want your document to be created can be selected under
the Design tab. Choosing an appropriate tab will enhance the appearance of your document.

 Page Layout
Under the Page Layout tab comes options like margins, orientation, columns, lines, indentation,
spacing, etc.

 References
This tab is the most useful for those who are creating a thesis or writing books or lengthy
documents. Options like citation, footnote, table of contents, caption, bibliography, etc. can be found
under this tab.

 Review
Spell check, grammar, Thesaurus, word count, language, translation, comments, etc. can all be
tracked under the review tab. This acts as an advantage for those who get their documents reviewed
on MS Word.
Apart from all the above-mentioned features, the page can be set in different views and layouts,
which can be added and optimised using the View tab on the Word document. Margins and scales
are also available for the benefit of the users.
When compared with MS PowerPoint, MS Word is more of reading while PPT is more of visual and
graphical representation of data.

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