Chapter 2: Semiconductors and

Semiconducting Devices

2.1 Introduction
When we think of electronic materials, the first property that comes to mind is Resistance.
Depending upon the value of Resistance materials falls into 3 categories.
1. Conductors
2. Semiconductor
3. Insulator
The unit of resistance is Ohm (Ω) and is related to the applied voltage and current by Ohm’s
law.

V = IR (2.1)

Where,
V is the applied voltage (Volts), I is the current (Amperes) and R is the resistance.
Resistance depends on the sample dimensions. We define another parameter Resistivity (ρ)
which removes the dimensional dependency.
Resistivity and Resistance are related as

RA
ρ= (2.2)
l
Where,
ρ is the Resistivity of the material, R is Resistance, A is Area of Cross Section, l is Length.
The unit of resistivity is Ω.m or Ω.cm. Conductivity σ is also one of an important charac-
teristics of electronic materials. It is the reciprocal of resistance.

1
σ= (2.3)
ρ
The unit of Conductivity is Ω−1 .m−1

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Chapter 2 2.2. Semiconductor

Lets compare the Resistivity values of some common material

Table 2.1: Resistivity (ρ.m) Values of some common materials

Conductors Semiconductor Insulator

Material Resistivity Material Resistivity Material Resistivity

Copper 15.7 × 10−9 Germanium 10−3 ∼ 10 Wood 103 ∼ 104

Gold 22.8 × 10−9 Silicon 0.1 ∼ 103 Water 105

Platinum 98 × 10−9 Zinc Oxide 10−2 ∼ 10−4 Glass 1010 ∼ 1014

Silver 14.6 × 10−9 Gallium Arsenide 10−6 ∼ 10−2 Quartz 1017

So, what we essentially see is a wide range of resistivity depending upon whether it’s a metal
or a semiconductor or an insulator.

2.2 Semiconductor
Semiconductor are the type of material, whose resistivity value lies in between Conductors
and Insulators. Semiconductors behave as insulator at 0K. However at room temperature,
it shows some conductivity (less compared to conductors). Silicon is one of the commonly
used Semiconductor in Microelectronic industry due to its abundance as well as its tunable
electric properties. Example of some popular and most used semiconductors are Germanium,
Gallium Arsenide, Zinc Oxide.

2.3 Energy Bands in Conductors

Lets consider the example of Sodium (Na). The atomic number is 11 with electronic configu-
ration 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1 . The inner shell electrons from 1s, 2s and 2p are normally not involved
in bond formation. Hence for bond formation, we have 3s shell with 1 electron.If, N number
of Na atoms come together there are N 3s atomic orbitals (AOs) and these AOs start to mix
and form N molecular orbitals (MOs). Each of these MOs can take 2 electrons (of opposite
spins) so that there are total 2N energy states available for electrons to occupy. If we take
23gm of Sodium, there will be approximately 6.023 × 1023 (Avogadro’s Number) number
of sodium atoms. This much number of MOs close together can be considered as
continuous and energy bands are obtained. This band is called the valence band

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Chapter 2 2.3. Energy Bands in Conductors

(VB) since it is obtained from the outermost shell. In the case of Na the band formed from
the outer 3s levels is half full since there are a total of 2N energy states and only N electrons.
In case of Magnesium (12), there are 2 electrons in 3s Shell. That means 2N number of
energy states with 2N number of electrons so that the band is completely filled. However Mg
has empty 3p shell which are very close to 3s shell and they overlaps as shown in Figure 2.1.
Because of this overlap there are empty states available for conduction. The band formed by
the empty 2p shell as the conduction band (CB). In metals, the VB and CB overlap to
give a continuous band of filled and empty states. The separation between the filled states
and the empty states is called the Fermi energy and is denoted by EF . Another way of
defining the Fermi energy is that this is the highest filled state in a metal at 0
K. The energy required to remove an electron from the Fermi level to vacuum level (where
the electron is free of the influence of the metal) is called the work function.

Figure 2.1: Energy band in a Magnesium formed through overlap of individual bands

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Chapter 2 2.4. Energy Bands in Semiconductors

2.4 Energy Bands in Semiconductors

Si has an atomic number of 14 and the electronic configuration is 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p2 and is
shown schematically in figure 2.2. The 3s2 3p2 forms the outer shell. The 3s and 3p orbitals in
Si are close in energy and can hybridize to form 4 sp3 orbitals. In the case of Si, the hybrid
orbitals interact the same way that atomic orbitals interact in metals. Consider a bond
formed between 2 sp3 hybrid orbitals (1 from each Si atom). The two orbitals can interact
to form a bonding (σ) and anti-bonding (σ ∗ ) orbital. Since each Si atom will contribute one
electron to the bond there will be a total of 2 electrons which will both go to the bonding
orbital. Thus, each Si atom can form a bond with 4 other Si atoms and in all cases the
bonding orbital (σ) will be full.

Figure 2.2: Electronic Configuration of Silicon

When the bonding orbitals interact they will form an energy band, called valence band
(VB). This valence band will be completely full since the bonding orbital is full. Similarly,
the anti-bonding orbitals can interact to form an energy band, called conduction band
(CB). This will be completely empty. Unlike metals, the VB and CB in a semiconductor is
separated by a forbidden energy gap, this is called band gap.
In the case of Si, the band gap (Eg ) has a value of 1.11 eV at room temperature (300 K).
The same argument for formation of a band gap (filled valence band and empty CB with a
forbidden energy gap) can be extended to other semiconductors and insulators. The difference
between them is related to the magnitude of Eg . Insulators have a band gap greater than 3
eV while semiconductors have band gap less than 3 eV.

