Module-1

Data Mining and Analytics

UNIT - I

Data Mining: Data–Types of Data–, Data Mining Functionalities– Interestingness Patterns–

Classification of Data Mining systems– Data mining Task primitives –Integration of Data mining
system with a Data warehouse–Major issues in Data Mining–Data Preprocessing.

1.1 Introduction

In general terms, “Mining” is the process of extraction. In the context of computer

science, Data Mining can be referred to as knowledge mining from data, knowledge extraction,
data/pattern analysis, data archaeology, and data dredging. There are other kinds of data like
semi-structured or unstructured data which includes spatial data, multimedia data, text data,
web data which require different methodologies for data mining.

Data mining is the process of extracting valuable information and insights from large datasets.
It involves using various techniques, such as statistical analysis, machine learning, and
database management, to discover patterns and relationships in data that can be used to make
predictions or inform decisions.
Data mining can be applied in a wide range of fields, including business, finance, healthcare,
marketing, and more. For example, in business, data mining can be used to analyze customer
data to identify trends and patterns that can inform marketing strategies and improve sales. In
healthcare, data mining can be used to identify patterns in patient data that can inform
treatment decisions and improve patient outcomes.
1.2 Data Mining–Types of Data
• Mining Multimedia Data: Multimedia data objects include image data, video data,
audio data, website hyperlinks, and linkages. Multimedia data mining tries to find
out interesting patterns from multimedia databases. This includes the processing of
the digital data and performs tasks like image processing, image classification,
video, and audio data mining, and pattern recognition. Multimedia Data mining is
becoming the most interesting research area because most of the social media
platforms like Twitter, Facebook data can be analyzed through this and derive
interesting trends and patterns.
• Mining Web Data: Web mining is essential to discover crucial patterns and
knowledge from the Web. Web content mining analyzes data of several websites
which includes the web pages and the multimedia data such as images in the web
pages. Web mining is done to understand the content of web pages, unique users of
the website, unique hypertext links, web page relevance and ranking, web page
content summaries, time that the users spent on the particular website, and
understand user search patterns. Web mining also finds out the best search engine
and determines the search algorithm used by it. So it helps improve search
efficiency and finds the best search engine for the users.
• Mining Text Data: Text mining is the subfield of data mining, machine learning,
Natural Language processing, and statistics. Most of the information in our daily
life is stored as text such as news articles, technical papers, books, email messages,
blogs. Text Mining helps us to retrieve high-quality information from text such as
sentiment analysis, document summarization, text categorization, text clustering.
We apply machine learning models and NLP techniques to derive useful
information from the text. This is done by finding out the hidden patterns and trends
by means such as statistical pattern learning and statistical language modeling. In
order to perform text mining, we need to preprocess the text by applying the
techniques of stemming and lemmatization in order to convert the textual data into
data vectors.
• Mining Spatiotemporal Data: The data that is related to both space and time is
Spatiotemporal data. Spatiotemporal data mining retrieves interesting patterns and
knowledge from spatiotemporal data. Spatiotemporal Data mining helps us to find
the value of the lands, the age of the rocks and precious stones, predict the weather
patterns. Spatiotemporal data mining has many practical applications like GPS in
mobile phones, timers, Internet-based map services, weather services, satellite,
RFID, sensor.
• Mining Data Streams: Stream data is the data that can change dynamically and it
is noisy, inconsistent which contain multidimensional features of different data
types. So this data is stored in NoSql database systems. The volume of the stream
data is very high and this is the challenge for the effective mining of stream data.
While mining the Data Streams we need to perform the tasks such as clustering,
outlier analysis, and the online detection of rare events in data streams.
 1.Decision trees 1.Cluster analysis
2.Neural networks 2.Association rule mining
3.Regression analysis 3.Visualization

In comparison, data mining activities can be divided into 2 categories:

1]Descriptive Data Mining:

This category of data mining is concerned with finding patterns and relationships in the data
that can provide insight into the underlying structure of the data. Descriptive data mining is
often used to summarize or explore the data, and it can be used to answer questions such as:
What are the most common patterns or relationships in the data? Are there any clusters or
groups of data points that share common characteristics? What are the outliers in the data, and
what do they represent?

