ALGEBRA HW 5

CLAY SHONKWILER
4.2.11
Let G be a nite group and let : G S
G
be the left regular represen-
tation. Prove that if x is an element of G of order n and [G[ = mn, then
(x) is a product of m n-cycles. Deduce that (x) is an odd permutation if
and only if [x[ is even and
|G|
|x|
is odd.
Proof. Let g G where g is not the identity element. Then x
a
g ,= g unless
a = n. To see this, it is clear that x
n
g = eg = g and, if x
a
g = g for some
a < n, then x
a
= e, which contradicts the fact that x has order n. Hence,
when we associate g with a number p
g
1, . . . , n,
(p
g
xp
g
x
2
p
g
. . . x
n1
p
g
)
is an n-cycle in (x). To completely construct (x), we need only pick some
h G where h ,= x
a
g for any a 1, . . . n. We will be able to iterate this
process
|G|
n
=
mn
n
= m times, so (x) consists of m n-cycles.
From the previous chapter, we know that (x) is odd if and only if the
number of cycles of even length in its cycle decomposition is odd. Since
every cycle in its decomposition is of length n = [x[ and the number of such
cycles is
|G|
|x|
, this means (x) is odd if and only if [x[ is even and
|G|
|x|
is
odd.
4.3.24
Assume H is a proper subgroup of the nite group G. Prove G ,=

gG
gHg
1
, i.e., G is not the union of the conjugates of any proper sub-
group.
In order to prove this, we will need the following lemma.
Lemma 0.1. If M is a maximal subgroup of G that is not normal, then
the number of nonidentity elements of G contained in conjugates of M is at
most ([M[ 1)[G : M[.
Proof. First, we note that if M is a maximal subgroup of G, then either
N
G
(M) = M or N
G
(M) +G. This is simply because M N
G
(M) G and
M is maximal. Since M is not normal in G, this means N
G
(M) = M. Now,
from Proposition 6 in the textbook, we know that the number of conjugates
of M in G is
[G : N
G
(M)[ = [G : M[.
1
2 CLAY SHONKWILER
Furthermore, the number of non-identity elements in any conjugate of M
is no greater than [M[ 1, the number of non-identity elements of M.
Therefore, the number of non-identity elements of G contained in conjugates
of M is at most ([M[ 1)[G : M[.
Now, let M be a maximal subgroup of G containing H. Certainly

gG
gHg
1

gG
gMg
1
.
Furthermore, we know that the number of non-identity elements of G con-
tained in [
gG
gMg
1
[ is no greater than ([M[ 1)[G : M[ by the previous
exercise. Since [G : M[ = [G[/[M[, we know that ([M[ 1)[G : M[ =
[G[ 2, so there is at least one non-identity element of G not contained
in
gG
gMg
1
and, therefore, not contained in
gG
gHg
1
. We conclude
that
G ,=

gG
gHg
1
.

4.4.18
Fix an integer n 2 with n ,= 6.
(a) Prove that the automorphism group of a group G permutes the con-
jugacy classes of G, i.e., for each Aut(G) and each conjugacy class / of
G the set (/) is also a conjugacy class of G.
Proof. Let / be a conjugacy class of G, let be an automorphism of G and
let k
i
, k
j
(/). Then k
i
= (h
i
) and k
j
= (h
j
) for some h
i
, h
j
/. Since
/ is a conjugacy class of G,
k
i
= (h
i
) = (gh
j
g
1
) = (g)(h
j
)(g)
1
= (g)k
j
(g)
1
for some g G, so k
i
and k
j
are conjugate. Since our choice of k
i
and k
j
was arbitrary, we conclude that (/) is a conjugacy class.
(b) Let / be the conjugacy class of transpositions in S
n
and let /

be
the conjugacy class of any element of order 2 in S
n
that is not a transpo-
sition. Prove that [/[ , = [/

[. Deduce that any automorphism of S

n
sends
transpositions to transpositions.
Proof. Let be a transposition in S
n
. Then, by 4.3.33, the size of the
conjugacy class / of is
[/[ =
n!
(1!2
1
)((n 2)!1
n2
)
=
n!
2(n 2)!
=
n(n 1)
2
.
Now, let be any element of order 2 in S
n
. Then consists of m 2-cycles
for some m Z such that 2m n. Hence, the size of the conjugacy class |

of is
[/

[ =
n!
(m!2
m
)((n 2m)!1
n2m
)
.
ALGEBRA HW 5 3
So long as n ,= 6, we see that [/[ , = [/

