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Oracle SQL & Stored Procedure Interview

Questions

Basic SQL
1. JOIN:
a. "Write a query to get the names of employees along with their department
names. Use employees and departments tables."
2. GROUP BY and aggregate:
a. "Write a query to find the total salary expense per department from the
employees table."
3. Subquery:
a. "Write a query to find employees who earn more than the average salary."

SQL in Reporting Context:

 How would you optimize an SQL query for generating a
report where large amounts of data from multiple tables are
being aggregated?
 Use Indexes: Make sure columns used in joins, filters (WHERE), or grouping (GROUP
BY) have appropriate indexes. This speeds up data retrieval.
 Limit the data early: Use WHERE clauses to filter unnecessary rows as soon as
possible. Only select the columns needed — avoid SELECT *.
 Choose efficient joins: Use INNER JOIN if you don't need unmatched data from
both tables. Make sure join keys are indexed.
 Aggregate smartly: Pre-aggregate data when possible. For example, use a
subquery to group data before joining with other tables.
 Use Common Table Expressions (CTEs) carefully: They can make queries easier
to read but might not always be the most efficient if reused multiple times.
 Partition large tables: This helps to scan only relevant partitions (e.g., filtering by
date).
 Use materialized views or summary tables: If the report runs regularly, you can
store pre-calculated results for faster performance.
 Check query plans: Use tools like EXPLAIN to understand how your query runs and
find performance issues.
 How would you use SQL functions (like TO_DATE, CONCAT,
etc.) to format or transform data for reporting purposes?
 Date functions:
o TO_DATE converts strings to date format (useful when dealing with text data).
o DATE_TRUNC (in some databases like PostgreSQL) can round dates to the start
of the month or year — useful for grouping data by time.
 String functions:
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o CONCAT joins strings, like combining first and last names into a full name.
o SUBSTR, LEFT, or RIGHT let you extract specific parts of a string.
o UPPER, LOWER, and INITCAP change letter casing for cleaner formatting.
 Number formatting:
o ROUND is used to control decimal places.
o CAST or CONVERT changes data types, like turning a number into a string.
 Conditional logic:
o CASE lets you create custom categories or labels (e.g., marking salaries over
100k as "High Earners").

Advanced Functions and Operators:

 Explain the difference between ROWNUM and ROW_NUMBER().

When would you use each of these in Oracle SQL?
ANS: - ROWNUM is a pseudo column that assigns a unique number to
each row in the result set, starting from 1, based on the order they are
retrieved. ROW_NUMBER() is an analytic function that assigns a
unique number to each row within a partition, based on a specified
order. Use ROWNUM for simple row numbering
and ROW_NUMBER() for more complex ordering within partitions.

 What is the purpose of COLAESCE() Function?

ANS: - The COALESCE() function returns the first non-NULL value in a
list of arguments. It is useful for handling NULL values. For example:

 What are window functions (e.g., RANK(), DENSE_RANK(), LEAD(),

LAG()) in Oracle SQL? Can you provide an example of how and when
you would use them?
ANS:- Window functions perform calculations across a set of table
rows related to the current row, allowing for complex data analysis
without needing subqueries. Examples
include RANK(), DENSE_RANK(), LEAD(), and LAG().
When to Use:
RANK() and DENSE_RANK(): To assign ranks to rows based on a
column's value, useful for identifying top performers.
LEAD() and LAG(): To access subsequent or preceding row values,
helpful for trend analysis.

 Can you explain how you would design a stored procedure to

accept dynamic parameters for reporting purposes?
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Designing a Stored Procedure with Dynamic Parameters for Reporting

 Use CREATE PROCEDURE with parameters to accept inputs like @StartDate,

@EndDate, @Region, etc.
 Parameters can have default values to support optional filtering.
 Use dynamic SQL (sp_executesql) for flexible WHERE clauses.
 Validate inputs inside the procedure for security.
 Support output parameters if required (e.g., total count).
 Consider using CASE logic to handle optional filters without dynamic SQL.
 Index columns used in filters to improve performance.
 Always use parameterized queries to prevent SQL injection.

 What is the difference between a subquery and a Common

Table Expression (CTE)? When would you prefer using one
over the other?
 Subquery: Nested SELECT inside another query.
 CTE: Defined using WITH, works like a named temporary result set.
 Subqueries can be in SELECT, FROM, or WHERE clauses.
 CTEs improve readability, especially for complex logic.
 CTEs support recursion, subqueries do not.
 CTEs are reusable within the main query (subqueries are not).
 Subqueries can be correlated or non-correlated.
 Use CTEs for clarity and recursive operations; subqueries for simple filtering or
scalar values.