Some common techniques used in descriptive data mining include:

• Cluster analysis:
This technique is used to identify groups of data points that share similar
characteristics. Clustering can be used for segmentation, anomaly detection, and
summarization.
• Association rule mining:
This technique is used to identify relationships between variables in the data. It can be
used to discover co-occurring events or to identify patterns in transaction data.
• Visualization:
This technique is used to represent the data in a visual format that can help users to
identify patterns or trends that may not be apparent in the raw data.

2]Predictive Data Mining: This category of data mining is concerned with developing models
that can predict future behavior or outcomes based on historical data. Predictive data mining is
often used for classification or regression tasks, and it can be used to answer questions such as:
What is the likelihood that a customer will churn? What is the expected revenue for a new
product launch? What is the probability of a loan defaulting?
Some common techniques used in predictive data mining include:
• Decision trees: This technique is used to create a model that can predict the value of a
target variable based on the values of several input variables. Decision trees are often
used for classification tasks.
• Neural networks: This technique is used to create a model that can learn to recognize
patterns in the data. Neural networks are often used for image recognition, speech
recognition, and natural language processing.
• Regression analysis: This technique is used to create a model that can predict the value
of a target variable based on the values of several input variables. Regression analysis is
often used for prediction tasks.
1.3 Data Mining Functionality:

1. Class/Concept Descriptions: Classes or definitions can be correlated with results. In

simplified, descriptive and yet accurate ways, it can be helpful to define individual groups and
concepts. These class or concept definitions are referred to as class/concept descriptions.
• Data Characterization: This refers to the summary of general characteristics or
features of the class that is under the study. The output of the data characterization
can be presented in various forms include pie charts, bar charts, curves,
multidimensional data cubes.
Example: To study the characteristics of software products with sales increased
by 10% in the previous years. To summarize the characteristics of the customer
who spend more than $5000 a year at AllElectronics, the result is general profile
of those customers such as that they are 40-50 years old, employee and have
excellent credit rating.
• Data Discrimination: It compares common features of class which is under study.
It is a comparison of the general features of the target class data objects against the
general features of objects from one or multiple contrasting classes.
Example: we may want to compare two groups of customers those who shop
for computer products regular and those who rarely shop for such products(less
than 3 times a year), the resulting description provides a general comparative
profile of those customers, such as 80% of the customers who frequently
purchased computer products are between 20 and 40 years old and have a
university degree, and 60% of the customers who infrequently buys such
products are either seniors or youth, and have no university degree.

2. Mining Frequent Patterns, Associations, and Correlations: Frequent patterns are nothing
but things that are found to be most common in the data. There are different kinds of
frequencies that can be observed in the dataset.
• Frequent item set: This applies to a number of items that can be seen together
regularly for eg: milk and sugar.
• Frequent Subsequence: This refers to the pattern series that often occurs regularly
such as purchasing a phone followed by a back cover.
• Frequent Substructure: It refers to the different kinds of data structures such as
trees and graphs that may be combined with the itemset or subsequence.

Association Analysis: The process involves uncovering the relationship between data and
deciding the rules of the association. It is a way of discovering the relationship between
various items.
Example: Suppose we want to know which items are frequently purchased together. An
example for such a rule mined from a transactional database is,
buys (X, “computer”) ⇒ buys (X, “software”) [support = 1%, confidence = 50%],
where X is a variable representing a customer. A confidence, or certainty, of 50% means that if
a customer buys a computer, there is a 50% chance that she will buy software as well. A 1%
support means that 1% of all the transactions under analysis show that computer and software
are purchased together. This association rule involves a single attribute or predicate (i.e., buys)
that repeats. Association rules that contain a single predicate are referred to as single-
dimensional association rules.
age (X, “20…29”) ∧ income (X, “40K..49K”) ⇒ buys (X, “laptop”)
[support = 2%, confidence = 60%].
The rule says that 2% are 20 to 29 years old with an income of $40,000 to $49,000 and have
purchased a laptop. There is a 60% probability that a customer in this age and income group
will purchase a laptop. The association involving more than one attribute or predicate can be
referred to as a multidimensional association rule.
Typically, association rules are discarded as uninteresting if they do not satisfy both a
minimum support threshold and a minimum confidence threshold. Additional analysis can be
performed to uncover interesting statistical correlations between associated attribute–value
pairs.

Correlation Analysis: Correlation is a mathematical technique that can show whether and
how strongly the pairs of attributes are related to each other. For example, Highted people tend
to have more weight.

