Unit 1- COMPUTER

A computer is an electronic device that accepts data, process it and output it as information.
Where computers can be used
-Health and medicine,-Fanancial matters,-Leisure,-Jobs
WHY WE USE COMPUTERS
Computers can work much faster than humans
o They can work continuously for 24 hours without getting tired
o They can store large amount of information in a very small space
o They can do jobs that would be dangerous or impossible for human beings to do
them
o They can find information very quickly
o They never misplace or lose information
DRAWBACKS
o To use the computer system, the staff will need to be trained to acquire computer
skills
o Security need to be provided to protect personal data
o Computers hold personal data that may be misused
o Computers can replace people in the working areas
DATA AND INFORMATION
Data consist of raw facts and figures - it does not have any meaning until it is processed and
turned into something useful.
Example; What do the numbers 123424331911, 140593 or perhaps the letters 'aaabbbccd'
mean to you? Probably nothing - this is because they have no specific meaning or
application. They are examples of DATA.
Information is data that has been processed. It is the meaning that we attach to data.
For example,- It is sunny today.
- 123 donkeys

Difference between the data and information

Data can be any character, text, words or number and, if not put into context, means little or
nothing to a human. However, information is useful and usually formatted in a manner that
allows it to be understood by a human.
Computers typically read data, but it is not necessarily something that a computer actually
understands. Through the use of formulas, programming scripts, or software applications, a
computer can turn data into information that a human can understand.

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 DATA INFORMATION
Data is used as input for the computer Information is the output of data
system
Data is unprocessed facts figures Information is processed data
Data doesn’t depend on Information Information depends on data
Data is not specific Information is specific
Data doesn’t carry a meaning Information carries a logical meaning
Data is raw material Information is the product

Characteristics of computers
A computer designed to do a specific job is called a special-purpose computer.
A computer designed to do many kinds of jobs is called a general purpose computer.

Classification of computers
Computers are generally classified according to the following features:
o Processing power/ Speed( The time taken to carryout tasks)
o Physical Size( How big/small the computer is)
o Storage capacity(how much of memory to store data)
o Number of users(How many number of users are allowed to use a computer at a time)
o Purpose of use(What is the computer intended to be used for)
o Cost(How much does a computer cost(how expensive/cheap it is))

Types of computers
o Microcomputers (small)
o Minicomputers (medium)
o Mainframe (large)

All computers no matter how small or large, have the same fundamental functions, input,
processing, output and storage.
A single-user computer is used by one user at a time and a multi-user computer support a
number of terminals. A terminal consists of a monitor and a keyboard and has no processing
capability.

a).MICROCOMPUTERS

The word microcomputer means ‘small computer’. They are designed for personal use, they
are also referred to as personal computers or PCs. The essential characteristics of these
microcomputers are:
o Small size

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 o low cost
o One user
o Low computing power
o Commonly used for personal applications

Microcomputers are mainly found at homes, in schools or colleges.

TYPES OF MICROCOMPUTERS

i)PERSONAL DIGITAL ASSISTANT (PDAs)

Personal digital assistants are small, hand-held devices which you can use to organize a busy
schedule. Their main advantage their small size which makes them portable(easy to carry
and move about).

ii)PALMTOP COMPUTERS
Usually contain a limited number of applications. The can be carried around in a pocket.
They are mainly used by sales reps who organize their visits and can enter customers’
orders. Palmtop computers can be attached to mobile phones enabling them to receive and
send electronic mails (email).

ii)LAPTOP AND NOTEBOOK COMPUTERS

These computers are bigger than PDAs and palmtops which are used placed on laps . They
have a set of facilities simillar to the larger PCs. They normally come with a battery which
needs to be charged up before the computer can be used away from the power supply. They
also have installed LCDs monitors (Liquid Crystal Displays) instead of the convectional
monitors. LCDs are not as bright as convectional VDUs but they are necessary because the
whole unit needs to be kept small and power consumption minimized.

APPLICATIONS OF MICROCOMPUTERS
o Playing games and music
o Home banking
o Surfing the internet
o Processing students’ and teachers’ records

b).MINICOMPUTERS

A minicomputer is a medium sized computer. Its computing power lies between that of a
microcomputer and a mainframe computer. Essential characters of minicomputers are:
o Bigger in size than PCs
o Support more than one user (usually 10 to 60)
o More computing power than PCs

Commonly used by medium sized business organizations, colleges, libraries and banks.

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APPLICATIONS
o Control of Automatic Teller Machine
o Inventory control for supermarkets
o Insurance claims processing
o Small banking accounting and tracking of customers details
c).MAINFRAME
A mainframe computer is a large, fast and expensive computer. It is used by large business
organizations, universities and government department. Essential features of mainframes
are:
o Bigger in size than minicomputers
o Support hundreds of users simultaneously
o More computing power than minicomputers

APPLICATIONS
The list of areas in which mainframes are used
o Weather forecasting
o Big universities with an enrollment of 10 000 or more
o Big banks with hundreds of branches and thousands of customers
o Natural gas and oil exploration companies

Most powerful mainframes are called SUPERCOMPUTERS. They are the largest, fastest and
most powerful computers in the world at present. They are typically used in scientific
simulations, scientific research and development in such areas as energy, space explorations
and medicine. Supercomputers are designed to process complex applications.
Basic operations of a computer
Every computer operates as below regardless of its size and type.

Input media Processor Output media

-ALU -Monitor
-keyboard -IAS -printer
-mouse -CU

Storage media
-cd/dvd
-hard disk

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Central Processing Unit (CPU)
This is where processing is taking place. Processing is when input data is
changed/manipulated into information. This takes place in the Central Processing Unit (CPU).

Components of the CPU

The Central Processing Unit is made up of 3 parts:
-Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)
-Control Unit (CU)
-Immediate Access Store (IAS)

Diagram of a C.P.U

FUNCTIONS OF CPU COMPONENTS

Immediate Access Store (IAS)

It stores all programs, instructions and data that can be accessed immediately. This unit
supplies information to other units of the computer when needed. It is also known as
internal storage unit or the main memory or the primary storage. It contains two types of
chips: RAM and ROM. Its size affects speed, power, and capability. Primary memory and
secondary memory are two types of memories in the computer. Functions of the memory
unit are –
 It holds all the data and the instructions required for processing.
 It holds intermediate results of processing.
 It holds the final results of processing before these results are released to an output
device.
 All inputs and outputs are transmitted through the main memory.

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Control Unit (CU)
This unit controls the operations of all parts of the computer but does not carry out any
actual data processing operations. Functions of this unit are −
 It is responsible for directing the transfer of data and instructions among other units
of a computer.
 It manages and coordinates all the units of the computer.
 It obtains the instructions from the memory, interprets them, and directs the
operation of the computer.
 It communicates with Input/output devices for transfer of data or results from
storage.

Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)

o This unit consists of two subsections namely: Arithmetic Section and Logic Section
It is responsible for performing all calculations and making logical decisions using the
instructions from the control unit
o Arithmetic Section
Function of arithmetic section is to perform arithmetic operations like addition,
subtraction, multiplication, and division. All complex operations are done by making
repetitive use of the above operations.
o Logic Section
Function of logic section is to perform logic operations such as comparing, selecting,
matching, and merging of data.

Computer system
A computer system is where a group of computer components are working together to
accomplish a task. For every computer these components comprises of a processor, storage
devices, input and output devices.
The computer system is divided into two i.e:
-software
-hardware

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Hardware
This is the tangible parts of the computer that can seen and handled (physical part of the
computer).
Hardware are all storage devices, input and output devices.

INPUT DEVICES
These are devices used to enter/feed data into the computer.
Input devices are divided into two
1. Manual input device
2. Automated input device

Manual input device

Devices that need human intervention to enter data.
Examples include: Keyboard, Mouse, Track Pad, Joy stick, Touch Screen, Light pen, Scanner,
Digital Camera, Microphone.

AUTOMATED/DIRECT INPUT DEVICES

1. Magnetic Ink Character Reader

Each day, banks process millions of cheques. It would take them far too long to manually
enter the data from each cheque. They use a technique called 'Magnetic Ink Character
Recognition' (MICR) which enables them to process 300 cheques per minute with 100%
accuracy.

At the bottom of each cheque are a series of numbers which record:

 the cheque number

 the bank or building society sort code
 the customer's account number

These numbers are written in a special ink which contains iron particles. This ink is
magnetized and commonly called 'magnetic ink'. It can be read by a special machine called a
Magnetic Ink Character reader (MICR).

The MICR will only recognize numbers printed in a standard font using the magnetic ink. This
provides a high level of security because any attempt to alter the magnetic ink printout with
normal ink by writing over it will be ignored. Both the Reader and the magnetic ink are
expensive and so are generally only used by banks.

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2. Optical Mark Reader

They detect the presence of your pencil mark by reflecting light onto on OMR sheets which
are first scanned. Less light is reflected where a mark has been made. The OMR then
interprets the pattern of marks and sends the results to the computer for storage, analysis
and reporting.

Advantages

 A fast method of inputting large amounts of data - up to 10,000 forms can be read
per hour depending on the quality of the machine used.
 Only one computer needed to collect and process the data
 OMR is much more accurate than data being keyed in by a person

Disadvantages

 If the marks don't fill the space completely, or aren't in a dark enough pencil, they
may not be read correctly
 Only suitable for recording one out of a selection of answers, not suitable for text
input.
 The OMR reader needs the answers to be on the prepared forms which will all be
identical to one another. You can't just pick up a blank sheet of paper and mark your
answers on it.

3. Optical Character Reader

An OCR system consists of a normal scanner and some special software. The scanner is used
to scan text on a document or piece of paper into the computer. The OCR software then
examines the page and changes the letters into a form that can be edited or processed by a
normal word processing package. The function of Optical Character Reader to change text
that has been scanned as a photo or document to a form that individual characters can be
edited.

The ability to scan the characters accurately depends on how clear the writing is.

Scanners have been improved to be able to read different styles and sizes of text as well as
neat handwriting.

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Although they are often up to 95% accurate, any text scanned with OCR needs careful
checking because some letters can be misread.

OCR is used to automatically recognize postcodes on letters at sorting offices.

Advantages

 Cheaper than paying someone to manually enter large amounts of text

 Much faster than someone manually entering large amounts of text
 The latest software can recreate tables and the original layout

Disadvantages

 Not 100% accurate, there are likely to be some mistakes made during the process
 All documents need to be checked over carefully and then manually corrected
 If the original document is of poor quality or the handwriting difficult to read, more
mistakes will occur
 Not worth doing for small amounts of text

4. Barcode Reader:

Most items that are for sale in shops have a barcode printed somewhere on the packaging.

The barcode is a series of vertical bars of varying widths that give information about:

 the country of manufacture

 the name of the manufacturer
 a product code

The barcode does NOT contain the price of the item - this is held on the company database.

Advantages of using barcode readers to the customer

 customers receive a full itemized receipt

 customers can be dealt with much more quickly at the checkout
 goods can be paid for with a debit/credit cards
 customers are accurately charged

Advantages of using barcode readers to the shop owner

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  they are used for stock control: goods are always readily available and rarely run out
 accurate and up-to-date sales analysis information is always available
 customers buying pattern can be analyzed

A barcode reader is an automatic input device which is used to scan or 'read' the barcode by
using a visible red light. The reflected light is translated into digital data that is interpreted
by the computer to identify the product and price from the database.

The main advantage of using a barcode system is that any price change only needs to be
made to the database and not every single product package.

5. Magnetic Stripe Reader:

Magnetic strips are usually found of the back of most credit cards, cheque guarantee cards,
loyalty cards, membership cards etc.

The magnetic strip can hold personal details about the card number such as account number
and name. The strip can contain up to 60 characters, stored magnetically.

To read the data on the card, it is 'swiped' through a Magnetic Stripe Reader machine and
the data is read and fed back to the computer.

Advantages

 Simple to use
 Cheap to produce
 Data can be altered if necessary
 Security has been improved by the use of PIN numbers which must be entered into a
machine to confirm that you are the rightful card owner

Disadvantages

 Very limited storage capacity for data

 Data can be easily destroyed by strong magnetic fields
 Not always secure as thieves can obtain the readers and read the data on the card.

6. Biometric Devices:

There is an increasing trend towards using biometric data from people in order to identify
them. Finger print and retinal identification are being used in many places now and even
facial recognition systems are starting to be introduced.

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Special devices are needed to capture the biometric data which is then passed onto the
computer for processing and identification.

Biometric authentification methods can be used to identify you at ATMs to withdraw cash.

7. Sensors

Sensors are used to detect physical quantities outside a computer such as light, temperature
and pressure.

They collect data automatically and usually at regular intervals. This data is can either be
transmitted immediately to the computer or can be stored for a period of time and a batch
of readings sent in one go.

In order to process input from sensors, a device called an 'Analogue to Digital Converter'
(ADC) must be connected between the computer and the sensor. This device converts the
analogue signals from the sensors to digital data that the computer can process.
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SPECIALISED INPUT DEVICES
1. Foot controlled mouse
A foot control mouse can be used by a person who has limited or no use of his/her their
upper arms and therefore operated by the foot.
It is used to navigate through software programs and select things as similar to normal a
hand held mouse.
Most foot mice consist of two segments. One segment will be used to control the cursor;
the second segment is used to click the mouse or to select shortcuts.
They have a strap that helps hold the device in place on the foot during use.

2. Braille keyboard

Braille is a writing system for blind people. It is made up of raised dots that can be read by
touch.
A Braille keyboard is a specialized input device that allows the user to type and enter text or
instructions for the computer in Braille.

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 3. Microphone
A microphone can be useful for people who find it difficult to use a keyboard or mouse.
People can say(speak) their input out and a specialized software is used to convert the
speech into text. This text can then be displayed on the screen.