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Chapter 2 2.5. Some Important concepts

Figure 2.3: (a) Si atom with 4 electrons in outer shell form (b) 4 sp3 hybrid orbitals. (c)
The hybrid orbitals form σ and σ ∗ orbitals. (d) These orbitals overlap in a solid to form the
VB and CB.

Figure 2.4: Energy band gap in (a) Insulator, (b) Semiconductor and (c) Conductor

Table 2.2 shows Energy gap of some materials. Si, Ge, GaAs, CdS are semiconductors as
their Eg is less than 3 eV. ZnO has a band gap of 3.37 eV which is called as wide band gap
Semiconductor. On the other hand, Al2 O3 and SiO2 are insulators as their Eg value is much
greater than 3 eV.

2.5 Some Important concepts

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Chapter 2 2.5. Some Important concepts

Table 2.2: Band gap values of some Semiconducting material

Material Band gap (eV)

Si 1.11
Ge 0.67
GaAs 1.43
CdS 2.42
ZnO 3.37
Al2 O3 7.0
SiO2 9.0

2.5.1 Holes

In Semiconductors, VB and the CB are separated by a Energy gap. At room temperature,

a few of electrons from VB breaks the covalent bonds and go to CB and become delocalized
(Figure 2.6). During this process, a vacancy is created in VB which is called as Holes,
represented by h or h+ . The hole can move in the valence band by electron hopping from
one bond to another and thus can be said to be delocalized. Both electrons in CB and
holes in VB contribute to electrical conductivity of semiconductor. Hole is nothing but a
mathematical construct that we used to denote the absence of electrons in the valence band.

2.5.2 Effective Mass

Lets consider the motion of free electron in the presence of an external electric field. The
electric field goes from positive to negative, so that the electrons travel in the direction
opposite to the field. The acceleration of the e− (ae )will be given by

eEx
ae = (2.4)
me
Where, Ex is the electric field and me is the rest mass of the electron.
However, the motion of electron in solid is a little bit complicated. In that case, the electron
P
will be influenced by the internal field of all atoms. Let Fint represent the sum of the
interaction of the electron with the atoms in the solid. Then the acceleration of the electron,
given by using equation 2.5

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Chapter 2 2.6. Classification of Semiconductor

P
eEx + Fint
ae = (2.5)
me
Equation 2.5 can be simplified by introducing another parameter called as Effective Mass
(m∗e ) so that

eEx
ae = (2.6)
m∗e
The effective mass represents the effect of all the internal forces on the motion of the elec-
tron in the conduction band. Similarly, we can define an effective mass (m∗h ), for the hole
movement in the valence band.

Table 2.3: Effective Mass of some materials

Metals

m∗e Cu Ag Au
me
1.01 0.99 1.10

Semiconductor

m∗e Si Ge GaAs ZnO

me
1.09 0.55 0.067 0.29

m∗h
1.15 0.37 0.45 1.21
mh

For metals like Cu, Ag, or Au the valence electrons are nearly free because they are delocalized
and can move easily in the solid. In such cases the effective masses are nearly equal to the rest
mass of the electron. In the case of semiconductors, where there is substantial interaction
between the electrons in the bonds and the lattice there is a finite deviation. Some typical
values of effective masses are tabulated in table 2.3.

2.6 Classification of Semiconductor

There are different ways of classifying semiconductors depending on the property being mea-
sured.

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Chapter 2 2.6. Classification of Semiconductor

2.6.1 Based on Position of element in Periodic table

Figure 2.5: Periodic table with specific highlight to Group IVA elements

1. Elemental Semiconductors
2. Compound Semiconductors
Elemental semiconductors (Si and Ge) belong to group IVA of the periodic table Figure 2.5.
Carbon (C) which is on top of the group is an insulator (diamond) with Eg of 5.5 eV while
Sn and Pb are metals.
Compound semiconductors can be formed by combining elements of groups IIIA and VA -
the III-Vs. Examples include GaAs, GaP, GaN, InSb. AlN is also a III-V but its band gap
is around 6.2 eV making it an insulator. Similarly II-VI compound semiconductors can be
formed, examples include ZnO, ZnS, CdSe, CdTe.

2.6.2 Based on band gap

Another way of classifying semiconductors based on their band structure is

1. Direct band gap Semiconductors
2. Indirect band gap Semiconductors

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Chapter 2 2.6. Classification of Semiconductor

Figure 2.6: Band picture of a semiconductor

Figure 2.6 shows Band picture of a semiconductor showing the full valence band and empty
CB. The gap between these is called the band gap. Electrons from the VB can be excited
to the CB by either thermal excitation or by optical absorption. When the electron
returns to the VB the energy is released either as heat or as photons. In direct band gap
semiconductors the dominant mechanism by which the energy is released (in the absence of
defects) is by photons(electromagnetic radiation), while in indirect band gap semiconductors
the energy is released by phonons (heat). Direct band gap semiconductors are useful for opto
electronic devices like LEDs, and lasers.

Figure 2.7: Energy vs Wave Vector diagram of (a) Direct Band gap, (b) Indirect Band
gap Semiconductor

The difference between direct and indirect band gap semiconductors is related to their band
→
−
structure. Electrons in solids have a wave like character associated with a wave vector k .