1.4 Interestingness of Patterns

A data mining system has the potential to generate thousands or even millions of patterns, or
rules. then “are all of the patterns interesting?” Typically not—only a small fraction of the
patterns potentially generated would actually be of interest to any given user.

In general, each interestingness measure is associated with a threshold, which may be controlled
by the user. For example, rules that do not satisfy a confidence threshold of, say, 50% can be
considered uninteresting. Rules below the threshold threshold likely reflect noise, exceptions, or
minority cases and are probably of less value.
The second question—―Can a data mining system generate all of the interesting patterns?‖—
refers to the completeness of a data mining algorithm. It is often unrealistic and inefficient for
data mining systems to generate all of the possible patterns. Instead, user-provided constraints
and interestingness measures should be used to focus the search.
The third question—“Can a data mining system generate only interesting atterns?”—is an
optimization problem in data mining. It is highly desirable for data mining systems to generate
only interesting patterns. This would be much more efficient for users and data mining systems,
because neither would have to search through the patterns generated in order to identify the
truly interesting ones. Progress has been made in this direction; however, such optimization
remains a challenging issue in data mining.
The interestingness of a pattern is defined by its ability to be easily understood by humans, its
validity on new or test data with some degree of certainty, its potential usefulness, and its
novelty. A pattern is also interesting if it validates a hypothesis that the user sought to confirm.
The interestingness of a pattern can be identified by subject and objective measures.
1.5 Classification of Data Mining systems
Data mining systems can be categorized according to various criteria, as follows:
1. Classification according to the application adapted: This involves domain-
specific application.For example, the data mining systems can be tailored
accordingly for telecommunications, finance, stock markets, e-mails and so on.
2. Classification according to the type of techniques utilized: This technique
involves the degree of user interaction or the technique of data analysis
involved.For example, machine learning, visualization, pattern recognition, neural
networks, database-oriented or data-warehouse oriented techniques.
3. Classification according to the types of knowledge mined: This is based on
functionalities such as characterization, association, discrimination and correlation,
prediction etc.
4. Classification according to types of databases mined: A database system can be
classified as a ‘type of data’ or ‘use of data’ model or ‘application of data’.

1. Classification according to the application adapted

Data mining experts categorize data mining systems based on the application domain, and
various industries utilize these systems. For instance, e-commerce heavily relies on data
mining to examine customer behavior, preferences, and buying patterns, helping businesses
better serve their clientele.
Similarly, financial firms use data mining to study financial data such as stock prices and
economic indicators, make predictions about market trends, and pinpoint profitable investment
opportunities. The search engine industry also analyzes user queries and search histories using
data mining, improving the relevance of search results.
In the medical sector, researchers analyze large datasets of patient information using data mining
to identify risk factors and create predictive models for diseases. The media sector also takes
advantage of data mining to analyze user engagement, preferences, and consumption patterns,
tailoring content to better appeal to their audience.
We ensure that we tailor the chosen data mining techniques to the distinct challenges and goals
of the domain in question through this classification of DM. Consequently, experts can
streamline their efforts, optimize resource allocation, and maximize the value of the insights
derived from the mined data by using this classification process.
2. Classification according to the type of techniques utilized
Similarly, DM systems use various techniques, including machine learning, mathematical
techniques, and pattern recognition.
Machine Learning algorithms learn patterns and relationships in data without explicit
programming and can classify data, either supervised or unsupervised. Statisticians analyze data
and make inferences about populations by examining data samples using mathematical
techniques.
Pattern recognition is a common technique where algorithms identify patterns in data, such as
handwriting or facial recognition. Data analysts apply methods like decision trees, neural
networks, and support vector machines to achieve this goal. Therefore, users can determine the
optimal approach for their specific data analysis requirements by examining the methods.
Examining the methods enables users to gain more accurate and actionable insights.
3. Classification according to the types of knowledge mined
Identifying the specific type of knowledge that data mining systems are mining is
crucial. This enables these systems to concentrate on extracting relevant information and
patterns, ultimately helping them achieve their intended goals.
Various data mining methods aim to summarize the general features of the input dataset, such as
calculating and visualizing distributions, frequencies of occurrences, and other advanced
statistics.
On the other hand, identifying the characteristics that set one group of data apart from another is
the focus of discrimination.
Data scientists use association rule mining and correlation analysis to identify relationships
between variables in a dataset, revealing items that are frequently purchased together, for
example.
Assigning a label or category to a new observation is another important task in data mining. The
main method of doing so is using similarity to existing labeled observation. Data scientists can
use tools such as decision trees, neural networks, and support vector machines for classification.
Lastly, identifying changes in a dataset over time is the focus of evolution analysis. This could
include changes in customer behavior or stock prices.
4. Classification according to types of databases mined