4. Colour coded keyboard

Used by visually impaired people especially those who are color blind for typing.
Output devices
These are devices that display/get information out of the computer. The output displayed by
these devices can be either hardcopy and or softcopy.

Examples of hardcopy are printed reports.

Examples of softcopies are information displayed on a monitor

Monitors

Monitors, commonly called as Visual Display Unit (VDU), are the main output device of a
computer. It forms images from tiny dots, called pixels that are arranged in a rectangular
form. The sharpness of the image depends upon the number of pixels. It is known as
RESOLUTION

There are two kinds of viewing screen used for monitors.

 Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT)

 Flat- Panel Displays

Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT) Monitor

The CRT display is made up of small picture elements called pixels. The smaller the pixels, the
better the image clarity, or resolution. It takes more than one illuminated pixel to form
whole character, such as the letter ‘e’ in the word help.

There are some disadvantages of CRT:

 Large in Size
 High power consumption

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Flat-Panel Display Monitor

The flat-panel display refers to a class of video devices that have reduced volume, weight
and power requirement in comparison to the CRT. Current uses of flat-panel displays include
calculators, video games, monitors, laptop computer, graphics display.

The flat-panel display is divided into two categories:

 Emissive Displays - The emissive displays are devices that convert electrical energy
into light. Example are plasma panel and LED(Light-Emitting Diodes).

 Non-Emissive Displays - The Non-emissive displays use optical effects to convert
sunlight or light from some other source into graphics patterns. Example is
LCD(Liquid-Crystal Device)

PRINTERS
There are 2 types of printer’s impact and non-impact depending on whether the printing
mechanism of the printer comes into contact with the paper or not.

Impact Printers

The impact printers print the characters by striking them on the ribbon which is then
pressed on the paper.
Criteria to classify printers
1. Cost
2. Quality of printouts
3. Printing speed
4. Level of printing noise

Characteristics of Impact Printers are the following:

 Very low consumable costs

 Very noisy in operation
 Useful for bulk printing due to low cost
 There is physical contact with the paper to produce an image

These printers are of two types

 Character printers

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  Line printers
Dot Matrix Printer
In the market one of the most popular printers is Dot Matrix Printer. These printers are
popular because of their ease of printing and economical price. Each character printed is in
form of pattern of dots and head consists of a Matrix of Pins of size (5*7, 7*9, 9*7 or 9*9)
which come out to form a character that is why it is called Dot Matrix Printer.
Advantages
 Inexpensive to buy
 Support multi-part stationery

Disadvantages

 Slow Speed when printing

 Poor Quality printouts

Non-impact Printers
These printers form characters by various methods that do not involve a hammer striking
method. Characters are formed on special heat sensitive paper. Non-impact printers print
the characters without using ribbon. These printers print a complete page at a time so they
are also called as Page Printers.

These printers are of two types

 Laser Printers
 Inkjet Printers

Characteristics of Non-impact Printers

 Faster than impact printers when printing.
 They are not noisy in operation.
 High quality printouts.
 Support many fonts and different character size.

Laser Printers

These are non-impact page printers. They use laser lights to produce the dots needed to
form the characters to be printed on a page.

Advantages

 Very high speed when printing

 Very high quality output
 Give good graphics quality
 Silent on operation

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Disadvantages

 Expensive to buy
 Cannot be used to produce multiple copies of a document in a single printing.
 Usually takes up quite a large space on desk

Inkjet Printers

Inkjet printers are non-impact character printers based on a relatively new technology. They
print characters by spraying small drops of ink onto paper. Inkjet printers produce high
quality output with presentable features.

They make less noise because no hammering is done and these have many styles of printing
modes available. Color printing is also possible.

Advantages

 High quality printing

 Silent in operation
 Cheaper to buy than laser printers
 The take up less space on desk

Disadvantages

 Expensive to run as ink cartridges are expensive to buy

 Slow as compared to laser printer
 Does not support multipart

Speakers
Most computers are fitted with a small internal speaker which can produce beeping sounds
to alert you if you make an error.

Computers can also be fitted with a sound card which will enable sound to be output
through external speakers. These usually produce a much higher quality sound than the
internal speaker.

Advantages
 Everyone in the room can hear the output from the computer.
 They can help create an atmosphere or ambiance to accompany a presentation
 They help blind people to use the computer because text can be converted into
sound

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Disadvantages
 The output from speakers can disturb others who are trying to work
 High quality external speakers can be expensive to buy

Headphones and earphones

Headphones and earphones consist of a pair of small loudspeakers which are worn over or
in the ears.

They are connected either by cable or wirelessly to a device such as a computer, radio or
MP3 player.

A transducer converts the electronic signals from the device into sounds which can then be
heard by the user via the phones.

Advantages

 The sound can only be heard by the user (mostly)

 Portability - lightweight and easy to carry around
 Can listen to music on the move
 Although prices vary, many headphones and earphones are inexpensive

Disadvantages
 If music is played too loudly or for long periods of time there is a risk of permanent
hearing loss
 If the music is too loud or the headphones not fitted correctly then others can hear
an annoying sound from them.
 Can be uncomfortable to wear for long periods of time.
 If the device is large e.g. a computer, it is not easy to move about the room while
wearing the headphones

Digital projector
A digital projector is a device which connects to a computer and is used to project the video
output from the computer onto a wall or screen.

In classrooms they are often used with electronic whiteboards.

The projector can be portable and placed on a stand or it can be permanently fixed to the
ceiling.

Uses of digital projectors:

 Classroom teaching

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 Staff training sessions
 A presentation to an audience
 Home cinemas

Advantages
 Large-Sized Picture
 Saves on Space
 Easy of installation

Disadvantages

 Costly Maintenance

 Separate Speakers Require

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STORAGE DEVICES
These are devices that are used to store information after processing is done in the
computer.

BITS AND BYTES

A computer understands the numbers 0 or 1. We call those 1’s and O’s bits - binary digits.
 A bit is the smallest unit of measurement of storage capacity in a computer.
 A Byte is a group of 8 bits. It is enough memory to store a single character of data.
e.g. letter F.
The computer uses a code to understand what each Bit pattern means.

DATA STORAGE
The amount of data stored is measured in kilobytes (KB), megabytes (MB) or gigabytes (GB).
UNITS OF STORAGE

1 byte 1 character
1 Kilobyte (Kb) 1024 bytes
1 Megabyte (Mb) 1024 Kb (approximately 1 milliion bytes)
1 Gigabyte (GB) 1024 Mb (approximately 1 billiion bytes)
1 Terabyte (Tb) 1024 GB (approximately 1 trilliion bytes)

All computer based systems need to keep data and programs for later use. In general, a
good storage should be:
 Cheap - economical and affordable
 Accessible - so that information can be provided quickly for any given job
 Large enough to hold the required data
 Secure and reliable - so that data can be kept over time. without the fear of loss,
damage or deterioration. " ,

All computers need to store and retrieve data for processing. Storage can be grouped in to
two categories:
 Primary storage
 Secondary storage
.
PRIMARY STORAGE
Also called the main store or Immediate Access Store (IAS). This is necessary since the
processing unit can only act on data and instructions that are held in the primary storage.
These are the Random Access Memory (RAM) and Read Only Memory (ROM). Memory is
the name given to a group of chips inside the processing unit where data is held temporarily
whilst processing takes place. Memory is used to hold the following:
.
 Programs e.g. operating system (programs which control the hardware or
application programs)
 Input data - this is put into the memory before processing
 Working area - used to store data that is currently being processed.

RANDOM ACCESS MEMORY

CHARACTERISTICS OF RAM
 RAM contents are temporary, which means that the data disappears when the
power is switched off.
 It is held in a chip inside the processor
 Its contents can be changed, thus it is volatile
 RAM hold data and instructions temporarily while processing takes place

READ ONLY MEMORY

CHARACTERISTICS OF ROM
 ROM chip hold data and instructions necessary for starting up the computer
(BOOTING PROGRAMS).
 The information is fixed at the time of manufacture and sometimes described as
'hard wired'.
 Information stored on ROM is permanent and cannot be deleted but e accessed or be
read
 ROM is non-volatile

PROM - Programmable Read Only Memory

 It is another variation of ROM chip.
 A PROM is more flexible as it can be 'customized'. It is a process in which a standard
product is adapted for use in a particular situation.
 The chip can be programmed once.
 Thus after the customizing process, a PROM functions just like an ordinary ROM.

EPROM - Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory

This form of ROM gives us added flexibility, in that, it can be re-used even after the
customizing process mentioned above is completed.
 Can have its contents erased and may be reprogrammed
 To erase the information contained on the EPROM chip, the chip is exposed to the
ultra violet light
 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN RAM AND ROM
Features RAM ROM

Volatility Volatile: its contents are lost Non-Volatile: its contents are
when the device is retained even when the
powered off. device is powered off.
Use It stores the contents you It stores booting programs
are currently working on.
Storage capacity Large storage capacity Small storage capacity
Access by the user Contents are changeable or Contents cannot be changed
can be edited or edited(Read Only)

SECONDARY STORAGE
 Also called the Backup memory.
 They are needed to store data and information on a permanent basis for later use.
 They are cheaper to make than ROM and RAM

There are two categories of secondary memory

 Magnetic storage
 Optical storage

MAGNETIC STORAGE
These are those that store data by magnetizing a special material that coats the surface of a
disk.
Examples are:

HARD DISK
 Hard disk of a computer stores information, programs and data that the computer
uses every day.
 They are rigid, inflexible disk made of highly polished metal
 They can contain a single disk, two or more disks stacked on a single spindle. Each
disk surface is able to store data
 Hard disk can come in a variety of sizes but all have a very high storage capacity

ADVANTAGES
 Hard disk provides a direct access
 Large storage capacity
 Transfers files quickly
DISADVANTAGES

 Usually not portable 'c"'

 When portable, usually heavy
 can be damaged which lead to data loss

MAGNETIC TAPE
Magnetic tape comes in two forms: tape reels and cartridges. Large tape reels are used to
make backup copies of programs and data on large mainframe computers. Cassettes like the
ones used to record music were used as backing storage on early micro computers.
 Cartridges are a special type of cassette that can store a large amount of data.
 Cartridges are used to make backup copies of the programs and data on personal
computers and networks
ADVANTAGES
 It is relatively cheap to buy
 Can store large amounts of data

DISADVANTAGES
 Can be damaged easily with handling
 Serial access to data therefore has to search through all files to find one
 It is slow to retrieve data stored

FLOPPY DISK
A floppy disk or diskette is a removable, flexible plastic disk coated with a magnetisable
material.
The disk is contained in a hard plastic case to protect it from dust and grease. Data is stored
as Magnetized spots on concentric track. A sector is the amount of data that can be read
from or written to a disk by the computer. .
 A typical 3.5 floppy disk can hold up to 1.44 Mb data.
 Before the disk can be used to store information, it has to be formatted.
 Formatting the disk means writing electronic information on it so that the computer
can recognize it as a valid storage

ADVANTAGES
 It is portable
 Easy to transfer small files between computers
 Small physical size
 Very affordable
 Direct access to data
DISADVANTAGES
 Small storage capacity and unreliable
 Can be easily damaged if not treated carefully
 Need to be formatted before use

ZIP DISK
They are used to back up important information. Zip drives can be built in (internal) or
portable (external) and store data on zip disks.
 Zip drives are portable and easy to use
 They can typically store 100 Mb, 250 Mb or 750 Mb

JAZ DISK
A Jaz disk is a small, portable hard disk drive used primarily for backing up and archiving
personal computer files. A jaz' disk is a removal disk which is very fast at transferring data.
Each disk can hold up to 2 Gb (2000 Mb) of data.
 The high data transfer rate means that they can be used to back up data in a very
short time.
 They can also be used for everyday storage, just like an ordinary disk drive.

OPTICAL STORAGE
Optical disks are disks that are read by laser lights. The three main types of optical storage
are: CD-R,CD-RW and DVD

CD-ROM
CD-ROM stands for Compact Disk Read Only Memory. They are a typical optical technology:
data is read and written on them by means of laser beam of light.
 They are used to store software packages because of their large storage capacity.
Such software packages are encyclopedia, training programs, graphics packages and
word processing.

ADVANTAGES
 Data cannot be erased or changed
 Large storage capacity (about 400 floppy disks)
 Can store audio and data
 Offer direct access to data
DISADVANTAGES
 Easily damaged by scratches which makes them unreadable
 Its read only memory- no new information can be saved

CD-R
CD-R stands for Compact Disk Recordable. It allows you to write data on the disk (only once)
using a CD recorder (burner).
CD-RW
CD-RW stands for Compact Disk Rewriteable. It allows the user to write and erase the
information many times. These disks are able to store large volumes of information such as
text, graphics, sound and video. The capacity can be about 650 - 700 Mb.

DVD
DVDs stands for Digital Versatile Disk. It looks similar to a CD-R disk but it is capable of
holding much more information.
This is so because the tracks on a DVD are placed closer together as compared to a
CD. Types are DVD-ROM, DVD-R and DVD-RW.
 They can hold about 17 GB of data. This is equal to 26 CD-ROMS or 12 000 floppy disks!
ADVANTAGES
 Extremely large capacity! Can store a whole movie without compression
 It is used to store multimedia (text, graphics, sound and video)
 With a DVD- ROM, data cannot be erased.
 Offers direct access to data

DISADVANTAGES
 Easily damaged by scratches which make them unreadable
 Some cheap disks are extremely unreliable

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PRIMARY STORAGE DEVICES AND SECONDARY STORAGE

FEATURE PRIMARY STORAGE SECONDARY STORAGE

Speed Fast access Slow access
Cost Expensive to buy Cheap to buy
Capacity Small Large
Proximity to CPU Close Far

DEFINING KEY TERMS

 A storage medium is the material on which the data is store, e.g. magnetic tape,
floppy disc, CD-ROM, DVD.
 A storage drive is the piece of equipment, which rotates the storage medium and
accesses the data on it. E.g. floppy disk drive, hard disk drive, cd rom drive.
SOFTWARE
Software can be defined as a collection of electronic programs/instructions that are run in a
computer to make perform a specified task
Program is a set of instructions that tell the computer what to do.