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Chapter 2 2.6. Classification of Semiconductor

In Indirect band gap semiconductor, the VB maximum and the CB minimum are not on top
of each other. Si, Ge are indirect band gap materials. Here the transition of electron from
VB to CB is assisted by a phonon (Quantization of Lattice vibration).
In a direct band gap semiconductor, on the other hand, the top of the VB and bottom of
the CB lie on top of each other. GaAs, InAs, InGaAs, GaN.

2.6.3 Based on doping

Semiconductors can further be classified under the two following category if the purity is
being considered.
1. Intrinsic Semiconductor (Pure)
2. Extrinsic Semiconductor (Impure)

2.6.3.1 Intrinsic Semiconductor

These are the pure semiconductors which are single crystals with no impurity and defects.
Lets discuss the example of Silicon which is mostly use in microelectronic industries. The elec-
tronic configuration, band formation, sp3 hybridization are already discussed in Section 2.4.

In Figure 2.8 the bottom of valence band is given 0, Ev

denotes the top of the valance band and Ec denotes
the bottom of the conduction band. The difference
between the top of the valence band and the bottom
of the conduction band is the band gap (Eg ). The
value of Eg for silicon is 1.17 eV and 1.10 eV at 0K
and room temperature, respectively.
At room temperature, due to thermal excitation,
there are electrons in the conduction band and holes
Figure 2.8: Energy Band gap in
in the valence band and these electrons and holes are Silicon
delocalized and are free to move through the solid.
Both electrons and holes accounts for the conductivity in semiconductor. In semiconductors,
the electrical conductivity mainly depends on two important factors. (1) The concentration
of e− and h+ , (2) How much distance the e− and h+ are traveling before they are scattered
due to collision.

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Chapter 2 2.6. Classification of Semiconductor

The expression for Conductivity (σ) in semiconductor is given by

σ = neµe + peµh (2.7)

Here n and p are the concentration of e− and h+ in CB and VB, respectively. In intrinsic
semiconductors n = p = ni (Intrinsic Carrier Concentration). Hence the expression for σ can
be rewritten as

σ = ni e(µe + µh ) (2.8)

For Semiconductors, there is a relation which connects the electron concentration, hole con-
centration and intrinsic carrier concentration, called as Law of mass action and is given
by

n2i = n × p (2.9)

Furthermore, µe and µh are the electron and hole mobility and are defined as

eτe eτh
µe = µh =
m∗e m∗h
Here τe and τh are the mean time between two scattering event of electrons and holes. In one
way of putting all this together is higher the scattering time, higher the mobilities, means
higher the conductivity. The parameters m∗e and m∗h are called the effective mass of electron
and holes, respectively.
For Si at Room temperature,
ni = 1 × 1016 m−3 or 1 ×1010 cm3 ,
µe = 1350 cm2 V−1 s−1 ,
µh = 450 cm2 V−1 s−1
Substituting all values in equation 2.8, we get Conductivity σ = 2.9 × 10−6 Ω−1 cm−1 . and
1
Resistivity ρ = = 3.5 × 105 Ω.cm. If we compare this with the resistivity of Cu (15.7 ×
σ
10−7 Ω.cm), Si has resistivity value 12 order higher than copper. This implies, pure silicon
are very poor conductors.
Now one way to increase the conductivity of semiconductor is to increase the temperature
which will create more number of carriers. It has been calculated that with increasing the

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Chapter 2 2.6. Classification of Semiconductor

temperature from 300K to 600K, there is an increase in conductivity of Si of about 5 order of

magnitude. However, most of our electronic devices we are using works at room temperature
or near to room temperature. So we opt for a different method to increase the conductivity
of Silicon.

2.6.4 Extrinsic Semiconductor

Extrinsic semiconductor are obtained by adding small amount of impurities in intrinsic semi-
conductor. Addition of these impurities preferentially increase the carriers of any one type
(either e− or h+ ). These impurities are called as dopants which are controlled very precisely
during the manufacturing process and are also used in very small amount so that the original
silicon lattice will not be disturbed.
Depending the type of dopants used, extrinsic semiconductors can be of two type
1. n-type Semiconductor
2. p-type Semiconductor

2.6.4.1 n-type Semiconductor

Figure 2.9: n-type Semiconductor

When intrinsic semiconductors are doped with pentavalent material from Group V of periodic
table, we get n-type semiconductor. In this case we preferentially increase the number of
electron. Examples of such material are phosphorous, arsenic, antimony.

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Chapter 2 2.6. Classification of Semiconductor

Phosphorous has 5 electrons, four of these electrons can easily form a bond with silicon
and that lives behind one extra electron. Now this extra electron that is available can be
delocalized and can be made available for conduction. So by adding phosphorous atoms, for
each phosphorous atom we have created one extra electron in the system. From mathematical
calculation, it has been observed that, 45 milli electron Volts (meV) amount of energy is
required to ionize the extra electron to conduction band which is close to thermal energy at
room temperature (kT = 25 meV).
For Arsenic the ionization energy is around 54 meV and for antimony, it is around 39 meV,
which are close to thermal energy at room temperature. When a small amount of arsenic is
doped in Silicon, they form localized states because the Arsenic atoms don’t come in contact
with each other. Now these atoms form a band very close to conduction band (CB) as shown
in figure 2.9. Another name for a pentavalent impurity or an n-type impurity is called donors
because they have 1 extra electron which they donate.
Let ND be the concentration of donor impurity. Each atom will give one electron and at
room temperature all the electrons are ionized. This means, electron concentration (n) =
ND  intrinsic carrier concentration (ni ). Using Law of mass action, the hole concentration
can be calculated as