Relational data is commonly found in relational databases, where structured and organized
information is stored in tables with columns and rows.
Data mining practitioners frequently use tools like SQL to work with this type of data.
Meanwhile, transactional data focuses on events or transactions occurring over time, such as
customer purchases. Practitioners use methods like pattern identification and trend analysis to
gain valuable insights from this data.
Textual data, on the other hand, encompasses unstructured or semi-structured text. They
originate from sources like emails, news articles, and product descriptions. Data mining methods
such as sentiment analysis and topic modeling can be applied to this type of data.
Graph data structures, which represent networks and graphs as data structures with strong
explanatory power, are another important category. Community detection and link prediction are
typical data mining methods used with this data type.
Lastly, big data refers to the processing of extremely large amounts of data that traditional data
mining methods cannot handle. Industries utilize big data technologies like Hadoop and Spark to
manage and analyze these massive datasets. By doing so they ensure that valuable insights can
still be extracted from them.
The type of data and database systems play a significant role in shaping data mining systems.
Consequently, they directly impact the efficiency and effectiveness of extracting valuable
insights from vast amounts of information. In conclusion, various data types and structures
require the use of different algorithms and techniques for successful data mining.
1.6 Data Mining Task Primitives

Data mining task primitives refer to the basic building blocks or components that are used to
construct a data mining process. These primitives are used to represent the most common and
fundamental tasks that are performed during the data mining process. The use of data mining
task primitives can provide a modular and reusable approach, which can improve the
performance, efficiency, and understandability of the data mining process.

The Data Mining Task Primitives are as follows:

1. The set of task relevant data to be mined: It refers to the specific data that is
relevant and necessary for a particular task or analysis being conducted using data
mining techniques. This data may include specific attributes, variables, or
characteristics that are relevant to the task at hand, such as customer demographics,
 sales data, or website usage statistics. The data selected for mining is typically a
subset of the overall data available, as not all data may be necessary or relevant for
the task. For example: Extracting the database name, database tables, and relevant
required attributes from the dataset from the provided input database.
2. Kind of knowledge to be mined: It refers to the type of information or insights that
are being sought through the use of data mining techniques. This describes the data
mining tasks that must be carried out. It includes various tasks such as
classification, clustering, discrimination, characterization, association, and
evolution analysis. For example, It determines the task to be performed on the
relevant data in order to mine useful information such as classification, clustering,
prediction, discrimination, outlier detection, and correlation analysis.
3. Background knowledge to be used in the discovery process: It refers to any prior
information or understanding that is used to guide the data mining process. This can
include domain-specific knowledge, such as industry-specific terminology, trends,
or best practices, as well as knowledge about the data itself. The use of background
knowledge can help to improve the accuracy and relevance of the insights obtained
from the data mining process. For example, The use of background knowledge such
as concept hierarchies, and user beliefs about relationships in data in order to
evaluate and perform more efficiently.
4. Interestingness measures and thresholds for pattern evaluation: It refers to the
methods and criteria used to evaluate the quality and relevance of the patterns or
insights discovered through data mining. Interestingness measures are used to
quantify the degree to which a pattern is considered to be interesting or relevant
based on certain criteria, such as its frequency, confidence, or lift. These measures
are used to identify patterns that are meaningful or relevant to the task. Thresholds
for pattern evaluation, on the other hand, are used to set a minimum level of
interestingness that a pattern must meet in order to be considered for further
analysis or action. For example: Evaluating the interestingness and interestingness
measures such as utility, certainty, and novelty for the data and setting an
appropriate threshold value for the pattern evaluation.
5. Representation for visualizing the discovered pattern: It refers to the methods
used to represent the patterns or insights discovered through data mining in a way
that is easy to understand and interpret. Visualization techniques such as charts,
graphs, and maps are commonly used to represent the data and can help to highlight
important trends, patterns, or relationships within the data. Visualizing the
discovered pattern helps to make the insights obtained from the data mining process
more accessible and understandable to a wider audience, including non-technical
stakeholders. For example Presentation and visualization of discovered pattern data
using various visualization techniques such as barplot, charts, graphs, tables, etc.