TYPES OF SOFTWARE
There are two types of software
 System software '
 Application software

SYSTEM SOFTWARE
It is a set of programs designed to control and coordinate the procedures and functions of
computer hardware. They also enable functional interaction between hardware, software and the
user.
An Example of system software.
 Operating system
 program translators
 utility programs

1. OPERATING SYSTEM
Operating system provides a means of communication between the user and a computer. It
also deals with the loading and running of software application.

FUNCTIONS OF THE OPERATING SYSTEM

An operating system carries out the following functions:
 It deals with output and input, which involves
 Accepting data from input devices and transferring it to the computer
memory.
 Making sure that any output is sent to the correct output device.
 It manages the transfer of data between the computer's memory and backing
storage devices.
 It manages system’s resources, which involves
 Allocating memory space to programs and data
 Keeping track of which parts of the memory have already been allocated
and the parts that are sill free.
 It manages system security, which involves
 Monitoring and restricting access to programs and data. E- .g. a user can
only do certain things on entering a password.
 Preventing unauthorized access to the system.
 Provide a means of communication between the user and a computer through user
interfaces.
  Layout of the screen: positions of items such as windows, icons and menus on the
screen should be consistent

TYPES OF OPERATING SYSTEMS

Within the broad family of Operating systems, there are generally four types, categorized
based on the types of computers they control and the sort of application they support. The
categories are:

 MULT-TASKING: It means the ability of the computer to run two or more programs
at the same time. It does this by swapping programs in and out of memory. Example:
printing a large document whilst continuing to use a word processor.

 MULTI-USER: It allows several users to access the same data at the same time. It
does this by giving each user a small amount of processor time on the central
computer.

 SINGLE-USER: as the name implies, this operating system is designed to manage the
computer so that one user can effectively do one thing at a time.

 REAL-TIME OPERATING SYSTEM: Programs are run immediately as data is received

without any significant delay. E.g. airline booking, ATM, any online system.

 BATCH PROCESSING SYSTEM: Jobs/tasks are grouped and stored up during working
hours and then be executed at a later stage.
Once a batch job begins, it continues until it is done or until an error occurs. Note that
batch processing implies that there is no interaction with the user while the program
is being executed. Example: Payroll system, Paying Bills.

USER INTERFACES
It is what allows the user to communicate with the computer. It consists of the cursors,
prompts, icons, menus etc which allows you to get something done using your computer.
User interfaces may be:
 Command- driven user interface (CUI)
 Menu-driven user interface
 Graphical User-interface(GUI)
1. COMMAND-DRIVEN
Where you type in an instruction which is usually abbreviated in order to get something
done. DOS (Disk Operating System) is commonly used command-driven user interface.
Example of command used to copy a file to a floppy disk: C:\DOS\>copy c:\fred.txt a:\.

Advantage: they can be quick to use if the user knows the correct command
Disadvantage: difficult to use if the user is a beginner or doesn't know the correct
commands.
Features:
 Uses prompts
 uses abbreviated commands
 user has to type commands using keyboards

2.MENU DRIVEN
It offers the user a list of options available within a program and the user can make a
selection using either a mouse or keyboard. Most menu-driven systems have a 'main menu'
which has options on it that offers the user other menu screens once they have been
selected.

Advantage: easy to use as the user is taken step by step through a series of options until a
particular task has been completed.
Disadvantage: they can be quiet 'long winded' i.e. getting a particular option can involve
going through two, three or even more different menu screens.

Features:
 uses the drop-down menu

3.GRAPHICAL USER INTERFACE (GUI)

It is the most widely used type of interface. It uses WIMP System. WIMP stands for Windows,
Icons, Menus, Pointer. Options are represented by small pictures( or icons) arranged in side
rectangular boxes called WINDOWS.
To choose an option represented by an icon, the user uses a mouse to move a pointer on the
screen over the icon and then double click on it with the mouse button.

Advantage: they are easy to use especially for a beginner

Disadvantage: they need a large amount of memory space as the windows and icons have to
be stored

Features:
 uses WIMP i.e. Windows, Icons, Menu, Pointers
 can customize interface
2.UTILITY PROGRAMS
They are programs that perform specific tasks related to the management of computer
functions. They manage the use of data files and hardware devices. Utilities such as file and
disk management, disk defragmenter are included with the operating systems. Each time
you copy, delete or move a file, you are using a utility program. Other utility programs like
virus scanning software and WinZip are purchased separately. Some of the tasks performed
by the utility programs are:
 Renaming files
 Listing files on a disk
 Deleting and copying files
 Formatting a floppy disk
 Repairing damaged files
 Sending files to a printer
 Compressing a file to saves pace on backing storage
 Checking the files on a disk for computer virus etc.
Virus Scanning Software is utility programs designed to protect your computer from
computer viruses. Virus scanning software is critical to uses, due to the number of computer
viruses (small computer programs created to disrupt and destroy computer files and/or
operating system software).

Disk Defragmenter software assists you to keep reorganizing your disk drives. After files are
saved, deleted and resaved again, the disk can become fragmented --- available space is in
small blocks located throughout the disk. Disk defragmenters gather those free spots and
put them together to enable you to continue to save your data in the most efficient manner.

3. PROGRAM TRANSLATORS

PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES
Since the computer can understand only binary code (a series of O's and I's), all computer
languages must be reduced to binary code and the way is done depend on the type of
language used. The language used to write computer programs are called programming
languages or computer languages.

In programming, we have the high level and low level language.

Low Level language
It is the machine code (O’s and 1’s). The language that is easy for the computer to
understand but more difficult for the programmer to understand. Assembly language and
machine code are collectively called low-level languages.
 Programs written in machine code occupy less space in memory
 Implement very fast as there is no translation.
However, it has the following disadvantages:
 Each type of computer has its own set of instruction code so each machine code
works on only one type of computer
 It is very laborious to write programs in machine code.

High level languages

They are developed with the programmer in mind rather than the computer. It is easy to
correct errors (Debug) and it can be run on different types of computers. Programs written
in high level language must first be translated by a compiler or an interpreter to low level
language before it can be implemented by the hardware. Examples are: LOGO, HTML, C++,
BASIC, FORTRAN and JAVA.

Advantages of high-level languages

 Simple instructions similar to English make high level languages easier to understand.
 It is easy to correct errors and test programs
 Programs written in high level languages can be used on different makes of a
computer.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN HIGH LEVEL AND LOW LEVEL

HIGH LEVEL LOW LEVEL

Easy to write programs Difficult to write programs
Portable/ Transferable Not portable/ machine specific
Easy to debug Not easy to debug
More time taken in translation Less time taken in translation
Easy for the programmer to understand Difficult for the programmer to understand

PROGRAM TRANSLATORS

A translator is a system software program that is used to convert the instructions from one
language into machine code.
Types of translation programs:
 Compilers
 Interpreters
 Assemblers
Compiler: It is a program that translates all the source code statement before executing the
program. The translation is done once

Interpreter: It is a program that translates and executes each source code statement by
statement before translating and executing the next statement.

Assembler: it translate program written in assembly language into machine code. An

assembly language uses letter codes instead of binary form for instructions. Therefore,
rather than using a binary code such as 01110001 for 'multiply', assembly language uses MUL.

A program written in a high level language is said to be a source code.

A program written in a low level language is an object code.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEEN COMPILERS AND INTERPRETERS

Compilers and interpreters are used to convert high level languages into and low level
language (machine code) but the way they do it is different.

COMPILER INTERPRETER
Translate the whole high level language Translate each line of the program into
program once and execute it machine code
Are large and complicated programs Are shorter and simple programs therefore
therefore takes more memory space takes less memory space
It need only be used once therefore they run Must be used every time the program is run,
faster than interpreted programs therefore programs run slower
It is difficult to correct mistakes and program It is easier to correct mistakes and program
modifications using compiler modifications using compiler

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN COMPILERS AND ASSEMBLERS

COMPILER ASSEMBLER
Convert high level language into machine Convert assembly language into machine
code code
Can be used on any computer, it is portable
Can only be used on the computer for which
it was designed.
Translation process is more complicated Translation process is more therefore takes
than assembly and therefore takes longer less time and space in computer memory
time

APPLICATION SOFTWARE
These are programs developed to perform specific tasks or solve a particular problem for
end-user.
Examples of application software: word processor, spread sheet and database.

Applications software can be categorized in to three broad types:

 General Purpose software
 Integrated software
 Tailor made software
GENERAL PURPOSE (OFF-THE-SHELF) SOFTWARE
This is the software that is not written for any specific task but can be used to suit specific
needs.E.g. a word processing, database, spread sheet.
This type of software is sometimes called generic software.

Advantages of off the shelf

 It is relatively cheap to buy
 It is readily available
 can be installed quickly and easily
 It will have been thoroughly tested so there will be very little chance of it having any
serious faults
 It will be well supported with a lot of books available about how to use it, as well as
online help and discussions on the internet.

Disadvantages
 Same level with competitors
 Failure to meet your specific needs

The most common types of general purpose software and the kind of tasks that they can
be used for are listed below:
 Database packages (e.g. MS Access, Oracle, Dbase, Lotus Approach, Paradox,
FileMaker, FoxPro): are used to store and retrieve information
 Spreadsheet packages (E.G. ms Excel, Lotus 123, Quattro pro) : are used for tasks that
involve a lot of calculations or for the production of graphs and charts
 Word processing packages (e.g. M S Word, Word Perfect) are used to produce text-
base documents such as letters, memos and reports.
Features
 Graphics packages (e .g. Paint, Corel Draw, PaintBrush, Serif Draw): are used to
produce and manipulate Artwork.
 Computer-aided design (CAD) packages (2D&3D-Design, AutoCAD, TurboCAD): are
used to produce engineering designs and architectural plans.
 Presentation Graphics packages (e.g PowerPoint, Lotus Freelance) are used to create
slide shows and presentations which can be viewed on-screen or with a data or
overhead projector.
  Web design packages (e.g Ms FrontPage, Macromedia Dreamweaver) are used to
create web pages.

Features of Word Processors:

 Enables one to type a document through the keyboard and save it on a disk
 Enables one to Correct, delete and insert characters, words, lines and images
anywhere in the document
 Move or copy paragraphs or images from one place in the document to another
 Reduce or increase the left, right, top and bottom margins according to the
requirement
 Change text font, colour, style and size
 Search for a particular word or phrase and replace words
 Search for errors in spelling and make corrections
 Print a document in various formats
 Print a document using mail merge.

Features of Spreadsheet:
 A powerful feature of a spreadsheet is that it recalculates the result of a
mathematical formula automatically if the data source changes.
 Analysis of data involves:
• Performing statistical and mathematical calculations on the data, like
totaling, averaging etc.
• Preventing the data in the form of graphs to facilitate comparison
between two sets of data
• Pivot tables, Microsoft Query and Data Map tools allow users to
present data in different ways to facilitate data analysis

Features of the Database

• Information stored in a computerised database can be:
• Found /retrieved extremely quickly
• Sorted and re-sorted quickly
• Kept up to date very easily
• Used by other applications

Features of the Desktop publishing

• The size of the font can be altered
• The font size can be varied to add more interest
• You can add some appropriate clip art or photographs to make it attractive
• You can use frames to vary the layout
• You can use bullets to list your points
• You can add a border to make your design standout
 • You can add color to produce an eye catching look
• You can use the spell checker and grammatical checker to ensure that there are no
spelling errors and grammatical errors

Features of Graphics Packages

• Graphics packages can mean where you can draw line diagrams, flood fill, and
produce a variety of shading fonts and typefaces
• It allows you to scan a photograph or a diagram directly into the computer so that
you can subsequently manipulate it in some ways
• There are two formats that a graphics file can have. It can represent an image as a
bitmap or vector graphics
• A bitmap file represents each dot or pixel on the screen as a single bit of information
in a file
• In vector graphics, the lines are stored as equations inside the computer.

Features of CAD
• It produces accurate scale diagrams.
• You can easily manipulate the images on the screen
• You can produce drawings in 3D, such as for kitchens, gardens, buildings etc.
• Drawing can easily be scaled up and down.

Features of Presentation
• Presentation packages are used to sell products, services or just ideas to someone
else.
• Good presentation use visual aids such as slides or transparencies on projector. e.g
PowerPoint
• Multimedia presentations are useful for training since students can see
demonstrations on screen and can also interact with the software
TAILOR MADE SOFTWARE (BESPOKE)
This is the software written to meet the specific needs of a company. It may be written by
individuals within the company (self sourcing) or employ an outside company(outsourcing)
to write it.

Advantages:
 More accurate because the software is designed for that specific task.
Disadvantages:
 Some programs take long time to develop
 Can be very expensive to buy

Example: software written to calculate wages for staff

Advantages
 The calculations will be accurate and can be altered quickly if someone does some
overtime.
 The calculations will be done quicker, so wages will be given out on time.
 The employer can save records of wages given to each employee, so that the records
will be useful later to produce reports.
Disadvantages:
 The staff can suffer the following from the introduction of the software to calculate
wages.
 The staff may feel that they may lose their jobs they are not conversant with
computers
 If there is any problem with the computer, then the wages will be delayed.

INTEGRATED SOFTWARE
It consists of a collection of application packages which share common set of commands.
Putting it simply, an integrated package may be a word processor, spread sheet, database
and graphics package all in one.