n2i n2
p= ≈ i (2.10)
n ND

2.6.4.2 p-type Semiconductor

When intrinsic semiconductors are doped with Group III element of periodic table, p-type
semiconductors are obtained. Examples of such elements include boron, aluminum, gallium
and so on. When Boron (B) is added in a very small amount in pure Silicon, three electron
of Boron form 3 bond with 3 Si atoms. But this silicon atom has one extra electron. In
order to form the bond with this silicon atom, an electron from the valence band is excited
to the boron level leaving a hole behind. A similar type of calculation can be done to find
the energy required to ionize electrons from valance band to Boron level. IT has been found
that, the required energy are 45 meV for Boron, 57 meV for Aluminum and 72 meV for
Gallium, which are again close to the thermal energy at room temperature (kT). Another
name for a triavalent impurity or an p-type impurity is called acceptor because they can
accept 1 electron.

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Chapter 2 2.6. Classification of Semiconductor

Figure 2.10: p-type Semiconductor

If NA is the acceptor concentration, each Boron atom will give one hole. Hence concentration
of holes p = NA  ni . and from law of mass action,

n2i n2
n= ≈ i (2.11)
p NA
Now, lets calculate, how the conductivity value has increased as a result of addition of the
tri and pentavalent impurities.
For intrinsic Si, ni = 1 × 1010 cm−3 . Lets add Arsenic with concentration (ND ) 1015 cm−3 .
Using equation 2.10, the concentration of holes will be

n2i 1020
p= = 15 = 105
ND 10
We have a concentration of electrons which is 1015 and concentration of holes which is just
105 . So, p is 1010 orders of magnitude less than n and it is much less than ni .
Lets calculate conductivity (σ) by using equation 2.7

σ = neµe + peµh

In this case, n  p, we can neglect the second term. Substituting the values of n = ND =
1015 cm−3 and µe = 1350 cm2 V−1 s−1 , we can get

σ = 1015 × (1.6 × 10−19 ) × 1350 = 0.216 Ω−1 cm−1

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Chapter 2 2.7. Density of State (DOS)

So, we started out with intrinsic silicon which has a conductivity of around 10−6 . We added
1015 arsenic atoms and we found that your conductivity has increased by more than 5 orders
of magnitude. This is the reason why we use extrinsic conductors. It is possible to increase
the conductivity by orders of magnitude by adding these dopants whether they are n-type
dopants or p-type dopants.
Lets find the concentration of Arsenic atoms in Silicon lattice. For that first lets estimate
the number of silicon atom (NSi ) per cm3 which is the ratio of density of silicon to its atomic
weight multiplied by Avogadro’s Number (NA )

ρSi × NA 2.329
NSi = = × (6.023 × 1023 ) ≈ 5 × 1022
Atomic Weight of Silicon 28.085
1015
No concentration of dopants will be = 20 × 10−9 i.e. 20 parts per billion. By adding
5 × 1022
a really small amount of arsenic, so much small that it is of the order of parts per billion, we
have increase the conductivity by more than 5 orders of magnitude.

2.7 Density of State (DOS)

It is defined as total number of available electronic states per unit energy range per unit
volume. It is denoted as z(E). The density of states in the conduction band tells us how
many states are there for electrons to occupy and for valence band its the density of states
of holes. Its units are J−1 m−3 or eV−1 cm−3 .

Lets derive an expression for DOS in terms of Energy. We take a solid in the form of a cube
of length L and we assume that the potential inside the Cube is 0.
In the case of a solid in uniform potential and 3 dimensions, the energy E is given as

h2
E= (n2 + n2y + n2z )
8mL2 x

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Chapter 2 2.7. Density of State (DOS)

Here n2x , n2y , n2z are quantum numbers and are positive integers. We can write n2 = n2x +n2y +n2z ,
which gives

h2 n2
E= (2.12)
8mL2
From small value of n2x , n2y , n2z , energy level are discrete. However for large value, they are
continuous and we can represent them by taking a 3D axis with the quantum numbers along
all 3 axis. In this particular case, n represents the radius of a sphere.

The total number of states, whose energy less than n will be the volume of the sphere of
radius n. As sphere can have both positive and negative value, but the quantum number can
take only positive numbers, we take only one part of sphere lying in 1st quadrant.
Hence total number of states =

 
1 4 3 1
S(n) = × πn = πn3
8 3 6
Now each energy state can take two electron with one up spin and one down spin. So the
total number of states
1 3 πn3
S (n) = 2 × πn =
6 3
From equation 2.12, the value of n will be
r
8mEL2
n= (2.13)
h2

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Chapter 2 2.8. Fermi Distribution Function

Lets substitute the value of n in S(n), we get

3
π 3 L
S(E) = (8mE) 2 3 (2.14)
3 h
Number of states per unit volume Sv (E) will be

S(E) π 3
Sv (E) = 3
= 3 (8mE) 2 (2.15)
L 3h
Now as per definition DOS z(E) is differential of total number os state in energy range dE.

dsv (E) √  m  32 √
z(E) = = 8π 2 2 E (2.16)
dE h
Replacing the mass with mass of electron (me ) we obtain the expression for DOS

dsv (E) √  me  32 √
z(E) = = 8π 2 E (2.17)
dE h2
Rewriting equation 2.17 as

4π 3 √
z(E) = (2m e ) 2 E dE (2.18)
h3
Equation 2.17 shows the expression for DOS z(E) as a function of energy E. Interestingly,
z(E) is independent of temperature. It means DOS will tell us what are the state available
for electron to occupy but it don’t give any information regarding weather the electrons will
occupy those states or not. For that we will look the occupation probability of electrons.