Advantages of Data Mining Task Primitives

The use of data mining task primitives has several advantages, including:
1. Modularity: Data mining task primitives provide a modular approach to data
mining, which allows for flexibility and the ability to easily modify or replace
specific steps in the process.
 2. Reusability: Data mining task primitives can be reused across different data mining
projects, which can save time and effort.
3. Standardization: Data mining task primitives provide a standardized approach to
data mining, which can improve the consistency and quality of the data mining
process.
4. Understandability: Data mining task primitives are easy to understand and
communicate, which can improve collaboration and communication among team
members.
5. Improved Performance: Data mining task primitives can improve the performance
of the data mining process by reducing the amount of data that needs to be
processed, and by optimizing the data for specific data mining algorithms.
6. Flexibility: Data mining task primitives can be combined and repeated in various
ways to achieve the goals of the data mining process, making it more adaptable to
the specific needs of the project.
7. Efficient use of resources: Data mining task primitives can help to make more
efficient use of resources, as they allow to perform specific tasks with the right
tools, avoiding unnecessary steps and reducing the time and computational power
needed.

The main challenges of data mining:

1]Data Quality

The quality of data used in data mining is one of the most significant challenges. The
accuracy, completeness, and consistency of the data affect the accuracy of the results
obtained. The data may contain errors, omissions, duplications, or inconsistencies, which
may lead to inaccurate results. Moreover, the data may be incomplete, meaning that some
attributes or values are missing, making it challenging to obtain a complete understanding
of the data. Data quality issues can arise due to a variety of reasons, including data entry
errors, data storage issues, data integration problems, and data transmission errors. To
address these challenges, data mining practitioners must apply data cleaning and data
preprocessing techniques to improve the quality of the data. Data cleaning involves
detecting and correcting errors, while data preprocessing involves transforming the data to
make it suitable for data mining.

2]Data Complexity

Data complexity refers to the vast amounts of data generated by various sources, such as
sensors, social media, and the internet of things (IoT). The complexity of the data may
make it challenging to process, analyze, and understand. In addition, the data may be in
different formats, making it challenging to integrate into a single dataset.
To address this challenge, data mining practitioners use advanced techniques such as
clustering, classification, and association rule mining. These techniques help to identify
patterns and relationships in the data, which can then be used to gain insights and make
predictions.
 3]Data Privacy and Security

Data privacy and security is another significant challenge in data mining. As more data is
collected, stored, and analyzed, the risk of data breaches and cyber-attacks increases. The
data may contain personal, sensitive, or confidential information that must be protected.
Moreover, data privacy regulations such as GDPR, CCPA, and HIPAA impose strict rules
on how data can be collected, used, and shared.
To address this challenge, data mining practitioners must apply data anonymization and
data encryption techniques to protect the privacy and security of the data. Data
anonymization involves removing personally identifiable information (PII) from the data,
while data encryption involves using algorithms to encode the data to make it unreadable to
unauthorized users.

4]Scalability
Data mining algorithms must be scalable to handle large datasets efficiently. As the size of
the dataset increases, the time and computational resources required to perform data mining
operations also increase. Moreover, the algorithms must be able to handle streaming data,
which is generated continuously and must be processed in real-time.
To address this challenge, data mining practitioners use distributed computing frameworks
such as Hadoop and Spark. These frameworks distribute the data and processing across
multiple nodes, making it possible to process large datasets quickly and efficiently.

4]interpretability
Data mining algorithms can produce complex models that are difficult to interpret. This is
because the algorithms use a combination of statistical and mathematical techniques to
identify patterns and relationships in the data. Moreover, the models may not be intuitive,
making it challenging to understand how the model arrived at a particular conclusion.
To address this challenge, data mining practitioners use visualization techniques to
represent the data and the models visually. Visualization makes it easier to understand the
patterns and relationships in the data and to identify the most important variables.

5]Ethics
Data mining raises ethical concerns related to the collection, use, and dissemination of data.
The data may be used to discriminate against certain groups, violate privacy rights, or
perpetuate existing biases. Moreover, data mining algorithms may not be transparent,
making it challenging to detect biases or discrimination.