Advantages
 The commands are common throughout, so it is easier to get used to.
 Moving data from one program to another is easier .e.g. if you are working on Ms
Word, you can easily incorporate a graph in Ms Excel via a simple cut/copy and paste
operation.
 Much cheaper to buy than separate packages.

Disadvantage
 Integrated packages tend to be strong in one area and weak in others. e.g. i t can
have a good database but poor word processor.
 File Organization
File organization is a physical placement or arrangement of records within the file. The way in which files
are stored has a direct bearing on how quickly the data contained can be accessed. Records on a file can
be ordered or unordered.

A character is the smallest element in a file and it can be alphabetic, numeric or special.

A field is any item of data within a record. It is made up of a number of characters. E.g name, a date, an
amount, gender (sex) etc

A record is a collection of data pertaining to one entity ( A record is made up of a number of related
fields. E.g. a customer’s record, employee payroll. Eg a bank’s customer file may contain a single record
with all account numbers, branch number, name, address, phone number and current balance.) A
record can be recognized or identified by the record KEY Field

A key field /primary key/ key word: is a data element of field used to identify one and
only one record on a file.

It is unique and it should not be a duplicate/ duplicated. Examples include a bank account number, an
employee ID number, student’s ID number, invoices number, etc

A group of related records gives a file.

File access methods

File access is the process of getting to a file by searching

1. Serial File access

2. Sequential file access
3. Random/direct file access

1. Serial File access

There is no sequence or order to records that are stored in a serial file. They are stored in the order they
are received and new records are added at the end of the file.In order to access a record in a serial file,
the whole file has to be read from the beginning until the desired record is located.

2. Sequential File access.

Sequential files are organized in such a way that the records are stored according to the order of the
values of a chosen record attribute (field). The records can be in ascending or descending order, based
upon the attribute value. E.g. records in your bank’s customer file may be stored in customer account
number order in an ascending order.

The field used for sequencing the record is mainly the primary key of the record (such as the customer
account number) or a combination of other fields.

3. Direct/Random File access.

The records are not stored in any particular sequence. Instead a mathematical relationship is established
between a record key value and the address of its physical location on the storage media.Just as with
Sequential files, direct files rely on direct access storage device. This is also known as random file
organization

Random file organization allows extremely fast access to individual records, but the file cannot be
processed sequentially.

Types of files

i) Master file

ii) Transaction file (movement file)

Master Files

A master file is the most important file since it is the most complete and up-to-date version of a file,
such as a table on all the pupils in a school, a table containing all the personnel details and a table
containing all the parent/guardian details. If a master file is lost or damaged and it is the only copy, the
whole system will break down.

Transaction Files

Transaction files are used to hold temporary data, which is used to update the master file. Transactions
can occur in any order, so it is necessary to sort a transaction file into the same order as the master file
before it is used to update the master file.
Grand father-father-son principle (method of updating)

There is always a slight chance that the data contained on a master file may be destroyed. An
inexperienced user, a power failure, fire or even theft could destroy it. For a large company, the loss
of vital data could prove disastrous. But using the grandfather-father-son principle it is possible to
recreate the master file if it is lost.
The principle works like this. Basically three generations of file are kept. The oldest master file is
called the grandfather file and it is kept with the transaction file. These two files are used to
produce a new master file called the father file, which, with its transaction file, is used to create the
most up-to-date file, called the son file. The process is repeated and the son becomes the father
and the father becomes the grandfather and so on.

File processes/ Manipulations

File Updating – Involves bringing a file up-to-date with any changes that have occurred since it was last
updated.
Insertions – A new pupil may have joined the school and so that pupil’s details will need to be added to
the pupil’s file.
Deletion – A pupil may have moved to a new school so that pupil’s details will need to be removed
(deleted) from the pupil’s file.
Amendments – A pupil has moved house so the address field needs changing. This is called amending
the details.
Sorting – Is the process of rearranging the pupil’s file in a particular order for example in alphabetical
order or in age order.
Merging – Is the process used to combine the details held in two different files into one file.
 Unit 2- SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT LIFE CYCLE (SDLC)
These are stages/phases that are followed when one is developing an information system
(software).Stages of SDLC are: Fact finding, Feasibility study, Analysis, Design, Testing,
Implementation, Documentation, Maintenance and Evaluation.
Related terms:
System: A collection of related components that interact to perform a task in order to
accomplish a goal. An organization's computer-based information system consists of
hardware, software, people, procedures, and data, as well as communications setups. These
components work together to provide people with information for running the organization
Self sourcing: This is where workers having the knowledge within the organization build the
organization’s system.
Outsourcing: This is where a person outside organization is asked to build the
organization’s system.
Prototyping: It is the creating a model which displays the necessary characteristics of a
proposed system.
System analyst: A system analyst is an expert who determines the problems in an existing
system and tries to come up with a possibly solution to the problems and software to be
used. He understands the general objectives of the business/ organization, as well as what
each individual user's job requires. Once the system analyst has determined the general and
specific needs of the business /organization, he can choose appropriate systems that will
help accomplish the goals of the business.
SDLC STAGES
 Participants in the project
There are three (3) main participants in the project. Those are:
Users: The people who will be using the system. The system should always be developed in
consultation with users of the system so that they appreciate it.
Management: Managers are decision makers in the system development.
Technical staff: Members of the company's information systems (IS) department, consisting
of systems analysts and programmers, who are the drivers of the technical, know how?

1. Feasibility study
It is the study which looks at the chances of being able to solve a particular problem at a
reasonable cost. This investigation is carried out to find the problems with the existing
system and to find out if it is technically possible and cost effective to solve the problems by
developing a computers based solution. The following is a list of contents available in the
feasibility report produced at the end of the investigation:
 A description of the existing system, outlining the what is being done and how
 A problem statements describing exactly what the problems are with the existing
system.
 Objectives of the system (A description of what is the new system must be able to
do)
 Preliminary design to help estimate cost
 Alternative design to choose the suitable cost etc.
Other critical factors are considered. These are constraints that can slow or affect solution
development. These are:
-Technology--- It is important know whether the required technology (hardware, software)
are present to develop and host the proposed system.
-Tim frame--- They need to know the time frame for the completion of the work. This helps
the developers to divide their work accordingly based on the amount of time they have to
complete the solution.
-Finance/cost--- there should be enough funds available to purchase all equipment required
for successful development of the solution.
After completing all these, Management has three choices to make:
* To leave the system as it is,
* To improve the existing system
* To develop a new system
The study ends when a decision is taken by management whether or not to proceed with
the project.

2. Analysis
The system analyst looks into more details on the system to be designed and attempts to fix
the problem. The analyst does all these looking at facts about parts of the old system being
replaced, constraints on the system and how people taking part should work.
He or she breaks the system down into different pieces called modules to analyze the
situation. Some of the questions that the analyst answers are; “what is being done now?”
“Why is it being done?”, “Who is doing it”, and “how is it being done?”
The system analyst makes use of the following fact finding methods (data gathering
techniques) to gather more information about the system;

Fact finding/problem identification

It is the finding out of facts and accurate information about the existing system. The
problems of the system should be clearly stated together with its causes and consequences.
This is carried out by System analysis.
Under this stage information need to be gathered and the methods used are:
i) Interviewing people
This refers to talking to people, asking them questions about the existing system
and writing down their responses. It allows one to gather more detailed
information. Body language can also be detected where emotions and behaviors
need to be recorded.
Disadvantage
One ends up asking questions that are not within the scope of questions.
It may also be time consuming when there are many people to be interviewed.

ii) Questionnaires
This is getting people to fill in carefully designed questions on a paper or form.
People are more honest and say what they really think about the system if they
are filling in an anonymous questionnaire rather than in a face to face interview. It
is much easier to analyse the responses given on a well-designed questionnaire
than notes taken during interviews
Disadvantage
One cannot gather much information since the questions are limited.
With questionnaire one cannot observe gestures and behaviors.
 iii) Observations
Sitting down with various people to observe how jobs are done in the system.
This usually gives a more accurate picture of what actually happens, how the
system works and who does what and how.
Disadvantage
Often people will not work the way they normally do if they know they are being
watched
A lot of time is needed to during the observation. Short observations will result in
little information.
iv) Examining documents
This method involves looking at the paperwork that is used in the existing system.
Paperwork includes any forms that are completed, letters, memos and manual
filing system such as paper records in a filing cabinet. For systems that are already
computerized, screen layouts and printed output will also be examined.

Again the input –process-output modules of the present system are identified together with
their problems. The analyst uses modeling tools to present the graphical representation of
the system. Eg. The use of programming flowchart, Systems flowchart and Data Flow
Diagram(DFD). A data flow diagram describes the data flow through a system. DFDs are
concerned with only the data in the system and do not describe any of its hardware.

3. Design
It is the theoretical representation of the system’s components and their relationships which
describes the functions and performance of the system. It concerns with the detailed design
of the new system which are:
 Input design
 Output design
 Code design
 File structure design
 Hardware required
 Software required
 Data preparation
 Test plan
From a list of alternative solutions, one solution is identified and looking at the factors as;
 what hardware does the solution require
 What benefits does the solution offer
 What are the drawbacks of the solution
 How long will it take to develop the solution
 How much will this solution cost?

A test plan is usually written whilst the system is being developed. The test plan will contain
details of every single thing that needs to be tested. A typical test plan would contain:
- Details of what is being tested
- The test data to use
- What is expected to happen when the test is performed.
The three types of test data are:
1. Normal: To check if valid data is accepted
2. Abnormal: To check that in valid data is properly handled/processed
3. Extreme: To make sure that the range checks included in the validation
program will work.
Example;
A data ranging from 100 to 500
Normal: 100-500
Extreme: 100 and 500
Abnormal: any number less than 100 and any number greater than 500

4. Implementation
It is the process of transition/conversion from an old information system to a new system
which involves converting hardware, software, files and training the users. The activities of
this stage will include:
 Creating data files
 Setting up data validation checks
 Entering enough data ready for testing the system
 Creating input and output screens
 Setting up the user interface
 Setting up the system security
Testing
Testing should be carried out using the test plan that was prepared at the design stage to
make sure that all parts of the system work correctly with, normal, extreme and abnormal
data. The following table shows a test plan that uses these types of data. The test shown are
being used to check part of the system that must input student examination marks in the
range between 0 and 100.

Test No. Purpose of test Test data Expected result

1 Check the input mark function 45 Mark accepted

accepts the normal data

2 Check the input mark function 0 Mark accepted

accepts the extreme data

3 Check the input mark function 100 Mark accepted

accepts the extreme data

4 Check the input mark function -45 Mark rejected-error

accepts the abnormal data message displayed

There are four strategies for implementing new system:

1. Direct/Abrupt/ instant implementation
2. Parallel running
3. Phased implementation
4. Pilot implementation

Direct implementation:
This is where the old system is stopped completely and the new system start
running/operating immediately.
Adv.
-It comes with a less cost to change the system since sometimes the workers already know
how to use the system.
Disadvantage
-If the new system stops working there will be nothing to fall back on.
Parallel running implementation:
This means the old and new systems are operated side by side for a certain period of time
until eventually the old system is stopped.

Adv.
-If the new system fails, the
organization can switch back
to the old one.
Disadv.
-It is expensive to use this method since you have to pay for the equipment and people to
keep two systems going at the same time.
Phased implementation:
This is where the system is introduced in stages or steps and gradually replacing parts of the
old system until eventually the new system has taken over.

Adv.
-It allows users to gradually get used to the new system.
-Staff training can be done in stages
Disadv.
-If part of the new system fails there will be no back up system so data can be lost.
Pilot implementation:
Introducing the new system at selected branches and rolling out to other branches once
proven to be reliable.
Adv
-All features of the new system can be fully trialed
-If something goes wrong with the new system, only a small a part of the organization is
affected.
-The staff who were part of the pilot scheme can help train other staff.
Disadv
For the office / department doing the pilot, there is no back up system if things go wrong.

5.Documentation
It is the user guide or manual that the user can turn to for learning a new procedure or for
dealing with a problem that has arisen.
There are two types of documentation that should be produced when creating a new
system:
 User documentation
 Technical Documentation.
User documentation
It used by non-technical people to operate the system. It is a user manual / user guide.
It usually includes:
 How to input data
 Error handling techniques
 Sample screens
 Hardware requirements
 Software requirements
Technical Documentation
This is the detailed description of the system that helps programmers / analysts who need to
know exactly how the system works to fix problems when they arise.
It includes the following
 Hardware required
 Software required
 file structures
 validation rules
 data types
 algorithms(system flowcharts, programming flowcharts, pseudocodes)
  data flow diagrams
 sample screens
 test plan

6. Maintenance/Evaluation/Review the System

Adjusts and improves the system by having system periodic evaluations and by making
changes based on new conditions. Even with the conversion accomplished and the users
trained, the system won't just run itself. There is a continuous-phase in which the
information system must be monitored to ensure that it is successful. Maintenance includes
not only keeping the machinery running but also updating and upgrading the system to keep
pace with new products, services, customers, government regulations, and other
requirements.

