WEEK FIVE-SEVEN

3.1 FUNCTIONS OF STATISTICAL SOFTWARE

THE EVOLUTION AND SIGNIFICANCE OF R IN DATA ANALYTICS
R is a powerful open-source programming language and software environment primarily used for
statistical computing, data analysis, and graphical representation. Ross Ihaka and Robert
Gentleman developed it at the University of Auckland in the mid-1990s, and it is an
implementation of the S programming language developed at Bell Laboratories.
3.1.1 Historical Evolution of R
 1970s: Origins in the S Language: R is rooted in the S programming language, created
by John Chambers and others at Bell Labs. S was designed to make data analysis more
interactive and efficient.
 1993–1995: Birth of R: Ross Ihaka and Robert Gentleman began developing R in 1993,
and the project was released to the public in 1995 as free software under the GNU
General Public License.
 2000s: Community Expansion and CRAN: The development of the Comprehensive R
Archive Network (CRAN) significantly enhanced R’s accessibility. CRAN enabled users
to share packages, fostering rapid development in specialized domains like time series,
genetics, and finance.
 2010s: Rise in Popularity: With the explosion of big data and machine learning, R
gained traction in academia, healthcare, marketing, and finance. The RStudio IDE,
launched in 2011, made R more accessible to users from non-programming backgrounds.
 2020s and Beyond: R in the Era of Data Science: R continues to evolve with robust
packages for machine learning (e.g., caret, mlr3), deep learning (keras, tensorflow), and
big data (sparklyr). The verse collection of packages including ggplot2, dplyr, and tidyr
has streamlined data science workflows, making R more user-friendly and visually
intuitive.
3.1.2 Features of R in Data Analytics
 Statistical and Mathematical Modeling: R is purpose-built for advanced statistical
procedures, including linear and nonlinear modeling, time-series analysis, classification,
clustering, and more.
 Extensive Visualization Capabilities: Tools like ggplot2, lattice, and plotly allow users
to create highly customizable and publication-quality graphs.
  Community-Driven Package Ecosystem: With over 19,000 packages on CRAN, R
supports a wide variety of analytics applications—from bioinformatics and social science
to finance and climatology.
 Reproducible Research: Tools like knitr, rmarkdown, and Shiny allow users to produce
dynamic, reproducible documents and interactive dashboards.
 Interoperability: R can interface with other programming languages like Python, C++,
and Java, and connect to databases and big data frameworks like Hadoop and Spark.
3.1.3 Significance of R in Modern Data Analytics
 Academia and Research: R is a standard tool in academic research due to its open-
source nature, flexibility, and high-quality statistical libraries. Many published papers
include R code to ensure reproducibility.
 Data Science and Machine Learning: R supports machine learning workflows through
packages like caret, xgboost, and random Forest, making it competitive with Python in
certain analytical tasks.
 Open Source and Cost-Efficiency
Organizations adopt R to reduce licensing costs without sacrificing analytical power.
3.1.4 Industry Applications
i. Healthcare: Predictive modeling for patient outcomes and clinical trials.
ii. Finance: Risk modeling, time-series forecasting, and portfolio optimization.
iii. Marketing: Customer segmentation, churn prediction, and campaign analytics.
iv. Environmental Science: Climate modeling and ecological data analysis.
3.1.5 Challenges and Limitations
i. Speed: R can be slower than languages like C++ or Python for certain operations,
especially with very large datasets.
ii. Memory Usage: R processes everything in memory, which can be limiting for big data.
iii. Learning Curve: Although packages like tidyverse ease usability, R's syntax and
concepts (e.g., functional programming) can be challenging for beginners.
3.1.6 Functions of R
1. Data Handling and Storage
i. Supports a wide variety of data types: vectors, matrices, arrays, data frames, lists.
ii. Efficient manipulation of large and complex datasets.
iii. Functions like read.csv(), read.table(), readxl::read_excel() for importing data.
iv. Interfaces with databases using packages like DBI, RSQLite, RODBC.
 2. Statistical Analysis
Built-in functions for:
 Descriptive statistics: mean(), sd(), summary().
 Inferential statistics: t.test(), chisq.test(), anova().
 Regression analysis: lm() for linear, glm() for generalized linear models.
 Time series: arima(), ts(), forecast().
3. Data Visualization: Base R plotting functions: plot(), hist(), boxplot().
Advanced plotting with:
 ggplot2: Elegant and layered visualizations.
 lattice: Trellis graphics for multivariate data.
 plotly and highcharter: Interactive web-based visualizations.
4. Programming Features: R is a full-fledged programming language:
 Control structures (if, for, while, repeat).
 User-defined functions (function()).
 Functional programming with apply, lapply, mapply, etc.
 Object-oriented programming (S3, S4, and R6 classes).
5. Machine Learning and Data Mining: Rich ecosystem for ML:
 caret: Unified interface to many algorithms.
 randomForest, xgboost, e1071 (SVM), nnet (neural networks).
 mlr3, tidymodels: Modern, modular machine learning frameworks.
6. Text Mining and Natural Language Processing (NLP): Packages like tm, text2vec,
quanteda for:
 Tokenization
 Term frequency–inverse document frequency (TF-IDF)
 Topic modeling