1.7 Integration of Data mining system with a Data warehouse

Data warehousing and data mining are closely related processes that are used to extract
valuable insights from large amounts of data.
The data warehouse process is an iterative process that is repeated as new data is added to the
warehouse. It is a crucial step for data mining process, as it allows for the storage, management
and organization of large amount of data which is needed to be mined. Data mining process
can be applied to the data in the data warehouse to uncover hidden patterns, relationships, and
insights that can be used to make informed business decisions.
Data Warehouses are information gathered from multiple sources and saved under a schema
that is living on the identical site. It is made with the aid of diverse techniques, inclusive of the
following processes:

1. Data Cleanup: Data cleaning is the way of preparing statistics for analysis with the help of
getting rid of or enhancing incorrect, incomplete, irrelevant, duplicate, or irregularly formatted
information. This fact is no longer necessary or beneficial if you want to research the statistics
because it is able to interrupt the technique or supply false results.
2. Data Integration: Data integration is the process of integrating data from different assets
into a unified view. The integration method starts with a startup and includes steps that include
refinement, ETL mapping, and conversion. Data integration ultimately permits analytics tools
to create powerful and cheap enterprise intelligence. In a typical data integration procedure, the
client sends a request for information to the master server. The master server prepares the vital
records for internal and external assets. Extracts facts from sources and then integrates them
into a single information set. It is then returned to the client for use.

3. Data Transformation: The process of converting information from one layout or shape to
another is referred to as data transformation. Data transformation is critical for features that
include data integration and information management. Data transformation has several
capabilities: you can change the record types based on the needs of your project; enrich or
aggregate the records by removing invalid or duplicate data. Generally, the technique consists
of two stages.
In the first step, you should:
• Perform an information search that identifies assets and data types.
• Determine the structure and information changes that occur.
• Mapping data to discover how character fields are mapped, edited, inserted, filtered,
and stored.
In the second step, you must:
• Extract data from the original source. The size of the supply can range from a
connected tool to a dependable useful resource along with a database or streaming
resources, including telemetry or logging files from clients who use your web
application.
• Send data to the target site.
• The target may be a database or a data warehouse that manages structured and
unstructured records.
4. Loading Data: Data loading is the process of copying and loading data from a report,
folder, or application to a database or similar utility. This is usually done via copying digital
data from the source and pasting or loading the records into a data warehouse or processing
tool. Data-loading is used in data extraction and loading methods. Typically, such information
is loaded in a different format than the original location of the source.

5. Data Refreshing: In this process, the data stored in the warehouse is periodically refreshed
so that it maintains its integrity. A data warehouse is a model of multidimensional data
structures that are known as “Data Cubes” in which every dimension represents an attribute or
different set of attributes in the schema of the data and each cell is used to store the value. Data
is gathered from various sources such as hospitals, banks, organizations, and many more and
goes through a process called ETL (Extract, Transform, Load).
• Extract: This process reads the data from the database of various sources.
• Transform: It transforms the data stored inside the databases into data cubes so that
it can be loaded into the warehouse.
• Load: It is a process of writing the transformed data into the data warehouse.

This process can be seen in the illustration below:

1.8 Major issues in Data Mining–Data Preprocessing.

Data quality: Ensuring data quality in a data warehouse is a major challenge. The data coming
from various sources may have inconsistencies, duplications, and inaccuracies, which can
affect the overall quality of the data in the warehouse.
Data integration: Integrating data from various sources into a data warehouse can be
challenging, especially when dealing with data that is structured differently or has different
formats.
Data consistency: Maintaining data consistency across various data sources and over time is a
challenge. Changes in the source systems can affect the consistency of the data in the
warehouse.
Data governance: Managing the access, use, and security of the data in the warehouse is
another challenge. Ensuring compliance with legal and regulatory requirements can also be
challenging.
Performance: Ensuring that the data warehouse performs efficiently and delivers fast query
response times can be a challenge, particularly as the volume of data increases over time.
Data modeling: Designing an effective data model that reflects the needs of the organization
and optimizes query performance can be a challenge.
Data security: Ensuring the security of the data in the warehouse is a critical challenge,
particularly as the data warehouse contains sensitive information.
Resource allocation: Building and maintaining a data warehouse requires significant
resources, including skilled personnel, hardware, and software, which can be a challenge to
allocate and manage effectively.