At some point, these maintenance costs become excessive, indicating that it may be time to
start the entire SDLC again.
Unit 3- Programming Concepts
Programming Terms
Writing the program is called Coding it consists of translating the logic requirements from
pseudo code or flow charts into programming language i.e. the letters, numbers, and
symbols that make up a program
Programming language: Set of rules that tell the computer what operations to do.eg java
C++, C also it is called high level language.
Syntax: certain rules that must be followed in writing the program i.e. programming
grammar
Desk-checking: means reading through, or checking the errors and that the logic works
before the program is actually run on a computer.
Debugging: means detecting, locating and removing all errors in a computer program
Syntax error: are caused by typographical errors and incorrect use of programming
language.
Logic error: are caused by incorrect use of control structures
Variable: Is a storage location in the memory of the computer reserved for a specific data
item
Constant: Is an item of data that does not change during the execution of the program
Counter: A variable that repeat itself after the equal sign and is added to any number: e.g.
N= N+1
Accumulator: A variable repeating itself after the equal sign and is added to another variable
e.g. S= S+N
Initialization: Equating a variable to a number at the beginning of the program e.g. W=2, Y=8,
X=0
Dry running: When working the program with your own mind without using the computer
Trace table: The table we use to follow the flowchart e.g. representing variables with
numbers.
Advantages of structured programming

The following are the different advantages of structured programming

1. It is user friendly and easy to understand.

2. Similar to English vocabulary of words and symbols.
3. It is easier to learn.
4. They require less time to write.
5. They are easier to maintain.
6. These are mainly problem oriented rather than machine based.
7. Program written in a higher level language can be translated into many machine languages and
therefore can run on any computer for which there exists an appropriate translator.
8. It is independent of machine on which it is used i.e. programs developed in high level languages
can be run on any computer.

Algorithm/Program

Is a formula or set of steps for solving a particular problem. It can also be defined as a step-
by-step sequence of instructions that describes how to solve a given problem.

Methods used to solve the problem

4. Top-down approach
5. Bottom-up approach

1. Top-down approach
In this approach, programming begins from the top level of hierarchy and progresses
towards the lower levels. The implementation of modules starts with the main module.
After the implementation of the main module, the subordinate modules are implemented
and the process follows in this way.

Advantages of top-down approach

1. In this approach, first, we develop and test most important module.

2. This approach is easy to see the progress of the project by developer or customer.

3. Testing and debugging is easier and efficient.

4. In this approach, project implementation is smoother and shorter.

2. Bottom-up approach
The description begins at the bottom of the hierarchy of modules and progresses through
higher levels until it reaches the top. Bottom-up programming is just the opposite of top-
down programming. Bottom-up approach is more suitable for a project or system which is
going to start from some existing modules.

The problem can either be solved by writing the steps or drawing to show the details that is
using pseudo code or flowchart

To draw flowchart, we employ the symbols shown in the Figure 1. The meaning of each
flowchart symbol is given in Table 1.

Table 1: Meaning of flowchart symbols

Symbol name Description
Terminal Indicates the beginning and end of an algorithm/program
Input/Output Indicates an input or output operation e.g. print
Process Indicates calculation or assigning of a value to a variable
Flow lines Connects the flowchart symbols and indicates the logic flow
Decision Indicates a question that can be answered yes or no (true or false)

Flowchart symbols

Oval, indicates Start or Stop; (Terminator symbol)

Parallelogram, used to specify an input or Output operation-e.g. getting data

or printing data

Rectangle, used to specify an operation or process, e.g. find

average or set F to 32+9/5C (process symbol)
 Rhombus, used to specify a condition. This is usually takes the
for of a question with possible answers Yes or No (True or False)

Circle, used as a connecting point for arrows coming from different directions
(Connector Symbol).

Flow lines, Connects the flowchart symbols and indicates the logic flow

Types of flowcharts

-Programming flowcharts
-Systems flowcharts
-Data flow

1).Programming Flowcharts
Flow charts are a graphical method of designing programs.
There are three structures to be looked at when dealing with programming flow charts.
These are
 Sequence structure: There are no decisions to make, no choices between “yes” or
“no”

Examples

Input variable: always on the right

Output variable: always on the left and it’s storage for input variables
NB: We only input variables not constants i.e. the ones that can change are the one we input
not numbers.

1). C = A+B 2) Gao = Obe +Boi – Two 3). I = Y +B

Z = A-I

Exercise
1. Y= 2Z +B 2. z = 2a – b + y
Mat = N/Y
Q = Mat - Y

Decision/Selection structure

There are two path to be followed either “yes” or “no”.

There are certain statements to be looked at here
-Simple IF
-Double IF (IF -Then-Else)
-Multiple IF (Else IF

1. Simple IF statement (If-Then)

The IF-THEN statement is a simple control that tests whether a condition is true or false. If the
condition is true, then an action occurs. If the condition is false, nothing is done. thus:

IF variable is true

THEN take this course of action.

If the variable indeed holds a value being true, then the course of action is taken. If the
variable is not true, then there is no course of action taken.

Example

1. C =a + b n>4
pseudo code
Start
Input n, a, b
If n>4 then
C=a+b
Endif
Print C
Stop

A subroutine is a sequence of computer instructions for performing a specified task that can be used
repeatedly. A sub routine may be used by one or more programs. A sub routine is not itself a complete
program. It has to be called by other programs. When a program calls a sub routine, its (sub routine)
task is carried out, control then returns to the correct place in the calling program, which continues
where it left off. The ‘blocks’ of statements are important for a number of reasons:

1. They make it easier to write programs, because the programmer can write less code, since
the same code can be called from numerous places in a program.
2. It also helps in reducing program duplication
3. They help in decomposing complex programs in to simpler pieces.
4. Functions can also return a value, so this makes it convenient to use a function to set a
value of a variable.
5. Debugging is easier
6. The errors are reduced
Example: let’s say you want a function that calculates the area of a circle. You supply the radius of a
circle, and the function returns the value.

So, here is what the function itself might look like;

Double circle-area (float radius)

This – area = 3.1415926535 * faw (radius, 2)

Return (this - area);

}
PROGRAM ANNOTATION
A Program Annotation is comments/ remarks written alongside a code or part of a code to
explain what it is doing.

Comment is a statement written by a program to explain the program to anyone reading it.

Comments are not translated to machine code, during program execution.

IMPORTANCE OF PROGRAM ANNOTATION

 To highlight the procedures/modules of the program
 To explain the function of modules or procedures
 To explain variable used

CONTROL STRUCTURES/ PROGRAMMING

CONSTRUCTS
There are three Control Structures that a structured program takes:

1. Sequence
2. Selection
3. Looping/Iteration/Repetition

CONTROL STRUCTURES/ PROGRAMMING CONSTRUCTS

There are three Control Structures that a structured program takes:

1. SEQUENCE

This is structure in which one statement follows another and the computer executes them in
the sequence given.

Specifying an algorithm in pseudo code means that the algorithm is written using a language
similar to a real programming language.

E.g. Write an algorithm for opening a locked door

BEGIN

Put key in lock

Turn key

Remove key

Turn handle and push door open

END

2. SELECTION

This is type of structure where the next statement to be executed depends on the value of
an expression,

There are two types of constructs using the selection structure and these are:

 If - then – else statement

 CASE statement

DOUBLE IF STATEMENT ( known as IF - THEN – ELSE) statement will have the general format
below:

IF condition

Then

(Process 1)

Else

(Process 2)

ENDIF
When the condition is true, the first process will be taken and when the condition is false,
the second process will be taken. Only one option/process will, taken per run.
Example

Given that n>5 do the process C = a + b otherwise do the process C = a – b

pseudo code

Start

Input n, a, b

If n>5 then

C=a+b

Else

C=a-b

Endif

Print C

Stop

E.g. Write an algorithm to determine whether a students given mark is a PASS or FAIL basing on the fact
that any mark less than 50 is a FAIL and 50 upwards is a PASS

BEGIN

INPUT mark

IF mark < 50

THEN

WRITE 'FAIL'

ELSE
 WRITE 'PASS'

ENDIF

END.

CASE STATEMENT

This is a more general selection structure, which is more useful when a choice has to be
made from three or more possibilities..

Its general format is shown below:

CASE of

Statement 1

Statement 2

………….

………….

Statement x

END CASE

E.g. selecting a choice of fruit juices.

BEGIN

CASE drink

(Lemon)

pour juice from Lemon jug

(Orange)
 pour juice from Orange jug

(Pineapple)

pour juice from Pineapple jug

ENDCASE

. END.

ITERATION (REPETITION OR LOOP)

This is where a section of the program is repeated many times. There are basically two
methods of repeating statements:

 Unconditional: where the statements are repeated a number of times from the start.
This is achieved by using the FOR loop.

 Conditional: where continuation or termination of the repetition is governed by what

happens within the loop. This Is expressed by means of a Boolean expression. i.e. an
expression which is either true or false. There are two popular repetition statements
i.e. the WHILE ... DO statement and REPEAT ... UNTIL

EXAMPLES

Write an algorithm to sum up a students 7 subjects scores and output the average.

i) Using FOR LOOP

BEGIN

SET totalmark to 0

FOR subject 1 TO 7

INPUT 8ubjectmark

ADD subjectmark to totalmark

ENDFOR
AVERAGE:= totalmark/7

OUTPUT AVERAGE

END

ii) Using WHILE...DO LOOP

BEGIN

SET totalmark to 0

INPUT subject

WHILE subject < > 8 DO

INPUT subjectmark

ADD subjectmark to totalmark

INPUT subject

ENDWHILE

AVERAGE =totalmark/7

OUTPUT AVERAGE

END.

iii) Using REPEAT on UNTIL

BEGIN

SET totalmark to 0

INPUT subject

REPEAT

INPUT subjectmark

ADD subjectmark to totalmark

INPUT subject

UNTIL subject = 8

AVERAGE = totalmark I 7

OUTPUT AVERAGE

END
Example

KK fashions is the name of a clothing store in Lobatse. The manager is planning a special
offer. Customers will receive a 25% discount on any purchase worth P500 or more. On all
other items, the discount will be 15%. In each case, the discount will be calculated before 10%
value added tax (VAT) is added.

Algorithm for the above problem

BEGIN

INPUT Item price

Condition test

Process to find new price

Display Final price

END
Pseudo code for the above problem
BEGIN

INPUT price

If price>=500 then

Discount = PRICE*25%

Else

Discount = price*15%

End if

New price=price-Discount

VAT=New price*10%

Final price=New price + VAT

END
Flow chart for the above problem

3.
EXERCISE

1. Write out the result of this statement, which decides how much tax someone has to pay
using the test data given

IF salary > = 5000

THEN
amount: salary -2000
Tax:= amount *0.2
OUTPUT amount, tax
ELSE
amount: salary -1000
Tax:= amount *0.1
OUTPUT amount, tax.

ENDIF

Complete the following IF statement above

Name Salary Amount Tax

Goseleng 6000

Thabo 4000

Kefilwe 5000

Boitumelo 3000

Kedibonye 7000

2.Draw a program flowchart for the following pseudocode.

begin

set total to 0

set num to 0

repeat

input mark

total = total + mark

num = num + 1

until (num=7)

average = total/num

output average

End
 Unit 4- COMPUTER SECURITY
During the second half of the 20th Century, computers were getting more powerful and
easy to
use. Companies, industries, institutions and individuals began to use them to store
confidential
and large amount of information.

It has become very important to keep information system as secure as possible. The
hardware
and the software that make up a computer are very expensive to buy and the data and the
information that forms part of the heart of the system have even greater value.

RISKS TO DATA ON THE COMPUTER

Data can be destroyed or damaged using the following ways:
o Mistakes by users such as deleting files
o Hackers gaining access to the system and deleting or changing data
o Computer fraud, where data is changed to benefit individuals
o Theft of the computer with data on its hard disk
o Infections of systems or data by computer virus
o Deliberate damage of the system by users.
o Disasters such as fire, floods, earthquakes e.t.c. destroying the equipments
o Break down of hardware, particularly disk drives.
WHY DATA HAS TO BE PROTECTED
o Maintain privacy
o Avoid Unauthorized access
o Prevent hacking
o Prevent piracy
o Prevent data from Virus
The following methods have been devised to reduce the risk to data loss: physical security
measures, data access restrictions and software security measures.

PHYSICAL SESURITY
Computers are very attractive items and very often targeted by thieves. If the hardware is
stolen, the data content will also be stolen. Some protection possibilities are:
o Locks on doors
o Bolting or chaining down equipments
o Security alarms
o Security guards
o ID badges
o Smoke detectors
Floppy disks are easily physically damaged and must also be kept away from magnetic fields
and dust.
SOFTWARE SECURITY MEASURES

1. DATA ACCESS CONTROL

Username or user id and password: each user must enter a unique identity combination to
be able to log on to the computer. Access to certain parts, services or data on the system
can as well be controlled. This will for example prevent unauthorized people from deleting
or installing programs or files or change the computer setup.

External hackers can be blocked by disconnecting modems from the telephone when not
being use. Systems with permanent connections need special software called "firewall" to
prevent unauthorized access.

 A firewall is a utility program (or it can also be a hardware device) that filters the
information coming through the Internet connection into your personal computer or
into a company's network. Its main aim is to try to stop any attempts by intruders to
enter your system through the internet connection.
 It is set up to allow mainly one way access, i.e. you can go out onto the Internet and
access
 pages, but it checks every data packet that either enters or leaves the computer
against a set of rules. If the data coming back is from an unauthorized source then it
is blocked.
 You may have heard people saying, 'I can't get on that site at school because it's
been blocked'; that is the firewall in action. All networks and indeed all home PCs
should have an active firewall

 2.LOG FILES
A record can be kept of everyone who logs in to the computer whether successful or not.
Details of all the files accessed and changed made to them are recorded. If a hacker tries to
enter the system from outside, log files can keep a record of the telephone number or source
IP address.
3. ENCRYPTION

It is a way of coding data so that it looks like garbage and does not make sense to anyone
who doesn't have the correct key to decrypt it. Encryption is often used on the internet to
protect data when it is sent from one person to the other. If someone is buying something
from a secure website, their credit card details are encrypted before being transmitted, so
that if hackers were to intercept the data, it won't be valid.

4. BACKING UP OF DATA
Making backup of valuable data is an obvious way of reducing the damage caused when the
original data is lost or destroyed. Making a backup should be a regular occurrence, and
ideally the backup data should be stored securely away from the original data. Some
businesses have contracts with companies that specialize in data backup and they will
backup all the data at a remote location using a secure internet link.