2.8 Fermi Distribution Function

Electrons are fermions which have half integral spin. They obey Fermi Dirac statistics. It is
denoted as f(E) and is given by

1
f (E) =   (2.19)
E
1 + A exp
kβ T
Here A is constant which depends on Fermi Energy Ef and is given by

 
−Ef
A = exp
kβ T

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Chapter 2 2.8. Fermi Distribution Function

Substituting the value of A gives rise to

1
f (E) =   (2.20)
E − Ef
1 + exp
kβ T

Equation 2.20 represents the Fermi Dirac (FD) statistics which tells us the probability of
occupation of a given energy state as a function of a temperature. Lets discuss the following
cases to understand the significance of FD function.

Figure 2.11: Fermi Function at 0K Figure 2.12: Fermi Function at nonezero

temperature

At temperature T = 0K 
1, If E < Ef

f (E)
0, If E > Ef


This means at 0 kelvin all the energy states below the Fermi energy are occupied and all
energy state above Ef are unoccupied. At 0 kelvin f(E) is just a delta function.. Also at any
1
temperature T, for E = Ef ; f(E) =
2
Figure 2.12 shows the plot of Fermi Dirac distribution f(E) taken along Y axis and Energy (E)
along X axis. If we increase the temperature some of the states above Ef will get populated.
If we further increase the temperature (T2 ), f(E) will increase. However, irrespective of
temperature, probability at Fermi energy Ef will always be half.

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Chapter 2 2.9. Carrier Concentration in Intrinsic Semiconductor

2.9 Carrier Concentration in Intrinsic Semiconductor

Carrier concentration generally represent the number of electron in conduction band (CB)
per unit volume (n-type) or number of holes in valance band (VB) per unit volume of the
material (p-type)

2.9.1 Electron Concentration in Conduction Band

Let dn is the number of electron available between energy E and E + dE in CB. Mathemat-
ically
dn = z(E)f (E)dE (2.21)

Where, z(E) dE is Density of States (DOS) in the energy interval E and E + dE and f(E) is
the Fermi-Dirac Distribution Function.
Number of electron in CB is given by

Z∞
n= Z(E)f (E)dE (2.22)
Ec

Where, Ec is energy corresponding to bottom of CB and because the probability of electron

occupying in the upper level of CB reduced to Zero at infinity.
Expression for DOS is given by

4π 3 1
Z(E)dE = 3
(2m∗e ) /2 E /2 dE
h

Electrons occupying energy state E in Conduction band possesses kinetic energy (E-EC ). So
we replace E by (E-EC )

4π ∗ 3 /2 1/
z(E)dE = (2me ) (E − EC ) 2
dE (2.23)
h3
Probability of electron occupying an energy state Ef is given by Fermi Distribution Function.

1
f (E) =   (2.24)
E − Ef
1 + exp
kβ T
Using equation 2.23 and 2.24 in 2.22 we get

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Chapter 2 2.9. Carrier Concentration in Intrinsic Semiconductor

Z∞ 1
4π ∗ 3 /2 (E − EC ) /2
n= (2me)   dE
h3 E − Ef
Ec exp +1
kβ T
Near room temperature,

   
E − Ef E − Ef
1 + exp ≈ exp
kβ T kβ T
Hence,

Z∞   
4π 3 1/ E − Ef
n = 3 (2m∗e ) /2 (E − EC ) 2
exp − dE
h kβ T
EC

  Z∞   
4π 3 Ef − EC 1/ E − EC
n = 3 (2m∗e ) /2 exp (E − EC ) 2
exp − dE
h kβ T kβ T
Ec

To solve the integration, let us put

 
E − EC
= x ⇒ dE = kβ T dx
kβ T

  Z∞
4π 3 Ef − EC 1/ 1/
⇒ n = 3 (2m∗e ) /2 exp (x) 2
(kβ T ) 2
e−x (kβ T ) dx
h kβ T
0

  Z∞
4π 3 Ef − EC 1/
⇒ n = 3 (2m∗e kβ T ) /2 exp (x) 2
e−x dx
h kβ T
0

Now on solving the above integral, we get

Z∞  π 1 /2
1/
2 −x
(x) e dx =
4
0

 √
4π 3 Ef − EC π
⇒ n = 3 (2m∗e kβ T ) /2 exp
h kβ T 2
Hence the electron concentration in CB will be

3/2
2πm∗e kβ T
  
Ef − EC
n=2 exp (2.25)
h2 kβ T

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Chapter 2 2.9. Carrier Concentration in Intrinsic Semiconductor

Equation2.25 can be written in a simplified form as

 
Ef − EC
n = NC exp (2.26)
kβ T

Where 3/2
2πm∗e kβ T

NC = 2
h2

2.9.2 Hole Concentration in Valance Band

Let dp is the number of holes in energy interval E and E + dE in the valance Band (VB).

dp = z(E)(1 − f (E))dE (2.27)

As f(E) is probability of electron occupancy, so the hole occupancy will be given by 1-f(E)

1
1 − f (E) = 1 −  
E−E
1 + exp kβ T f
 
E−Ef
1 + exp kβ T − 1
⇒ 1 − f (E) =  
E−E
1 + exp kβ T f

In valance band E < Ef , so the exponential terms in denominator can be neglected as

compared to unity.  
E − Ef
1 − f (E) = exp (2.28)
kβ T
Now the density of holes in VB is