 Sentiment analysis
7. Time Series Analysis
 Built-in classes like ts, zoo, xts for time series data.
 Packages like forecast, tseries, prophet (from Facebook) for:
 Forecasting
 Seasonal decomposition
 Stationarity testing
8. Spatial and Geographic Data Analysis
  GIS functionalities using sf, sp, raster, tmap, leaflet.
 Plotting maps and analyzing spatial patterns and geostatistics.
9. Reproducible Research and Reporting
 R Markdown (rmarkdown): Combine code, output, and narrative in a single document.
 knitr: Dynamic report generation in HTML, PDF, Word.
 Shiny: Build interactive web apps from R scripts.
 Quarto: Next-gen scientific and technical publishing.
10. Integration and Interoperability
R integrates with:
Python: using reticulate.
C/C++: via .Call() or Rcpp.
Java: using rJava.
Connects to big data platforms:
Apache Spark: sparklyr
Hadoop and Hive: RHadoop, RHive
11. Package Development
Create and share your own R packages using tools like devtools, usethis, and roxygen2.
Below are R code examples demonstrating each of the main functionalities. These are short,
practical snippets designed to show how each feature works.
1. Data Handling and Storage
# Load data
data <- read.csv("data.csv")
# View structure
str(data)
# Create a data frame
df <- data.frame(Name = c("A", "B"), Score = c(90, 85))
2. Statistical Analysis
# Descriptive statistics
mean(df$Score)
sd(df$Score)
# T-test
t.test(Score ~ Name, data = df)
# Linear regression
model <- lm(Score ~ Name, data = df)
summary(model)
3. Data Visualization
# Base R
hist(df$Score)
# ggplot2
library(ggplot2)
ggplot(df, aes(x = Name, y = Score)) +
geom_bar(stat = "identity", fill = "steelblue")
4. Programming Features
# Custom function
square <- function(x) { return(x^2) }
square(5)
# Loop
for (i in 1:3) {
print(i^2)}
5. Machine Learning
# Load caret
library(caret)
data(iris)
# Train-test split
set.seed(123)
trainIndex <- createDataPartition(iris$Species, p = .7, list = FALSE)
train <- iris[trainIndex, ]
test <- iris[-trainIndex, ]
# Train model
model <- train(Species ~ ., data = train, method = "rf")
predictions <- predict(model, test)
confusionMatrix(predictions, test$Species)
6. Text Mining (NLP)
library(tm)
texts <- Corpus(VectorSource(c("This is text mining", "Mining text data")))
texts <- tm_map(texts, content_transformer(tolower))
texts <- tm_map(texts, removePunctuation)
dtm <- DocumentTermMatrix(texts)
inspect(dtm)
7. Time Series Analysis
# Time series object
ts_data <- ts(c(100, 110, 105, 120, 130), start = c(2020, 1), frequency = 12)
# Plot
plot(ts_data)
# Forecasting
library(forecast)
fit <- auto.arima(ts_data)
forecast(fit, h = 3)
8. Spatial and Geographic Data
library(sf)
nc <- st_read(system.file("shape/nc.shp", package = "sf"))
plot(nc["BIR74"])
9. Reproducible Research (R Markdown / Shiny)
R Markdown example (in .Rmd file):
markdown
title: "My Report"
output: html_document---
```{r}
summary(cars)
plot(cars)
scss
**Shiny app example:**
```r
library(shiny)
ui <- fluidPage(
sliderInput("num", "Choose a number", 1, 100, 50),
plotOutput("hist")
)
server <- function(input, output) {
output$hist <- renderPlot({
hist(rnorm(input$num))})}
shinyApp(ui = ui, server = server)
10. Integration with Python
library(reticulate)
py_run_string("x = 5 + 3")
py$x # Output: 8
11. Package Development
# Create a package structure
usethis::create_package("myPackage")
# Add a function
usethis::use_r("myFunction")
3.1.7 EVOLUTION AND SIGNIFICANCE OF PYTHON IN DATA ANALYTICS
Python is a high-level, interpreted, general-purpose programming language created by Guido
van Rossum and first released in 1991. Its emphasis on code readability, simple syntax, and
extensive libraries has made it a favorite among software developers, researchers, and data
analysts worldwide.
3.1.8 Evolution of Python in Data Analytics
Early Years (1990s – early 2000s)
 Initially designed for general-purpose programming and scripting.
 Gained popularity for its clean syntax and ease of learning.
 Limited adoption in scientific and data-related work during this phase.
Scientific Computing Era (2006–2012)
 Development of NumPy (2006) and SciPy led Python into scientific computing.
 These packages provided high-performance array operations, statistical tools, and
numerical methods.
 Python began competing with R and MATLAB in academic and research environments.
Rise of Data Science (2012–2016)
 Emergence of pandas, a powerful data manipulation library, revolutionized data
wrangling.
 Growth of scikit-learn for machine learning made Python a strong choice for predictive
analytics.
 Matplotlib and seaborn brought in quality data visualization capabilities.
 Python's flexibility in scripting, data cleaning, and model building made it the language
of choice for data scientists.
Modern Era (2016–Present)
 Explosion of data science, AI, and machine learning boosted Python’s popularity.
 Integration with big data platforms like Spark (PySpark), Hadoop.
  Deep learning frameworks such as TensorFlow, PyTorch, and Keras expanded Python’s
reach.
 Python now supports full pipelines from data collection to deployment, including
dashboard creation (e.g., Streamlit, Dash).
3.1.9 Significance of Python in Data Analytics
Open Source and Community Support
 Free and open-source.
 Backed by a massive global community that continuously develops and maintains
powerful libraries and tools.
Ease of Learning and Use
 Simple, readable syntax that lowers the barrier for entry.
 Ideal for both beginners and experienced analysts.
Rich Ecosystem of Libraries