TYPES OF BACKUP.
1. Full backup:- In this procedure whole data of the system is duplicated/copied in order to
safeguard against physical damage such as fire or hardware failure.
2. Differential: - In this procedure of backing up selected data that has changed since the
previous full backup is done.
3. Incremental backup. This method is used to append the previous data by coping the latest
data to update the changes made in the data since the previous backup.

COMPUTER VIRUS & PROTECTION AGAINST VIRUSES

A computer virus is a software program that is designed to copy itself over and over again
and
to attach itself to other programs.
Viruses do not damage the computer hardware. They affect the data and programs stored
on the computer. They can cause an immense amount of time wasting and financial loss for
people and businesses. For example, the "Melissa" virus was so effective in spreading itself
that many huge corporations had to shut down their email systems until the virus could be
contained.The operating system tries to make sure that data is not corrupted by viruses. In
order to do this, antivirus software is used.

There are a number of anti-virus programs available for wiping out viruses for example
Norton, McAfee, Avast and AVG. The anti-virus software contains a database of known
viruses. Every time a file is opened, the anti-virus utility checks the content, looking for
hidden viruses against its database. When the utility recognises a virus pattern, it will alert
the user, and ask them whether they want to remove the virus and clean the system, or
whether they simply want to 'quarantine' the virus. New and more damaging viruses are
being written all the time and so to keep up with these new threats, the anti-virus
companies provide constant updates to their software. Normally, you log on to the internet
and the software will update itself either automatically or after a certain period set by you.
There is usually a small annual fee involved for this service, but it is a small price to pay for
peace of mind.

Effect of virus
1. Auto deletion of files
2. Regular hanging of computer
3. Slow speed of processing
4. More memory consumption
Protection against Virus
o Obtain all software from reliable sources on your machine,
o install Updated anti-virus software which checks for viruses on the hard disk every
time the system is booted
o Scan files of detachment that comes from someone unknown or it not clearly
explained
o Do not use second hand software unless you have scanned it first for viruses.
o Use of firewall software

TYPES OF VIRUS

There are four types of viruses that can spread through your system.
 Program - this type is executed from within specific application programs. The virus spreads to
other programs on the computer, or when a copy of an infected program is loaded onto another
system.
 Boot sector - this type enters your system through a floppy disk, and then infects the hard drive.
The result is any time a floppy disk is used, it will become infected.
 Macro - this type is written specifically for macro applications on your computer like Microsoft
Word, Excel and Outlook. When an infected document is opened within one of these programs,
the program itself becomes infected, allowing the virus to spread to any document opened up
inside the program.
 Email - this type spreads through email attachments. Once an infected attachment is opened,
the virus enters your email application. It then duplicates itself by automatically emailing
everyone listed in your address book.
Data integrity
It is concerned with the correctness of data. When mistakes or errors are introduced in to
data when typing, some validation and verification checks are performed to ensure its
integrity.
Data Security
It is concerned with keeping the data safe from the various hazards that could destroy it.

COMPUTER CRIME

With the growth of information system, there has been an increase in computer crimes.
Computer crimes may not necessarily involve damage to physical property. They rather
include the manipulation of confidential data and critical information. Computer crimes
involve activities of software theft, wherein the privacy of the users is hampered. These
criminal activities involve the breach of human and information privacy, as also the theft and
illegal alteration of system critical information. The different types of computer crimes have
necessitated the introduction and use of newer and more effective security measures.

Hacking: The activity of breaking into a computer system to gain an unauthorized access is
'known as hacking. The act of defeating the security capabilities of a computer system in
order to obtain an illegal access to the information stored on the computer system is called
hacking. The unauthorized revelation of passwords with intent to gain an unauthorized
access to the private communication of an organization of a user is one of the widely known
computer crimes. Another highly dangerous computer crime is the hacking of IP addresses
in order to transact with a false identity, thus remaining anonymous while carrying out the
criminal

Phishing: Phishing is the act of attempting to acquire sensitive information like usernames,
passwords and credit card details by disguising as a trustworthy source. Phishing is carried
out through emails or by luring the users to enter personal information through fake
websites.Criminals often use websites that have a look and feel of some popular website,
which makes the users feel safe to enter their details there.

Computer Viruses: Computer viruses are computer programs that can replicate themselves
and harm the computer systems on a network without the knowledge of the system users.
Viruses spread to other computers through network file system, Internet or by the means of
removable devices like USB drives and CDs. Computer viruses are after all, forms of
malicious codes written with an aim to harm a computer system and destroy information.
Writing computer viruses is a criminal activity as virus infections can crash computer systems,
thereby destroying great amounts of critical data.
Cyber stalking: The use of communication technology, mainly the Internet, to torture other
individuals is known as cyber stalking. False accusations, transmission of threats and damage
to data and equipment fall under the class of cyber stalking activities. Cyber stalkers often
target the users by means of chat rooms, online forums and social networking websites to
gather user information and harass the users on the basis of the information gathered.
Obscene emails, abusive phone calls and other such serious effects of cyber stalking have
made it a type of computer crime.

Identity Theft: This is one of the most serious frauds as it involves stealing money and
obtaining other benefits through the use of a false identity. It is the act of pretending to be
someone else by using someone else's identity as one's own. Financial identity theft involves
the use of a false identity to obtain goods and services and a commercial identity theft is the
using of someone else's business name or credit card details for commercial purposes.
Identitycloning is the use of another user's information to pose as a false user. Illegal
migration, terrorism and blackmail are often made possible by means of identity theft.

Phantom Cash Withdrawals

A phantom cash withdrawal is a withdrawal from an A TM where money has been taken
from a customer's account, yet neither the customer nor the bank admits liability. Your bank
statementshows a withdrawal from a cash machine which you never made.

Software piracy
This is the illegal copying and distribution of computer programs without the owner’s
consent. It is very widespread. It is estimated that over 66% of the computer software used
in Europe is illegal. Software piracy is now being treated as a very serious crime, and the
penalties can be severe

How Computer data is easily misused than paper document.

1. Data can be retrieved electronically from anywhere.
2. It can be searched very quickly to find patterns that are not obvious but which could
be embarrassing.
3. Data can be easily altered compare to paper document.
4. Data can be viewed easily using internet or passed to anyone.

PERSONAL DATA AND THE DATA PROTECTION ACT

Some data and information stored on computer disks is personal and needs to be kept
confidential. Some people want to keep their pay, bank details and medical records private
and away from the view of just anyone. If someone who is not entitled to see those details
can obtain access without permission, it is unauthorized access. The Data Protection Act set
out rules to prevent this type of unauthorized access to personal data and information.
PERSONAL DATA

Personal data is data that can identify you and allow you an opinion to be expressed about
you..
Some personal data can be especially sensitive such as : .
o Physical and mental health
o Political and religious beliefs
o Criminal records
The Data Protection Act protects personal data about us from being misused.

WHO IS BEING INVOLVED?

o The Information OR Data Protection Commissioner is the person whose office

enforces the act.
o A Data Controller is a company or person that collects and keeps data about people
o Data Subject is someone who has data about them stored somewhere outside their
Control

The eight Principles of Data Protection

Anyone processing personal data must comply with the eight enforceable principles of good
practice.
The eight principles state that data must be:
1. Fairly and lawfully processed.
2. Processed for limited purposes.
3. Adequate, relevant and not excessive.
4. Accurate.
5. Not kept longer than necessary.
6. Processed in accordance with the data subject's rights.
7. Secure.
8. Not transferred to countries without adequate protection.

A person's rights under the Data Protection Act

o Everyone has the right to see any personal details held on a computer or paper-based
datasystem.
o Everyone also has the right to see a description of the data that is held about them
o Everyone also has the right to know why data is about them is held.
o A person can request a copy of this information by sending a request (and usually a
small fee to cover the cost of the printing) to an organization that is holding data
about them.
DO USERS ALWAYS HAVE THEIR RIGHTS

There are a few cases when the Data Protection Act does not apply. They are called
exemptions to the act. Here are a few of them:
o National security-you cannot demand to see your data when national security is at
stake ,
o Police investigation- information being used to prevent crime is not covered
o Examination results are exempt until they are published by the examining bodies
.
 cUnit 7- DATA COMMUNICATION
WHAT IS A NETWORK?
Is a series of computer systems that are linked together so that they are able to share
computing Power/resources or storage facilities. Resources may refer to devices or data.
The link may be client/server OR peer-peer connection.
Server: A computer that provide services to others in a network.

Client: A computer that is depending on the server for its services in a network.

Node: all computers and devices that are used in a network.

RELATED TERMS
1. Bandwidth: The amount of data that can be carried from one point to another. (Data
transfer rate). It is measured in kilobyte per second (kbps).
2. Band/frequency: Rate at which data travel along the communication channel. There are
two types of bands, i.e. broadband and narrowband
Broadband: telecommunication signals of greater bandwidth
Narrowband: carries voice signals and the speed is low
3. Packet: is a unit of data that travels over a network from one place to another (origin to
destination).
4. Server: the main computer that provided services to others in a network
5. Client: A computer that is dependent on the server for its services, where you sit to do
your work.
6. Internet service provider (ISP) is an organization that provides services for accessing and
using the Internet. Internet service providers may be organized in various forms, such as
commercial, community-owned, non-profit, or otherwise privately owned.

Advantages of computer network

 Expensive peripheral devices such as printers and scanners can be shared between
users.
 Network software can be purchased which is often cheaper to buy compared to
buying individual packages for each machine.
 It is possible to access data or programs from any other Workstations connected to
the network
 The presence of a network provides hardware necessary to install an e-mail system.
Emails aids in sharing of personal or general information.
  Data and software can be stored centrally in the File server which makes them easier
to maintain and backup.
 Users can be prevented from accessing those files that are not needed for their job.
 Networks provide a rapid method of sharing and transferring files from one
computer to the other. Files and data can be shared very fast over the network
without the need to copy them to removable storage media such as the Compact
Disks and others.

Disadvantages of computer network

 It is expensive to buy equipment and maintain the computer network.
 It can easily be in infected with virus which can lead to loss of valuable data and
sometimes slow down the processing speed of the computer
 In file server networks, when the server fails, the whole network stops functioning.
 One broken cable may bring down the whole network.

TYPES OF NETWORKING
 Local Area Network
 Wide Area Network

LOCAL AREA NETWORK

This is the type of network in which computers are confined or connected within a small
area such as the room, a school or within the organization.
WIDE AREA NETWORK
 This is a type of network in which computers are connected over a large geographical
area, such as cities, towns or countries. This type of connection is usually wireless.
They use electromagnetic waves such as radio waves, microwaves and infra-red.

Differences between LAN and WAN

Local Area Network Wide Area Network

Covers small area Covers a wide area
Speed of data transfer is higher than WAN Speed of data transfer is low compared to in LAN
LAN is more secure WAN is less secure
Cheaper to setup Expensive to implement
Owned by a single organisation Owned by different organizations
NETWORK TOPOLOGIES
Topology refers to the physical/mapping way on how computers are connected in the
network.
Each device connected in a network is called a node.

There are three common network topologies

 Star
 Ring
 Line(bus)

STAR TOPOLOGY
In this topology, all the terminals are connected to the central computer, which will be in
charge of controlling the entire network.

Advantages
 It is fast, since all the computers are directly connected to the central computer.
 Good performance since there are few data collisions as each workstation has its
own line
 If one connection (to the central computer) fails, it does not affect others.
 It is easy to add and remove computers without disrupting the whole network
Disadvantages
 If the central computer breaks down, then the whole network breaks down.
 It uses more cabling and therefore it's very expensive as compared to others.
RING TOPOLOGY

 In this topology, terminals are connected together in the form of a circle.

 None of the computers in the network is more important than any of the others.

Network cable
Printer

Advantages
 It is very faster than bus topology, all the data is in the same direction there, so
should be no collisions.
Disadvantages
 If there is a break in the communication line, then the entire network will be affected.
 Adding and removing devices disrupts the whole network

BUS (LINE) TOPOLOGY

 In this topology, data is sent to all devices on the network at the same time.
 Just like the ring topology, there is no central computer used to control the network,
so each of the nodes has equal status.
 Terminator

Bus/ Main cable

Advantages
 It is cheap to install as it uses less cabling
 Adding and removing computers does not affect the whole network

Disadvantages
 If many computers are attached, the amount of data flowing along the cables
increases, data collisions occur and the network slows down.
 Difficult to identify the problem if the entire network shuts down.
 Needs a terminator at the end therefore can add more to the expenses

COMPONENTS THAT MAKE UP A NETWORK

Networking is not simply connecting up 'a few computers with cables. The following are
some components that can be found in a network;
a. Print server: is the name given to a computer in a network which has a printer connected.
It manages all the print requests from users on the network.
b. File server: is a computer used for managing the files on the network. It stores both
Programs and data.
c. Software: network software may be part of the operating system (Windows 2000 or
Windows ME) or it can be special software for managing a network.
d. Cables: connecting cables are usually used to connect devices on a network and may vary
in both performance and cost.
e. Connectors: connectors are used to connect network cables to terminals or other devices.
f. Network cards: it looks like a small circuit board and slot into one of the connectors on the
main circuit board (mother board) inside the computer. They have connectors on them for
network cables.
g. Gateways: are used to translate the protocols between the computers. Before sending
data a computer performs what is called a Handshake (it is an exchange of signals which
establishes the communication between the devices.)

TYPES OF INTERNET CONNECTIONS

1. Dial Up: Connection of computers to access internet via the telephone line through the
use of a modem. (56kbps).
2. Modem (Modulator Demodulator): A device that converts digital data( digital data
converter) to analogue data(Analogue data converter) over a telephone line and viceversa.
3. ISDN (Integrated service Digital Network): is a telecommunication network that allows
for digital voice, video and data transmission.
4. DSL (Digital Subscriber line): Transmits data signals over the wires of a local telephone
line. It is faster than Dial up (256 kbps)
5. ADSL (Asymmetric Digital Subscriber line): is a high speed transmission standard that
uses local telephone line to transmit data over the internet. It is fast to receive data by the
user’s computer ( at 2Mbps) and slower to send from the user’s computer to the internet( at
256 Kbps).