4π 3 1
z(E)dE = 3
(2m∗h ) /2 E /2 dE
h
Since Ev – E is kinetic energy of hole in valance band the top of VB

4π 3 1
z(E)dE = 3
(2m∗h ) /2 (Ev − E) /2 dE (2.29)
h

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Chapter 2 2.9. Carrier Concentration in Intrinsic Semiconductor

Substituting equation 2.27 and 2.28 in 2.26, we get

ZEv  
4π 3 1 E − Ef
⇒p= 3
(2m∗h ) /2 (Ev − E) /2 exp dE
h kβ T
−∞
  ZEv  
4π 3 −Ef 1/ E
⇒ P = 3 (2m∗h ) /2 exp (Ev − E) 2
exp dE
h kβ T kβ T
−∞
  ZEv  
4π 3 Ev − Ef 1/ E − Ev
⇒ P = 3 (2m∗h ) /2 exp (Ev − E) 2
exp dE
h kβ T kβ T
−∞

To solve the integral,  

Ev − E
=x ⇒ dE = −kβ T dx
kβ T

  Z0
4π 3 Ev − EF 1/ 1/
⇒ p = 3 (2m∗h ) /2 exp (x) 2
(kβ T ) 2
e−x (−kβ T ) dx
h kβ T
∞

   1
4π 3 Ev − EF π /2
⇒ p = 3 (2mh ∗ kβ T ) /2 exp
h kβ T 4
Hence the hole concentration in VB will be

3/2
2πm∗h kβ T
  
Ev − Ef
p=2 exp (2.30)
h2 kβ T

Equation 2.29 can be written in a simplified form as

 
Ev − Ef
p = NV exp (2.31)
kβ T

Where 3/2
2πm∗h kβ T

NV = 2
h2
In intrinsic semiconductors, n = p = ni . Using law of mass action, value of intrinsic carrier
concentration can be calculated as,

√
ni = n×p
 
p −Eg
ni = NC NV exp (2.32)
2kβ T

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Chapter 2 2.10. Position of Fermi Level

2.10 Position of Fermi Level

2.10.1 Intrinsic Semiconductor

The position of Fermi Energy in intrinsic semiconductors Ef i can be calculated by equating

2.25 and 2.30

m∗e
 
Eg 3
Ef i = EV + − kβ T ln (2.33)
2 4 m∗h

At Room temperature for Silicon, Eg = 1.10 eV, m∗e = 1.08 me and m∗h = 0.60 me . Substi-
tuting all the values in above equation, we get

Ef i = EV + 0.54eV ⇒ Ef i − EV = 0.54eV (2.34)

Equation 2.34 indicates, at room temperature, Fermi Energy lies near to the center of band
gap.

2.10.2 Extrinsic Semiconductor

In extrinsic semiconductor the concentration of e− and h+ are different as discussed in section

2.6.4. In a n-type semiconductor,n is much larger than p; and for p-type semiconductor, p
is much larger than n. So, in order to compensate for this difference in n and p, the Fermi
level will also shift from the middle.
Figure 2.13 shows the position of fermi energy levels in extrinsic semiconductors. From
mathematical calculated, it has been found that for n type impurity the Fermi level (Ef n )
shift above the intrinsic fermi level (Ef i ) but below the donor level (ED ) and for p-type
impurity fermi level (Ef p ) it is located below the intrinsic level (Ef i ) but above the acceptor
level (EA ) as shown in figure 2.13 (a) and (b) respectively.

2.11 Hall Effect

When a current carrying semiconductor is placed in a transverse magnetic field, a voltage
is induced in the direction perpendicular to both current and magnetic field. Due to the
action of Lorentz force, the path of electrons curved so that moving charges accumulate on

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Chapter 2 2.11. Hall Effect

Figure 2.13: Position of Fermi Energy in (a) n-type semiconductor (b) p-type
semiconductor

one face of the material. This leaves equal and opposite charges exposed on the other face.
The separation of charge establishes an electric field that opposes the migration of further
charge, so a steady electrical potential builds up for as long as the current is flowing.

Figure 2.14: Hall Effect

Lets take a semiconducting sample of width (w) and thickness (t). Current I is passing
through the sample with magnetic field perpendicular to its direction.
Now the current through the semiconductor will be

I = nAevd

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Chapter 2 2.11. Hall Effect

And Current density Jx will be

I Jx
Jx = = nevd ⇒ vd = (2.35)
A ne
The electric force on the charge carriers will be,

 
VH
FE = eEH = e (2.36)
w
And Lorentz force on electron will be,

→
−
FL = e(→
−
vd × B ) = evd B sin 90◦ = evd B

Substituting value of vd from equation 2.35, we get

Jx Jx B
FL = eB = (2.37)
ne n
Under equilibrium condition, the force due to electric component will counter balance that
of the magnetic force. Equating 2.36 and 2.37, we get

eVH Jx B wBJx
= ⇒ VH = (2.38)
w n ne
Hall coefficient RH is defined as

EH VH /w
RH = = (2.39)
Jx B Jx B
Substituting value of VH from equation 2.38 in 2.39, we get

wBJx 1
RH = ×
ne wJx B
1
RH = (2.40)
ne
From equation, 2.38,

wBJx wB(I/A) B.I

VH = = =
ne ne net
Substituting equation 2.40 in the above, we get

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Chapter 2 2.12. Semiconducting Devices

RH B.I
VH =
t

VH t
RH = (2.41)
IB
From Equation 2.40 and 2.41, value of RH , gives a lot of information about the semiconductor.
It can be used to calculate the carrier concentration (n) using equation 2.40. The sign of RH
tells us about the type of semiconductor being used. for a p-type semiconductor RH value
is positive and is negative for a n-type semiconductor. Furthermore, The principle of Hall
effect is used in Hall probes which is used to measure unknown magnetic field.