 What is a WITH clause, and how does it differ from a

temporary table?
The WITH clause (also known as Common Table Expression or CTE) allows you to
define a temporary result set that can be referenced within a SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE,
or DELETE statement. It is used for simplifying complex queries and improving
readability.

 Can you write a query that uses a CTE to calculate running

totals?
WITH Sales_CTE AS (
SELECT
OrderID,
CustomerID,
OrderDate,
TotalAmount,
ROW_NUMBER() OVER (ORDER BY OrderDate) AS RowNum
FROM Orders
)
SELECT
a.OrderID,
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a.CustomerID,
a.OrderDate,
a.TotalAmount,
SUM(b.TotalAmount) AS RunningTotal
FROM Sales_CTE a
JOIN Sales_CTE b ON b.RowNum <= a.RowNum
GROUP BY a.OrderID, a.CustomerID, a.OrderDate, a.TotalAmount
ORDER BY a.OrderDate;

 CTE assigns row numbers based on OrderDate.

 Self-join on row numbers to get all earlier (or equal) rows.
 SUM() calculates the cumulative total up to that point.
 Useful for financial reports, trend analysis, etc.

 How would you use a subquery to filter rows in a SELECT

statement?
 When to Use Subqueries in Filtering
 To filter by results from another table or aggregated values.
 When joins are unnecessary or too complex.
 For reusability inside a condition (IN, =, <, EXISTS, etc.).

PL/SQL Procedures and Functions:

 What are the differences between a stored procedure and a

stored function in Oracle SQL? Can you provide an example
of each and describe when to use one over the other?

Stored Procedure Stored Function

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CREATE OR REPLACE PROCEDURE CREATE OR REPLACE FUNCTION

Update_Salary ( Get_Annual_Salary (

p_emp_id IN NUMBER, p_emp_id IN NUMBER

p_increase IN NUMBER ) AS ) RETURN NUMBER AS

BEGIN v_salary NUMBER;

UPDATE Employees BEGIN

SET Salary = Salary + p_increase SELECT Salary * 12 INTO

v_salary
WHERE EmployeeID = p_emp_id;
FROM Employees
END;
WHERE EmployeeID = p_emp_id;

RETURN v_salary;

END;

USAGE: USAGE:

BEGIN SELECT Get_Annual_Salary(101)

FROM dual;
Update_Salary(101, 1000);

END;

 How would you pass parameters to a stored procedure or

function? What is the difference between IN, OUT, and
INOUT parameters, and when would you use each type?
 Define the parameters in the procedure/function header.
 Call with actual values in either positional or named style.
 Procedures are called using EXEC or within PL/SQL blocks.
 Functions can be used in SQL queries or PL/SQL blocks.
 Positional syntax: Order matters → MyProc(10, 'HR')
 Named syntax: More flexible → MyProc(p_id => 10, p_dept => 'HR')
 In PL/SQL, OUT/INOUT parameters must be variables, not literals.
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Example of Parameter IN & OUT & INOUT

 Explain this query -

 customer_orders: This table stores the details of customer orders.
 clients: This table stores information about clients (customers).
 products: This table stores information about products available for sale.
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 target_table = sales_report: This is the target table where aggregated or

processed sales data is stored
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QUERY -

Explanation:

1. Parameters:
a. p_case IN OUT NUMBER: A parameter that controls the flow of logic. If it's 1,
the procedure performs an INSERT operation; otherwise, it performs a MERGE.
b. p_start_date IN DATE & p_end_date IN DATE: These parameters filter
records by order date range.
c. p_status IN VARCHAR2: This parameter filters clients based on their status
(e.g., "ACTIVE" or "INACTIVE").
2. Dynamic SQL (EXECUTE IMMEDIATE):
a. The EXECUTE IMMEDIATE statement here is just a placeholder for dynamic SQL
queries, which you can customize if needed.
3. Conditional Logic (IF-ELSE):
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a. If p_case = 1, the procedure inserts data into the sales_report table. The
data is aggregated based on client and product, summing up order amounts
for each combination, and filtered by the date range and client status.
b. If p_case != 1, a MERGE INTO operation is performed. This will update the
existing records in the sales_report table if a matching combination of client
and product exists. If no match is found, it inserts new records.
4. Joins:
a. In both the INSERT and MERGE operations, multiple joins are performed:
i. customer_orders is joined with clients to filter by client.
ii. customer_orders is joined with products to include product details.
5. COMMIT:
a. After the INSERT or MERGE operation, the changes are committed to the
database.