Library Purpose

NumPy Numerical operations, arrays

pandas Data manipulation and analysis

matplotlib, seaborn Visualization

scikit-learn Machine learning

statsmodels Statistical modeling and testing

TensorFlow, PyTorch Deep learning and AI

OpenCV, NLTK, spaCy Image & text analytics

Versatility Across Domains

 Used in finance, healthcare, manufacturing, education, e-commerce, and more.
 Powers data pipelines, APIs, and even full-stack web applications.
Integration Capabilities
 Easily integrates with SQL, Excel, R, C++, and cloud platforms.
 Can read/write files in multiple formats: CSV, Excel, JSON, Parquet, etc.
Deployment and Visualization
  Allows quick development of interactive dashboards using tools like:
o Streamlit

o Dash

o Voila

 Python models can be deployed as REST APIs with Flask or FastAPI.

3.1.10 Applications of Python in Data Analytics
 Healthcare: Predicting patient readmission, disease classification.
 Finance: Fraud detection, stock price forecasting, risk modeling.
 Retail: Customer segmentation, recommendation engines.
 Government: Policy impact analysis, public health monitoring.
 Agriculture: Yield prediction, climate data analysis.
3.1.11 Functionalities of Python
1. Data Handling and Manipulation
 Efficient handling of structured data using pandas (DataFrames).
 Supports multiple data formats: CSV, Excel, JSON, SQL, Parquet.
 Filtering, grouping, merging, reshaping, and time series operations.
Example of Python
python
import pandas as pd
df = pd.read_csv('data.csv')
df.groupby('Category').mean()
2. Numerical and Scientific Computation
 NumPy: Fast numerical arrays and matrix operations.
 SciPy: Advanced scientific functions like integration, optimization, signal processing,
and linear algebra.
Example:
import numpy as np
a = np.array([1, 2, 3])
np.mean(a)
3. Data Visualization
 Powerful libraries like:
o matplotlib for custom plots