NETWORK DISTRIBUTORS/CONNECTORS

Network Interface Card: A device that is installed in a computer to provide a physical

connection of the computer to a network for the transfer of data. It provides the computer
with a dedicated, full-time connection to a network.
Hubs: Hubs cannot filter data so data packets are sent to all connected devices/computers
and do not have intelligence to find out best path for data packets. This leads to
inefficiencies and wastage. Hubs are used on small networks where data transmission is not
very high.
Bridges: a bridge is a device that connects a local area network (LAN) to another local area
network that uses the same protocol. Having a single incoming and outgoing port and filters
traffic on the LAN by looking at the MAC address, bridge is more complex than hub. Bridge
looks at the destination of the packet before forwarding unlike a hub. It restricts
transmission on other LAN segment if destination is not found.
Switches: is a hardware device that filters and forwards packets through the network.
Switches can perform error checking before forwarding data, which are very efficient by not
forwarding packets that error-end out or forwarding good packets selectively to correct
devices only. They forward packets based on the MAC address of NIC.
Routers: A router, like a switch forwards packets based on the IP address, which allows the
network to go across different protocols. Routers forward packets based on software while
a switch forwards using hardware called ASIC (Application Specific Integrated Circuits).
Routers support different WAN technologies but switches do not. When data comes
through the router, it is forwarded to the correct computer.

DATA TRANSMISSION METHODS

 This deals with the way data is transmitted or transferred from one computer to
another.
 Examples are: TCP/IP, FTP, HTTP, SMTP, Simplex and Duplex.
Protocol
Set of rules that govern the way data is transmitted between computers, so that different
computers are able to communicate with each other.
The protocols define:
 How to establish communication between machines
 The format of any data which is to be exchanged between machines
 How errors in the data will be detected
 How errors will be corrected
 Methods of compressing the data to transmit it faster and more efficiently
 How the connection between the machines is to be terminated

The following are a list of protocols and their purpose;

a) TCPI/lP: this stands for Transmission Control Protocol/ Internet Protocol. It's a set of rules
that defines how computers interact or communicate with each other to transfer data from
one computer to another over the internet. IP deals with format of packets after TCP has
established the connection.
b) FTP: it stands for File Transfer Protocol. It is a standard method of sending files to and
from one computer to another over the internet.
c) HTTP: stands for Hyper Text Transfer Protocol. It is used to transfer HTML documents
over the, World Wide Web. It is the actual protocol that enables web browsing. it is
commonly seen as the First part of a website address, since it is used to connect servers on
the World Wide Web.
d) SMTP: stands for Simple Mail Transfer Protocol. It is a protocol for sending electronic mail
messages between computers. Most e-mail systems that send mail over the internet use
SMTP to send messages from one server to another. It is used in TCP/IP.

DIALOG MODES
The direction in which data can flow through the network media
Type’s modes
 SIMPLEX
 DUPLEX
I) Simplex: Simplex is data transmission method which involves operating a channel in one
direction only with no ability to operate in the other direction.e.g. television, radio
II) Duplex: it refers to a transmission system which allows data to be transmitted both
directions simultaneously.
a) Half-duplex
It refers to the transmission of data just one direction at a time. For a example, a walkie
talkie is a half duplex because only one party can talk at a time.

b) Full duplex
It refers to the transmission of data in two ways simultaneously. For example, a telephone is
a full duplex because both parties can talk at ones.

Interrupts
Interrupts are signals sent to the CPU by external devices, normally input/ Output devices. They tell
the CPU to stop its current activities and execute the appropriate part of the operating system.

Interrupts are important because they give the user better control over the computer. Without
interrupts, a user may have to wait for a given application to have a higher priority over the CPU to
be run. This ensures that the CPU will deal with the process immediately.

Handshakes
A sequence of messages exchanged between two or more network devices to ensure transmission
synchronization before sending data .A hardware handshake between a computer and a printer,
involves the exchange of signals, through the dedicated lines or conductors; the signals indicate the
readiness of each device to send and receive data.
A software handshake, usually employed for serial transmissions through modems, enables each
device to establish particular protocols which will be used for transmissions.
 Network Transmission media
Transmission media is the material (medium) that carries data signal from one computer
to another is called the transmission medium (plural is media) .We use different types of
cables or waves to transmit data. Data is transmitted normally through electrical or
electromagnetic signals thus through solid medium (wired network) or Wireless medium
(wireless network).

Packet: is a unit of data that travels over a network from one place to another (origin to
destination).

Bandwidth: It refers to the data carrying capacity of a channel or medium. Higher

bandwidth communication channels support higher data rates.

Solid media (wired network)

The solid media uses cables to transmit data among computers: Examples of solid
media
1. Unshielded Twisted-Pair and Shielded twisted pair cable
2. Coaxial cable
3. Fiber-Optic cable

1.Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) cable

Advantages
• It is a cable that has four pairs of wires twisted in pairs inside a plastic jacket that is
used to send data signals.
• The reason why they are twisted is because the twist helps eliminate interference
from electrical signals from electrical devices
• Advantages
• It is cheap to buy as compared to coaxial and optical fiber
• It is easy to install as compared to coaxial and optical fiber
 Disadvantages
• It may be sensitive to radio and electrical frequency interference
• Corrosion of copper wires leads to ineffective data transmission

2. Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)

• STP is made up of pairs of copper wires that are twisted together.

• The pairs are covered in a foil or braided mesh, as well as outer PVC jacket.
• This foil or mesh prevents the penetration of electromagnetic noise and eliminate cross
talk.
• This shielding must be grounded to prevent the foil or braided mesh from becoming a
magnet for electricity.

Why to twist the wires?

• Twisting of wires will reduce the effect of noise or external interference.
• Number of twists per unit length will determine the quality of cable. More twists means
better quality.
Advantage of STP over UTP
STP is less susceptible to noise as compared to UTP and therefore reduces the cross talk and
interference.
Disadvantages of STP
1. It must be properly grounded.
2. It is more expensive than UTP.
3. It is difficult to terminate.
Advantages of Twisted pair cable
1. It can be used to carry both analog and digital data.
2. It is relatively easy to implement and terminate.
3. It is the least expensive media of transmission to buy for short distances.
4. If portion of a twisted pair cable is damaged it does not affect the entire network.
Disadvantages of Twisted pair cable
1. It offers poor noise immunity as a result signal distortion is more
2. Attenuation is very high. Attenuation is weakening of the signal strength.
3. It supports lower bandwidth as compared to other Medias.
4. It offers very poor security and is relatively easy to tap.
5. Being thin in size, they are likely to break easily.
 3. Coaxial Cable
• It is a cable that has a single copper wire at its center and a plastic layer serving as an
insulator between the wire and a braided metal shield used for transmitting data
signals.
• The metal shield helps to block any outside interference from electrical signals.
Advantages
• It can support greater cable length between network devices than twisted pair cable
• There is no interference of data signals from electrical devices
Disadvantages
• It is expensive to buy as compared to UTP cables
• It is difficult to install as compared to UTP cables

1. FIBER OPTIC CABLE

Fiber optic cable consists of a center glass core that can transmit data very rapidly
using beams of light. The core is surrounded by a plastic coasting used to cushion the
fiber centre and strands of fiber glass. The insulating jacket is made of plastic to
strength the cable and prevents back age.

Advantages
• It has the capability of carrying more signals/information than wire cables (copper
cables)
• Faster data transmission
• Fiber optic cable has the ability to transmit signals over much longer distances than
coaxial cable and twisted pair cables
• it totally prevents large amounts of electrical interference
• Less susceptible to noise (interference) from other devices
• Better security for signals during transmission because they are less susceptible to
noise
Disadvantages
• They are more expensive compared to coaxial or twisted cable
• Difficult to modify and install
• It needs converters, electrical to optical converters

Wireless transmission media

Not all networks are connected with cabling; some networks are wireless.
This is where electromagnetic waves are used as a medium of data transmission. The
are several ways of transmitting the data using different wavelength ranges:
• Satellite Links
• Microwave Transmission
• Broadcast Radio
• Bluetooth, infrared
• Wi- Fi
 Satellite
• Is a form of telecommunication link that operates over long distances. It uses
microwave to transmit data.
• The data signal in the form of a microwave is beamed up to a satellite and the
satellite then beams it back to another part of the world (basically there is a space
station that receives microwave signals from an earth-based station,
amplifies(strengthens) the signals, and broadcasts the signals back over a wide area
to any number of earth based stations)

Microwaves
• Microwaves are radio waves that provide a high-speed signal transmission.
• Microwaves they are often called fixed wireless because they involve sending signals
from one microwave station to another
Broadcast radio
• Broadcast radio is a wireless transmission medium that distributes radio signals
through the air over long distances such as between cities, regions and countries and
short distances such as homes and offices

Cellular radio
• Cellular radio is a form of broadcast radio that is used mostly for mobile
communications, specifically for wireless modems and cellular telephones.
• Some users connect their mobile computers to a cellular telephone to access the web,
send and receive e-mail. Several categories of cellular transmissions exist, defining
the development of cellular networks
• 1G(first generation) transmitted analog data
• 2G(second generation) transmit digital data at speeds from 9.6 kbps to19 kbps
• 3G(third generation) transmit digital data at speeds from 144 kbps to 2.4 Mbps

Infrared
• Infra red signal can only travel a short distance and this limit their use. Eg. Is the TV
remote control. They are used to provide a link from a laptop to a printer or desktop
computer so that data can be sent between the two without the need of a cable.
Strong sunlight can interfere with infrared signal
 Bluetooth
• can make temporary short-range links between personal gadgets, such as mobile
phones and headsets, palmtop (PDA) and Laptop (notebook) computers. Bluetooth
is designed as a replacement for infrared. Stand-alone Bluetooth devices have a
range of 10metres and are able to transfer information at 1 megabit per second
(1Mbit/sec)
WI-FI
• Stands for the Wireless Fidelity Alliance. Wi-Fi devices have typical ranges from 12 to
50 metres and typical data transfer rates from 5 to 20 Mbits/sec. Examples of devices
using WiFi are servers, computer Network Interface card etc.
 Unit 8- Communication and Information
System
Information Technology has made an impact on the way we communicate. We are now able
to chat and play games with people across the globe. We can send messages and faxes
which can arrive at their destination thousands of miles away. We are able to buy goods
from almost anywhere in the world and have them delivered to our door. IT has made the
world seem smaller and the community in which we live larger.

Communication and information system is the exchange of information using technology.

This can be achieved by using equipment or facilities like:
Telephone
Fax
Mobile phones
Internet
Teleconferencing
Satellite
Teleworking/telecommuting
It is made possible by electronic communications. It is when people work from home instead
of travelling to work and use methods of electronic communication such as fax machine,
telephone, e-mail, internet to communicate with the outside world.

Advantages
1. Time is not wasted travelling to and from work
2. Working at the comfort of your home
3. Working hours are more flexible
4. People who live long distances from each other can work together without having
to meet in person
5. Saves travelling expenses

Disadvantages
1. No social contact between employees
2. It is more difficult for managers to monitor and control the workforce
3. There is less working space.
4. Can be distracted by social problems
5. No help from colleagues
 Unit 9- Internet
The internet can be described as a network of all networks. It is a global collection of
networks. These networks connect together in many different ways to form the single
entity that we know as the Internet.

It’s a connection of computer using the communication links such as cables and wireless
media. The internet offers communication services such as: e-mail, chatrooms,e-
commerce, e-banking, e-learning etc
Intranet

Is the general term for a collection of private computer networks within an organization.
Intranet is fenced off from others on the internet by defensive barriers called firewalls
(firewall protects a computer network from unauthorized access)

Extranet
When a company has an intranet and allows some access to it by people outside the
company then the intranet is referred to as extranet.

Advantages of Internet

Communication locally and internationally is faster and more cost effective.

Almost any kind of information can be accessed on the net(vast information).
The internet can be accessed from anywhere as long as the ISP provide the services
to you.
It is a valuable resource for companies to advertise and conduct business.
It enables a lot of people to work from home

Disadvantages of the Internet

The connection and equipment needed are relatively expensive.

The internet has made hacking possible.
A large amount of undesirable material, such as pornography is readily available.
There is a high risk of viruses.
 There is high risk of fraud
There is violation of personal privacy

Resources needed to access the Internet

Computer system
Browser- a program that allows access to the net. The most popular browsers are
Netscape and internet explorer.
Internet Service Provider (ISP) – companies that provide a permanent connection to
the net. E.g. Botsnet, mascom, BTC, Orange etc

Services offered by the Internet

E-mail.
1. Short name for electronic mail.
2. It is a method of sending messages using computers through the internet.
3. To communicate using e-mail, one first have to have an e-mail address of their own
and know the address of the person they wish to communicate with.

Advantages
1. It is cheaper than the a letter, no stamp, envelop or paper .
2. You can attach a file containing photographs, videos etc which can be viewed on
screen or printed out.
3. An e-mail message can be sent to a group of people at once.

Disadvantages
1. Computer viruses are often sent by email and can damage the computer.
2. A lot of time can be spent looking at the junk/spam mails.
3. The system relies on people checking their e-mails regularly.
4. Not everyone can afford the equipments for sending and receiving messages.

Online-Chat Rooms
Online chatting is an ideal way of talking to people around the world without having to
travel.
Some websites such as face book, yahoo allows users to chat on the net.
Advantages
You can chat with people of the same interest (newsgroup) about anything;
entertainment, education, relationships or just gossip.
You can chat at the comfort of your home if you have access to the internet.
Disadvantages

1. Special precautions have to be followed; believing something one hears on the chat
room can be misleading
2. Danger of divulging too much personal information should be avoided.
3. Expensive to those who have no connection to the net.