[. Since, by (a), any automorphism

of S
n
must map / onto a conjugacy class of elements of order 2, we see that
any automorphism of S
n
sends transpositions to transpositions.
(c) Prove that for each Aut(S
n
)
: (12) (ab
2
), : (13) (ab
3
), . . . , : (1n) (ab
n
)
for some distinct integers a, b
2
, b
3
, . . . , b
n
1, 2 . . . , n.
Proof. We showed above that maps transpositions to transpositions, so
we know that
: (12) (ab
2
)
for some a, b
2
1, . . . n. Now, for j 3, . . . , n, we know that (12)(1j) =
(1j
2
), which has order 3, so the image of (12)(1j) has order 3. Since (1j) must
map to a transposition, this means that : (1j) (1b
j
) or : (1j) (kb
2
)
for some k, b
j
,= a, b
2
.
(d) Show that S = (12), (13), . . . (1n) generate S
n
and deduce that any
automorphism of S
n
is uniquely determined by its action on these elements.
Use (c) to show that S
n
has at most n! automorphisms and conclude that
Aut(S
n
) = Inn(S
n
) for n ,= 6.
Proof. First, we recall that any element of S
n
can be written as a product of
transpositions, so it suces to show that every transposition can be written
as a product of transpositions of the form (1k) for k = 2, . . . n. Let (ab) be
a transposition. Then
(ab) = (1a)(1b)(1a).
So we see that any element of S
n
can be written as a product of elements
of S, so S generates S
n
. Hence, any automorphism of S
n
is completely
determined by its action on the elements of S. If Aut(S
n
), then, in
the notation from (c) above, we can let any of the n elements be a, any of
the remaining n 1 elements be b
1
, etc. In this way, we see that there are
n(n 1) choices for (ab
1
), n 2 choices for (ab
2
) and so on. Therefore, the
maximum number of possible automorphisms is
(n(n 1))(n 2)(n 3) 3 2 1 = n!
Now, since there are n! elements of S
n
, there are n! inner automorphisms of
S
n
, so we conclude that Aut(S
n
) = Inn(S
n
) (remembering that n ,= 6).
5.5.8
Construct a non-abelian group of order 75. Classify all groups of order
75 (there are three of them).
Let N = Z/5Z Z/5Z. Then, by Proposition 4.17(3),
A = Aut(Z/5Z Z/5Z) GL
2
(F
5
).
From Chapter 1, we know [A[ = (5
2
1)(5
2
5) = 480, so, by Cauchys
theorem, we know there exists z A such that [z[ = 3. Hence, we can
4 CLAY SHONKWILER
identify the subgroup generated by z with Z/3Z; call this identied subgroup
Z/3Z. Now, let
0
: Z/3Z Aut(N) such that maps A Z/3Z to the
automorphism of N obtained by conjugation by A. Then, if A, B Z/3Z,

0
(AB) = (C (AB)C(AB)
1
= A(BCB
1
)A
1
) =
0
(A)
0
(B)
so
0
is a homomorphism and denes the semi-direct product
N

0
Z/3Z,
which has order 75 and is non-abelian, since
0
is non-trivial.
Certainly Z/75Z = Z/25ZZ/3Z and Z/5ZZ/5ZZ/3Z are groups of
order 75. Z/75Z has an element of order 75, whereas Z/5Z Z/5Z Z/3Z
has no elements of order greater than 15, so these groups are not isomorphic.
By the Fundamental Theorem of Finitely Generated Abelian Groups, these
are the only abelian groups of order 75. Now, let G be a non-abelian group
of order 75. Then, by Sylow, G has a normal subgroup N of order 25 and a
subgroup P of order 3, which is isomorphic to Z/3Z. Hence,
G = N

Z/3Z
where : Z/3Z Aut(N) is a homomorphism. Since Aut(Z/25Z)
(Z/25Z)

, which has order 20, the only possible such when N = Z/25Z is
the trivial homomorphism, so this semi-direct product will simply yield an
abelian group. Hence, to get a non-abelian group, it must be the case that
N Z/5Z Z/5Z, the only other group of order 25. Now, N contains no
elements of order 3, so
N P = 1
so, by Theorem 12, G NP N

P where is the homomorphism from

P to Aut(N) that sends p P to the automorphism of conjugation by p in
N, precisely what we dened above. Therefore, the non-abelian group we
constructed above is the only non-abelian group of order 75.
1
Show that if G is a nite group, and H ,= G is a proper subgroup of G,
then G is not equal to the union of conjugates of H.
This is problem 4.3.24 above.
2
Let G = Aut((Z/12Z)S
3
). How many elements does G have? Determine
the structure of G.
Answer: G has 24 elements and is isomorphic to (Z/2ZZ/2Z)S
3
. To
see this, we note that N = Z/12Z 1 Z/12Z is normal in Z/12Z S
3
,
so any automorphism must map N to a cyclic normal subgroup N

of order
12. That means N

= a, ) for a (Z/12/Z)

, S
3
. Certainly such a
must either be the indentity permutation or have order 3. If [[ = 3, then
let S
3
such that [[ = 2. Then, if b Z/12Z,
(b, ) (a, ) (b, ) = (a, ).
ALGEBRA HW 5 5
However, ,= , so (a, ) / N