o seaborn for statistical charts

o plotly and bokeh for interactive visuals

Example:
import seaborn as sns
sns.boxplot(x='Category', y='Value', data=df)
4. Statistical Analysis
 statsmodels for linear models, hypothesis testing, ANOVA, time series analysis.
 Also supports probabilistic models and regression diagnostics.
Example:
import statsmodels.api as sm
model = sm.OLS(df['Y'], sm.add_constant(df['X'])).fit()
model.summary()
5. Machine Learning and AI
 scikit-learn: For classification, regression, clustering, etc.
 TensorFlow, Keras, PyTorch: For deep learning.
 Model evaluation, feature engineering, and pipeline tools.
Example:
from sklearn.linear_model import LogisticRegression
model = LogisticRegression()
model.fit(X_train, y_train)
6. Text and Natural Language Processing (NLP)
 Libraries: NLTK, spaCy, TextBlob, transformers
 Text cleaning, tokenization, named entity recognition, sentiment analysis.
Example:
import spacy
nlp = spacy.load("en_core_web_sm")
doc = nlp("Python is great for data analytics.")
print([token.text for token in doc])
7. Time Series Analysis
 Built-in support in pandas for datetime indexes and resampling.
 Advanced modeling via statsmodels or fbprophet.
Example:
df['Date'] = pd.to_datetime(df['Date'])
df.set_index('Date').resample('M').mean()
8. Web Scraping and APIs
 Libraries like requests, BeautifulSoup, Scrapy, and Selenium.
 Extract data from websites and APIs.
Example:
import requests
from bs4 import BeautifulSoup
r = requests.get("https://example.com")
soup = BeautifulSoup(r.text, "html.parser")
9. Big Data and Distributed Computing
 Tools like PySpark, Dask, and Vaex to work with large datasets.
 Supports parallel and distributed data processing.
10. Dashboarding and Web Applications
 Create interactive dashboards using:
o Dash (by Plotly)

o Streamlit

o Panel
  Build full web apps with Flask or FastAPI.
11. Automation and Scripting
 Write scripts to automate data cleaning, reporting, file management, etc.
 Schedule tasks using cron or schedule.
12. Database Connectivity
 Connects with SQL, NoSQL, and cloud databases using:
o sqlite3, SQLAlchemy, PyMySQL, psycopg2, MongoDB (via pymongo)

Example:
import sqlite3
conn = sqlite3.connect('mydb.sqlite')
pd.read_sql("SELECT * FROM table_name", conn)
13. Object-Oriented Programming (OOP)
 Define classes and reusable objects.
 Supports inheritance, encapsulation, and polymorphism.
Example:
class Person:
def __init__(self, name):
self.name = name
def greet(self):
print(f"Hello, {self.name}")
14. Modular and Package Development
 You can create reusable modules and Python packages.
 Use pip, setuptools, and virtual environments for dependency management.
15. Cross-Platform and Cloud Integration
 Python scripts run on Windows, Linux, and MacOS.
 Connects with cloud platforms like AWS, GCP, Azure for ML deployment, data pipelines,
and storage.
3.1.12 EVOLUTION AND SIGNIFICANCE OF SQL IN DATA ANALYTICS
SQL (Structured Query Language) is a domain-specific language used for managing and
manipulating relational databases. It was developed in the 1970s at IBM by Donald D.
Chamberlin and Raymond F. Boyce, and later standardized by ANSI and ISO. SQL allows users
to query, insert, update, and delete data within relational database systems.
3.1.13 Early Development (1970s–1980s)
 Originated from the relational model proposed by E.F. Codd in 1970.
 IBM’s System R used an early version of SQL called SEQUEL.
 In 1979, Oracle released the first commercially available implementation of SQL.
Standardization and Commercial Adoption (1986–1990s)
 ANSI standardized SQL in 1986, followed by ISO in 1987.
 Became the standard query language for relational database systems.
 Widely adopted by Oracle, IBM DB2, Microsoft SQL Server, MySQL, and others.
Expansion with the Web (1990s–2000s)
 SQL became critical for dynamic websites and applications (via PHP, ASP, Java).
 Introduction of OLAP (Online Analytical Processing) for business intelligence.
 SQL was integrated with ETL tools and enterprise data warehouses.
Modern Era (2010s–Present)
 Rise of data analytics, data science, and cloud computing brought renewed focus to
SQL.
 Integration with big data tools like HiveQL (Hadoop) and Presto.
 Advent of cloud databases: Google BigQuery, Amazon Redshift, Snowflake.
 Support for semi-structured data (JSON, XML) and advanced analytics.
3.1.14 Functionalities of SQL in Data Analytics

Function SQL Features

Data retrieval SELECT, WHERE, JOIN, GROUP BY,
ORDER BY
 Data manipulation INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE
Data aggregation COUNT(), AVG(), SUM(), MAX(), MIN()
Data filtering WHERE, HAVING, IN, LIKE, BETWEEN
Data modeling CREATE TABLE, ALTER,
Subqueries & nesting CONSTRAINTS
Views and stored procedures Nested SELECT, EXISTS, ANY, ALL
Data security CREATE VIEW, PROCEDURE,
FUNCTION
GRANT, REVOKE, roles, permissions