2.12 Semiconducting Devices

Semiconducting devices are the backbone of microelectronic industry. These devices rely
on the electronic properties of Semiconductors such as Si, Ge, GaAS. Transistors, junction
diodes, LED, solar cells, optoelectronic devices are some common semiconducting devices we
are using these days. In this section, we will discuss working mechanism of three semicon-
ducting devices
1. p-n junction diode
2. Light Emitting Diode
3. Solar Cell

2.13 p-n junction diode

When a semiconducting material is doped with impurity in such a way that one side has
large number of acceptor impurity and other side has large number of donor impurity, we
obtain a p-n junction. Physical structure of a p-n junction is shown in figure 2.15. One way
of doing this is to begin with an intrinsic semiconductor and is doped with donor impurity to
make it a n-type semiconductor. From one side, acceptor impurity will be diffused in higher
concentration to make that side p-type.
A schematic diagram of a typical p-n junction is shown in figure 2.16 in which trivalent
(Boron) atoms are doped on the left side (p region) and pentavalent (Phosphorous) atoms
are doped op the right side (n-region). Charge of Boron atoms will be negative as they are

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Chapter 2 2.13. p-n junction diode

Figure 2.15: p-n Junction

acceptor impurity and the Phosphorous atoms will be positively charged as they are donor
type impurity. In p region the majority carrier are holes and minority charge carrier are
electrons where as in n region its the opposite. In n region the majority charge carriers are
the electrons and the minority charge carrier are holes.

Figure 2.16: Majority and Minority charge carrier distribution in a p-n junction

Diffusion process of holes and electrons will initiate as soon as the junction forms due to the
concentration gradient. There will be diffusion of holes towards right side and diffusion of
electrons from right to left. Initially both the p and n regions are electrically neural. Due to
the diffusion of holes towards right and electrons towards left will make right half positively
charged and left half negatively charged. Near the junction some of the holes from p-side
and some electrons from n-side recombine. This creates a electrical field near the junction
from right to left. Any holes near the junction will be pushed towards left side and electron
towards the right side by the electric field. Hence no charge carriers are present near the
junction region and is called as delpetion region.

2.13.1 Diffusion Current

Due to the concentration difference, holes try to diffuse from p region to n region but are
opposed as the junction expert a force on holes towards left. Only those holes which move

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Chapter 2 2.13. p-n junction diode

toward the right with high kinetic energy are able to cross the junction. Similarly, diffusion
of electrons from right to left will be opposed by the field. Only the electron which move
towards left with high kinetic energy can cross the junction. Hence we can say there exist a
potential barrier which allows only a small amount of diffusion. This diffusion results in an
electric current from p-side to n-side and called as diffusion current.

2.13.2 Drift Current

At room temperature, occasionally covalent bonds in semiconductors break and the electron
jumps to conduction band leaving hole in valance band. Hence an electron-hole pair is being
created. Sometimes a conduction electron fill up vacant bonds which lead to annihilation of
the electron-hole pair. These process continue in every part of semiconductor.
However, if an electron-hole pair is created in the depletion region, the electrons are quickly
drifted towards the n side and the holes towards the p side. There is almost no chance of
recombination of electrons and holes in depletion region. Electron-hole pairs are continuously
created in depletion region hence there is a regular flow of electron and holes toward n and
p side, respectively. This constitute a current from n-side to p-side and is called as drift
current.
The diffusion current and drift current are in opposite direction. In steady state, the diffusion
current equals to drift current in magnitude. Hence there is no net transfer of charge.

2.13.3 Biasing of p-n Junction Diode

Lets discuss the effect when a battery is connected externally to a p-n junction diode. De-
pending upon the electrical connection, biasing can be of the two following types.
1. Forward Biasing
2. Reverse Biasing

2.13.3.1 Forward Biasing

If the positive terminal of the battery is connected to the p-side and the negative terminal
of the battery to the n-side of the p-n junction, we say the junction is forward biased.
Figure 2.17 shows the forward bias connection. Under this condition, the potential of p side
is raised. The direction of field due to external battery (VEXT ) is in the opposite direction

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Chapter 2 2.13. p-n junction diode

Figure 2.17: Forward biasing of a p-n junction diode

of the field inside p-n junction. With the increase in bias voltage, the height of the potential
barrier decreases and width of depletion region also reduces. This allows more diffusion of
electrons and holes which results in increase in diffusion current. However, the drift current
remains almost unchanged. Hence there is a net current from p-side to n-side.

2.13.3.2 Reverse Biasing

If the p-side of the junction is connected to the negative terminal and the n-side to the
positive terminal of the battery, the junction is said to be in reverse bias.

Figure 2.18: Reverse biasing of a p-n junction diode

Figure 2.18 shows the reverse bias condition of a typical p-n junction. The battery further
increases the potential of n-side. The direction of field due to external battery (VEXT ) is
along the same direction of the field inside p-n junction. It increases the potential barrier
and hence width of the depletion region. Diffusion becomes difficult and hence the diffusion
current decreases. However drift current remain unaffected. So there is a net current from
n-side to p-side of small magnitude (typically in the order of µA).