, contradicting the fact that N

is normal.
Therefore, we see that N

= N. Hence, we see that N is a characteristic

subgroup of Z/12Z S
3
.
Now, M = 0 S
3
S
3
is normal in Z/12ZS
3
, so any automorphism
of Z/12Z S
3
must map M to a normal subgroup isomorphic to S
3
.
Now, the elements of order 2 in Z/12Z S
3
are of the form (0, ) or (6, ),
where [[ = 2. Let
1
,
2
,
3
denote the elements of order 2 in S
3
. If
: (0,
1
) (6,
i
), then it must be true that : (0,
2
) (6,
j
) or
: (0,
3
) (6,
j
). Suppose, without loss of generality, that : (0,
2
)
(6,
j
). Then, necessarily, : (0,
3
) (0,
k
). Furthermore
: (0,
1

3
) = (0,
1
) (0,
3
) (6,
i
) (0,
k
) = (6,
i

k
)
However,
1

3
=
2

1
and
: (0,
2

1
) = (0,
2
) (0,
1
) (6,
j
) (6,
i
) = (0,
j

i
).
Hence, we see that (6,
i

k
) = (0,
j

i
), a clear contradiction. Hence, must
map M into itself. Since our choice of automorphism was arbitrary, we
see that M is a characterstic subgroup of Z/12Z S
3
.
Therefore, we can distribute as follows:
Aut(Z/12Z S
3
) Aut(Z/12Z) Aut(S
3
).
We know that Aut(Z/12Z) = (Z/12Z)

Z/2ZZ/2Z and that Aut(S

3
) =
Inn(S
3
) S
3
, so
G (Z/2Z Z/2Z) S
3
,
a group with 4 6 = 24 elements.

3
Let p be a prime number, and let A = (Z/p
3
Z) (Z/p
5
Z), with the group
law written additively. Let [p] : A A be the endomorphism of A sending
every element x to px. Let A[p] denote the kernel of [p], A/pA denote the
quotient of A by the image of [p].
(a) Prove that every nontrivial subgroup B ,= 0 of A intersects A[p]
nontrivially.
Proof. Since the order of A is p
8
, B must have order p
b
for some b
1, . . . , 7. By Cauchy, B contains an element a of order p. Now,
[p](a) = pa = 0
since the order of a is p, so
A[p] B a.

(b) Prove that the image in A/pA of any proper subgroup B ,= A of A is

a proper subgroup of A/pA.
6 CLAY SHONKWILER
Proof.
(c) Show that there is a bijection between End(A) and the set of all pairs
(x, y), x, y A such that p
3
x = 0 in A.
(d) Determine the cardinality of Aut(A).
4
Let p be a prime number. It is clear that any two elements of SL
2
(F
p
)
which are conjugate in SL
2
(F
p
) are conjugate in GL
2
(F
p
). For p = 3, 5,
decide whether the converse is true. Give a pro if the converse is true;
exhibit two elements of SL
2
(F
p
) which are conjugate in GL
2
(F
p
) but not in
SL
2
(F
p
) otherwise.
Counter-Example in GL
2
(F
p
): Clearly,
A =

1 1
1 2

, B =

0 1
2 0

SL
2
(F
3
)
and are conjugate in GL
2
(F
5
), since

2 1
0 1

1 1
1 2

3 4
1 2

4 0
3 4

2 1
0 1

.
Now, suppose A and B are conjugate in SL
2
(F
p
). Then there exists a matrix
C =

a b
c d

SL
2
(F
p
) such that

a b
c d

1 1
1 2

4 0
3 4

a b
c d

,
which is to say

a +b a + 2b
c +d c + 2d

4a 4b
3a + 4c 3b + 4d

.
From the top-left terms, we see that a = 2b, and from the bottom-left
terms, that c +d = 3a + 4c. Since 3a = 3(2b) = b, we can substitute in the
above equation and subtract from the equality suggested by the bottom-
right terms:
c + 2d = 3b + 4d
c + d = b + 4c
d = 2b + 4d 4c
Solving for d, we see that d = b 2c. Now, recalling that
1 = det A = ad bc
and substituting for a and d yields
1 = ad bc = 2b(b 2c) bc = 2b
2
4bc bc = 2b
2
+ (bc bc) = 2b
2
.
Since 2
1
= 3 in F
5
, this implies that b
2
= 3. This, however, is impossible,
as
0
2
= 0, 1
2
= 1, 2
2
= 4, 3
2
= 4, 4
2
= 1
ALGEBRA HW 5 7
Therefore, A and B are not conjugate in SL
2
(F
p
) even though they are in
GL
2
(F
p
).

(Challenge/Extra credit) The same question, but for an arbitrary prime

number p. And if you solve this question, do come to CLC and/or CB to
show o!
DRL 3E3A, University of Pennsylvania
E-mail address: [email protected]