SELECT department, AVG(salary) AS avg_salary

FROM employees
WHERE hire_date >= '2020-01-01'
GROUP BY department
ORDER BY avg_salary DESC;
3.1.15 Significance of SQL in Data Analytics
Data Access and Exploration
 SQL allows direct access to databases for exploratory data analysis (EDA).
 Analysts can summarize, aggregate, and filter large datasets efficiently.
Universality Across Tools
 SQL is supported in nearly all data platforms: MySQL, PostgreSQL, Oracle, SQL Server,
Snowflake, etc.
 Tools like Tableau, Power BI, R, Python, and Excel connect seamlessly with SQL
databases.
Foundation for Data Warehousing and BI
 SQL powers ETL pipelines, data marts, and data warehouses.
 Commonly used in tools like Apache Hive, AWS Redshift, Google BigQuery, and
Databricks SQL.
Efficient Handling of Large Datasets
 SQL engines are optimized for high-speed querying over millions of records.
 Often used for querying “cold” data stored in data lakes and warehouses.
Reproducibility and Automation
  SQL scripts ensure consistent, auditable, and reproducible analyses.
 Can be scheduled as part of ETL or dashboard refresh workflows.
Data Governance and Compliance
 SQL enables fine-grained access control and auditing, which is critical for regulatory
compliance (GDPR, HIPAA, etc.).
3.1.16 Applications of SQL in Analytics
 Marketing Analytics: Customer segmentation, campaign effectiveness.
 Finance: Credit risk analysis, budget monitoring, fraud detection.
 Healthcare: Patient data retrieval, treatment outcome summaries.
 E-commerce: Product performance tracking, recommendation systems.
 Telecom: Churn prediction, usage analysis.
3.2 USES OF LIBRARIES IN STATISTICAL SOFTWARE
1. Pandas (Python Library)
Pandas is an open-source Python library primarily used for data manipulation, data cleaning, and
data analysis. It provides two main data structures:
 Series (1D)
 DataFrame (2D, like a table)
3.2.1 Uses of Pandas

Features Description
Data loading Read/write data from CSV, Excel, SQL,
Data inspection JSON, Parquet, etc.
Data cleaning Quick exploration:.head(), .info(), .describe(),
Data transformation .shape, .columns
Aggregation Handle missing values (.isnull(), .fillna()),
Merging & joining duplicates, outliers
Time series analysis Filtering, sorting, grouping, reshaping, pivot
tables
Data exporting
Grouping and summarizing data
Integration with other tools
using .groupby()
Combine datasets using merge(), concat(),
join()
Date parsing, rolling statistics, resampling
Save cleaned data back to CSV, Excel, JSON,
etc.
 Works well with NumPy, Matplotlib,
Seaborn, Scikit-learn

Example:
import pandas as pd
df = pd.read_csv('sales.csv')
monthly_sales = df.groupby('Month')['Revenue'].sum()
3.2.2 Matplotlib (Python Library)
Matplotlib is a comprehensive Python plotting library used for creating static, animated, and
interactive visualizations.
3.2.3 Uses of Matplotlib

Visualization Type Description

Line plots Time series, trends over time
Bar charts Category-wise comparisons
Histograms Distribution of continuous variables
Scatter plots Relationship between two variables
Pie charts Percentage distribution
Custom plots Fully customizable charts (color, size, labels,
Subplots & grids legends, etc.)
Saving figures Multiple plots in a single figure
Animation support Exporting visualizations to PNG, JPG, PDF,
3D plotting etc.
Creating animated plots using
FuncAnimation
With mpl_toolkits.mplot3d for 3D data
visualization

Example:
import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
plt.plot([1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6])
plt.title('Simple Line Plot')
plt.xlabel('X Axis')
plt.ylabel('Y Axis')
plt.show()
3.2.4 ggplot2 (R Library)
ggplot2 is a powerful R library for data visualization built on the grammar of graphics concept.
It’s known for its elegant, layered, and customizable plots.
3.2.5 Uses of ggplot2