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Chapter 2 2.14. Light Emitting Diode (LED)

2.13.4 V-I Characteristics of p-n junction

Figure 2.19: V-I Characteristics of p-n junction

The voltage (V) and current (I) relation in a p-n junction is nonlinear and it doesn’t obey
Ohm’s law. Figure 2.19 shows a typical VI characteristics of a p-n junction diode under
forward and reverse bias conditions.
In forward bias, with increase in applied voltage, the height of potential barrier reduces to
zero at a particular voltage hence there will be sharp increase in diffusion current. The voltage
at which the current starts increasing rapidly is called as cut-in voltage which depends upon
the material type, doping level and dopants. The junction offers a little resistance when
operated in forward bias. In reverse bias, with the increase in external voltage, the barrier
height increases gradually which reduces the diffusion current. Current of µA flows through
the diode. Under reverse bias the junction offers high resistance.
Any device which allows the electric current in one direction but doesn’t allow in opposite
direction is called a diode. The diode is symbolized as . The dynamic resistance of a
p-n junction diode is defines as

∆V
R= (2.42)
∆i

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Chapter 2 2.14. Light Emitting Diode (LED)

Figure 2.20: (a) RGB LEDs (b) Schematic representation of LED

2.14 Light Emitting Diode (LED)

LED stands from Light Emitting Diode which are a special type of semiconducting devices
which works on the principle of Electro-luminescence. In this case we use an electric field
or an external field in order to create an electron hole pair. Figure 2.20 (a) shows a typical
LED and (b) the schematic representation of LED. LED always operates in forward bias
condition.

2.14.1 Features of LED

Some common features of LED are

1. Less Energy Consumption
2. Very Low cost and availability
3. Light weight
4. Smaller size
5. Longer lifetime
6. Fast Operation
7. Do not contain toxic material like mercury which is used in fluorescent lamps
8. Can emit different colors of light
Now the electron-hole recombination process can either be dominated by photons or heat
depending on the type of semiconductor is being used. In section 2.6.2 we have discussed
that semiconductors can be of two types considering their band gap.
In direct band gap semiconductor the electron hole recombination proceeds with the domi-
nant mechanism being the release of electromagnetic radiation or photons. In the case of an

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Chapter 2 2.14. Light Emitting Diode (LED)

Figure 2.21: Electron-hole recombination mechanism in LED

indirect band gap semiconductor, the energy is released in the form of heat. In case of LED,
we want visible light to come out. Hence direct band gap semiconductors such as GaAs,
InAs, GaN are commonly used.
Band gap of semiconductors plays an important role in LED. It decides the color of the
emitted light. Mathematically, the light wavelength and energy gap are related by

hc hc
Eg = ⇒λ= (2.43)
λ Eg

Table 2.4 shows some direct and gap material, their band gap and the wavelength of LED
light. The band gap of materials can be tuned by changing the composition. This enables
LED for application in opto electronic devices in UV, visible as well as in IR region.

Table 2.4: Band gap and corresponding wavelength of some direct band gap material

Material Band gap (eV) Wavelength (λ) nm

GaAs 1.44 860
GaAsP 1.98 626
ZnSe 2.6 476
Alx Ga1−x N 3.4(x=0) ; 6.2(x=1) 364 - 200
Inx Ga1−x N 0.69(x=1) ; 3.4(x=0) 1797 - 364

2.14.2 Application of LED

LED find their application due to its small size, low cost, less power consumption behaviors.
The followings are some application of LEDs in various field.
1. Burglar alarms systems
2. Traffic signals
3. Camera flashes

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Chapter 2 2.15. Solar Cell

4. Aviation lighting
5. Decoration purposes
6. Toys
7. Sensors

2.15 Solar Cell

Figure 2.22: (a) Semiconductor based solar cell, (b) Schematic representation of a solar
cell

A solar cell is an example of a photovoltaic device; where voltage is generated when expose
to light. Solar cells are usually wide area devices because they need to capture as much as
the incident solar energy and then convert it into electrical energy.

Figure 2.23: Working principle of Solar cell

Figure 2.23 shows a schematic layout of a p-n junction based solar cell. Here the n-region
is heavily doped and denoted as n+ . The n-region is made thin so that maximum sun light

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Chapter 2 2.15. Solar Cell

can penetrate through n region. Solar radiation is a mixture of short, medium and long
wavelengths. Short wavelength radiation has highest energy and long wavelength radiation
has large penetration depth.
Medium wavelength radiation create electron-hole (e− ,h+ ) pair in the depletion region formed
by the junction formed between n+ and p region. As discussed in section 2.13, under equi-
librium condition, contact potential develop. When the radiation creates e− ,h+ pair, the
electrons are accelerated towards n-side and the holes towards p-side. Hence a potential
develops between p and n region.

Figure 2.24: VI Curve of a typical solar cell

In the absence of any external load, this potential is called open circuit potential (Voc ). If
we make a connection between p and n side, we have a short circuit and the current flow
through the device generated by the electron and holes and is called as short-circuit current.
Figure 2.24 shows a typical VI characteristics of a solar cell.
Conventional single crystal silicon based solar cells have efficiencies of around 22 %. For
polycrystalline silicon, efficiency will be around 15 %. Other semiconducting materials can
also be used for solar cells such as CdTe, CdS, CuInSe2 .

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