Feature Description
Grammar of graphics Build plots layer-by-layer (data → aesthetics
Bar, line, scatter plots → geometries → themes)
Statistical visualizations Standard chart types made easy with
Faceting geom_bar(), geom_line(), etc.
Customization Smooth lines, box plots, violin plots,
Theming histograms, and density plots
Coordinate systems Create subplots for different categories using
facet_wrap() or facet_grid()
Integration with tidyverse
Titles, labels, colors, shapes, themes, legends,
scales
Predefined themes: theme_minimal(),
theme_classic (), etc.
Transformations like flip (coord_flip()),
polar, map projections
Works seamlessly with dplyr, tidyr, and other
tidyverse packages

Example:
library(ggplot2)
ggplot(data = mpg, aes(x = displ, y = hwy, color = class)) +geom_point() +
labs(title = "Engine Displacement vs. Highway MPG")
3.2.6 Summary Comparison

Features Pandas Matplotlib ggplots2

Language Python Python R
Main purpose Data manipulation Data visualization Data visualization
Strength Tabular data Fully custom plots Elegant statistical
Learning curve processing Moderate plots
Integration Moderate Pandas, Seaborn, etc. Beginner-friendly in
Output type NumPy, Scikit-learn, Charts and figures R
etc. dplyr, tidyr, tidyverse
DataFrames Charts and figures
3.3 DATA VISUALIZATION
Data visualization is the graphical representation of information and data using visual elements
like charts, graphs, and maps. It transforms raw data into a visual context to help people
understand trends, outliers, patterns, and insights more easily.
3.3.1 The Process of Data Visualization
1. Data Collection
 Gather data from various sources: databases, spreadsheets, APIs, surveys, or sensors.
 Ensure data relevance and integrity.
2. Data Cleaning and Preparation
 Handle missing values, duplicates, and outliers.
 Convert data types, create calculated fields, normalize or aggregate values.
3. Define the Objective
 What do you want to reveal?
o Trends over time?

o Comparisons between groups?

o Distribution of data?

o Relationships between variables?

4. Choose the Right Visualization Technique

 The choice depends on data type and analytical goals (e.g., bar charts for comparison,
scatter plots for correlation).
5. Use a Visualization Tool or Library
 Tools: Tableau, Power BI, Excel
 Libraries: Matplotlib, Seaborn (Python), ggplot2 (R), D3.js (JavaScript)
6. Design and Customize the Visualization
 Add titles, labels, legends, and colors for clarity.
 Follow best practices: avoid clutter, use readable fonts, and maintain proper scales.
7. Interpret and Communicate Insights
 Analyze the visual outputs to derive meaningful insights.
  Present findings to stakeholders through dashboards or reports.
3.3.2 Relevance of Data Visualization in Decision Making

Quick Pattern Detection Helps detect trends, anomalies, and

correlations in large datasets.
Improves Understanding Converts complex data into easily digestible
visuals.
Supports Evidence-Based Decisions Empowers managers to make informed
choices based on data, not intuition.
Enhances Communication Facilitates storytelling and communication
with non-technical stakeholders.
Aids in Monitoring KPIs Enables tracking and comparison of key
performance indicators over time.
Identifies Problems Early Highlights negative trends or outliers that
need attention.

3.3.3 Common Data Visualization Techniques and Their Uses

Technique Description Appropriate Use Case

Rectangular bars to represent categorical Comparing sales by product, revenue

Bar Chart
data. by region.

Connects data points with lines, showing Stock prices over months, temperature
Line Chart
trends over time. changes daily.

Market share by brand, budget

Pie Chart Divides a circle to show proportions.
allocation.

Shows frequency distribution of Distribution of exam scores, income

Histogram
continuous data. levels.

Dots represent two variables' values to Relationship between height and

Scatter Plot
show correlation. weight, sales vs. ad spend.

Displays median, quartiles, and outliers Comparing salary distribution across

Box Plot
in the data. departments.

Uses color intensity to show value Correlation matrices, website activity

Heatmap
magnitude in a matrix. patterns.

Extension of scatter plot with an extra Revenue (size), by product (x), and
Bubble Chart
dimension shown by bubble size. profit margin (y).
Technique Description Appropriate Use Case

Like line charts, but filled under the

Area Chart Cumulative sales, population growth.
curve to show volume.

Nested rectangles are sized and colored Hierarchical data, like product
Tree Map
by data values. categories and subcategories.

Dashboard Interactive visualization containing Executive summaries, financial

(combo) multiple charts. dashboards, business intelligence.

3.3.4 Best Practices for Effective Data Visualization

 Choose the right chart for your data.
 Avoid misleading scales or visual distortion.
 Use consistent color schemes.
 Label axes, legends, and data.
 Provide context and summary to guide interpretation.