Unit 10- WWW (World Wide Web)

This is a multiple branch of the internet used to view text, graphics, video and sounds. This is
what we call hypertext.
The web consists of a number of web pages grouped together to form websites
It is accessed using a web browser.
The user then utilizes hyperlinks to move between web pages.

Universal Resource Locator (URL)

Is the unique address for a file that is accessible on the Internet.
A common way to get to a Web site is to enter the URL of its home page file in your
Web browser's address line. However, any file within that Web site can also be
specified with a URL.
http://www .freesitetools.com- home page
http://www .freesitetools.com/multimedia/music/midi.html-path to the specific file

URL is made up of 4 parts: Protocol, Server, Path and filename.

Web site: is a location on a particular computer on the web which has a unique
address
Home page: or welcome page is the first page you see which identifies website and
contains links to other pages on the site

Web browser: is software that enables you to find and access the various parts of the
web e.g. Netscape, explorer, Mozilla, opera etc.
 Search engine: Programs that enable you to ask questions or use keywords to help
locate information on the web e.g. Google, yahoo, msn, chrome, mozila etc.
Web server: is a computer that holds the files for one or more sites
Hypertext document - is a document that contains a hyperlink to another document.
Hypermedia - is a general name for documents that contain links to text graphics
sound or video files.

E-commerce
It is the selling of goods or services over the internet.
Advantages of e-commerce
1. People with mobility problems can do their own shopping.
2. People can just buy from their homes thus saving time and avoiding the hustle of
busy malls.
3. Orders can be placed on the internet anytime.
4. You can buy any goods around the world.
Disadv of e-commerce
1. Criminals may take advantages of people who divulge too much credit information.
2. Some shops may close down, leaving shopping centers deserted.

Online banking (internet banking)

It is an electronic payment system that enables customers of a financial institution to
conduct financial transactions on a website operated by the institution, such as a
retail bank.
Online banking is also referred as Internet banking/e-banking/ virtual banking.
Features of online banking
The common features fall broadly into several categories:
A bank customer can perform non-transactional tasks through online banking, including -

– Viewing account balances

– Viewing recent transactions
– Downloading bank statements,
– Viewing images of paid cheques
– Ordering cheque books
– Download periodic account statements
– Downloading applications for M-banking, E-banking et
Advantages
 1. It’s generally secure. But make sure that the website you're using has a valid
security certificate. This let's you know that the site is protected from cyber-thieves
looking to steal your personal and financial information.
2. You have twenty-four-hour access. When your neighborhood bank closes, you can
still access your account and make transactions online.
3. You can access your account from virtually anywhere. If you're on a business trip or
vacationing away from home, you can still keep a watchful on your money and
financial transactions - regardless of your location.
4. Conducting business online is generally faster than going to the bank

Disadvantages
1. Understanding the usage of internet banking might be difficult for a beginner at
the first go.
2. You cannot have access to online banking if you don’t have an internet connection
3. Security of transactions is a big issue. Your account information might get hacked
by unauthorized people over the internet.
4. Password security is a must. After receiving your password, do change it and
memorize it otherwise your account may be misused by someone who gets to know
your password.
5. You cannot use it, in case, the bank’s server is down.
6. Another issue is that sometimes it becomes difficult to note whether your
transaction was successful or not. It may be due to the loss of net connectivity in
between, or due to a slow connection, or the bank’s server is down
Electronic learning/ computer based learning
It is the use of computers to enhance learning or the use of computers to provide
instructional information
Advantages
1. Class work can be scheduled around work and family
2. Reduces travel time and travel costs for off-campus students
3. Students may have the option to select learning materials that meets their level of
knowledge and interest
4. Students can study anywhere; where they have access to a computer and Internet
connection
5. Self-paced learning modules allow students to work at their own pace
6. e-Learning can accommodate different learning styles and facilitate learning
through a variety of activities
Disadvantages
1. Learners with low motivation or bad study habits may fall behind
2. Without the routine structures of a traditional class, students may get lost or
confused about course activities and deadlines
3. Students may feel isolated from the instructor and classmates
4. Instructor may not always be available when students are studying or need help
5. Slow Internet connections or older computers may make accessing course
materials frustrating
6. Managing computer files and online learning software can sometimes seem
complex for students with beginner-level computer skills
7. Hands-on or lab work is difficult to simulate in a virtual classroom

Unit 11- SOCIAL & ECONOMIC IMPLICATIONS OF

COMPUTERS TO THE SOCIETY
SOCIAL IMPLICATIONS
1) Interaction
Limitation to physical interaction
You can attend online courses and get better certificates.
You can buy/ order items, anywhere in the world at anytime
Violation of personal privacy
2) Change of employment patterns
Fewer paper based work
Monitoring of the work is accurate (perfect)
3) Environmental Issues
Reduced pollution (e.g. teleworking)
Save trees

4) Crime
The use of cameras to detect offenders discourage people from committing crime
DNA profiling and finger print systems enable valuable evidence to be collected
5) Cashless society
People never move with money in pockets because they are using bank cards
(debit/credit) or cell phone banking.
Queues are reduced at banks
 Only working people/ class are given the advantage
People get in debt as they can spend more than they can afford

ECONOMIC IMPLICATIONS
1. e-commerce
2. e-learning
3. e-hospital
4. Retail

HEALTH RISKS ASSOCIATED WITH THE USE OF COMPUTERS

Even though computers are good to our daily life, there are risks associated with the use of
computers.
Below are some examples of health risks associated with the use of computers.

1. Eye strain (eyes become stressed/tense after starring at a computer screen for a long period
of time).
2. Repetetitive Strain Injury (RSI) (Damage/pain to the joints and wrists of the hand due to
repeated movements)
3. Back pain (probably due to poor posture or an awkward position while sitting at a
computer).

Health Risk Probable Cause Symptoms Solution

Eye Strain -working in bad light • burning or itching • use monitors which do
-using a flickering eyes not flicker
screen • headache • Avoid direct sun light on
• bleared or double the screen
vision • Adjust the brightness of
the monitor
• Take regular breaks
• Keep your eyes at a
conducive distance
Repetitive -long typing time • Stiffness of joints • Take regular breaks
Strain Injury • Numbness • Use wrist rest
• Burning sensation • Use of ergonomically
designed keyboard

Back Pain -poor sitting position • Headache • use a fully adjustable

• fatigue chair
• Use foot rests so that
the legs are kept at a
conducive position
• Take regular breaks

Unit 12- Monitoring and control system

Control system: it is a system of devices that manages, command, directs or regulates the
behavior of other devices
A computer control system, like any system, is made up of three parts.

Input devices are called sensors .They feed data into the computer
 The computer then processes the input data (by following a set of instructions)
 As a result of the processing, the computer can turn on or off output devices called
actuators.
Sensors
A normal PC has no way of knowing what is happening in the real world around it. It doesn’t
know if it is light or dark, hot or cold, quiet or noisy. How do we know what is happening
around us? We use our eyes, our ears, our mouth, our nose and our skin - our senses.
A normal PC has no senses, but we can give it some: We can connect sensors to it...
Examples of sensors and the properties they detect are...
Sensor What it Detects
Temperature Temperature
Light Light / dark
Pressure Pressure (e.g. someone standing on it)
Moisture Dampness / dryness
Water-level How full / empty a container is
Movement Movement nearby
Proximity How close / far something is
Note: many sensors are analogue devices and so need to be connected to the computer using
an analogue-to-digital convertor.

Making Decisions (The microprocessor)

The steps followed by microprocessor in a control system are just about the same for all
systems...
 Accepts/receive the digital data from the ADC
 Compares received data with set values
 Makes decision where necessary, turn on/off one or more of the actuators

That’s it! Of course the details vary, but that is basically how things work.
Actuators
A normal PC has no way of affecting what is happening around it. It can’t turn on the lights,
or make the room hotter. How do we change what is happening around us? We use our
muscles to move things, press things, lift things, etc. (and we can also make sound using our
voice).

A normal PC has no muscles, but we can give it some. In fact we can give it the ability to do
lots of things by connecting a range of actuators to it…

An actuator is a device, controlled by a computer that can affect the real-world.

Examples of actuators, and what they can do are...

Actuator What it Can Do
Light bulb or LED Creates light
Heater Increases temperature
Cooling Unit Decreases temperature
Motor Spins things around
 Pump Pushes water / air through pipes
Buzzer / Bell / Siren Creates noise

Note: some of these devices require an analogue signal to operate them. This means that they
need to be connected to the computer using a digital-to-analogue convertor.

ADC (analogue-to-digital converter)

 Most sensors take analogue measurements. This means that the measurement can
have a wide range of values or be on a continuous scale.
 All computers need digital data in order to be able to understand it and process
it. Digital data only has two values either 0 and 1 or On and Off.
 In order for the data collected by the sensor to be understood by the computer, it
needs to be converted from an analogue signal to a digital signal. To do this, a
special piece of hardware is needed called an analogue-to-digital converter or ADC.
 The ADC is connected between the sensor and the computer’s input-output port and
it is called an ‘interface’.

Examples of Computer Control

The following are examples of computer control in our everyday life:

At home
1) Washing machines 2)Microwave cookers 3)Dishwashers 4) Video recorders
At work
1) Air conditioning systems 2) Lifts 3) Automatic doors
Outside the home
 Traffic light systems 2) Car park barriers 3) Cars – engine management systems

The advantages of control systems

 Computers are able to respond instantly to changes in conditions
 Fewer staff is needed, so costs are reduced, making the final product cheaper
 The system can work for 24 hours per day, 365 days a year.
 Some processes are dangerous. Keeping people away from these processes can help
prevent accidents.
 Outputs are consistent and error free
 Reprogramming is possible to change the product while manufacturing.

Disadvantages
 Fewer people are needed, so this leads to unemployment.
 The initial costs are high
 They cannot react to unexpected events as a person could as thy respond to the way
they have been programmed
TYPES OF CONTROL SYSTEMS
There are two types of computer control system:
1. Open loop
2. Closed loop

Open Loop System: a control system in which an input alters the output but the output has
no feedback loop and therefore no effect on the output
It only looks at its input signals in order to decide what to do. It takes no account at all of
what is happening to its output.

Examples of 'open-loop' systems:

 a) You set the microwave oven to run for two minutes. After cooking
for two minutes, the control system turns the microwave off. It has no idea whether
your food is still frozen, burnt or cooked perfectly.
 b) You program the video recorder to start recording the football game at 7.30pm.
However, because the news program finished early, you miss the first vital 15 minutes
of the match. Because the system is only checking its input(time), it had no idea that
the starting time of the match had changed

CLOSED LOOP (Feedback System)

It is an automatic control system in which an operation, process or mechanism is regulated

by feedback.
 Feedback is where the output of a system affects the input.
 Most control systems carry on working continuously, they don’t just stop after one
decision has been made.
An Example of Control System - An Automated Greenhouse
A computer-controlled greenhouse might have a number of sensors and actuators:
 Check light sensor
 If it is dark, turn on the lights
 If it is not dark, turn off the lights
 Check temperature sensor
 If it is too cold, turn on heater and use motor to close window
 If it is too warm, turn off heater and use motor to open window
  Check the moisture sensor
 If soil is too dry, turn on the water pump
 If soil is too wet, turn off the water pump
 Go back to step 1 and repeat

Robotics
Robots are used in Factories because they can reduce labour costs and improve the quality
of the finished products.
An industrial robot is a reprogrammable, multi-functional manipulator designed to move
material, parts tools or specialized devices through various programmed motions for the
performance of a variety of tasks.

The parts of an industrial robot.

 Manipulator- This is the moving part which resembles a moving arm on a stand.
Various tools can be placed in the ‘hand’ of the arm
 The power supply- compressors are used for working the hydraulic system to provide
strength to robot arm for lifting and moving heavy objects.
 Controlling computer- A computer connected to the robot arm using an interface to
instruct the robot arm for movement.
How robot works
 To allow robots to navigate themselves in factories, tracks are provided which are set
into the floor and the robots follow these tracks. To know the exact position of the
robot they keep a record of the distance traveled and the angles they have turned.
 On each robot there is an ultrasonic detector which emits a beam of infrared
radiation. If anything gets in the way of the beam, the robot just stops there by
avoiding collision with other robots or objects.

Advantages of using Robots

  Robots can work in environments hazardous to humans, or perform
dangerous tasks such as disarming live bombs, working in a radioactive
environment or sending information back from the surface of Mars.
 They can tirelessly perform repetitive and monotonous tasks, lift heavy loads
and reach long distances.
 Labour costs can be substantially reduced, as robots are now widely
employed in car manufacturing as well as many other industries, including
printing and publishing.
 Quality of work is consistent because robots are never distracted or bored,
never loses concentration or makes a mistake.
 Increased productivity as robots will work for 24 hours a day, work faster than
humans and do not go on strike or demand higher wages.

Data logging
 Data logging is a system that automatically collects data over a certain period of
time. Remote weather stations use data logging.

Data loggers are of mainly two types

1. with permanent computer connection
2. with temporary computer connection

 Advantage of data logging

 it can be performed 24 hours per day, 365 days per year If necessary
 data logging enables fast processing of data if data logger can send data as radio
signals to a main computer
 Unit 13- Artificial intelligence
An area of computer science that deals with giving machines the ability to seem like they have human
intelligence.

OR

The power of a machine to copy intelligent human behavior.

Applications of AI

• Expert systems
• Game playing
• Speech recognition
• Traffic control

What is an Expert System?

An expert system is computer software that attempts to act like a human expert on a
particular subject area.

Expert systems are often used to advice non-experts in situations where a human expert is
unavailable (for example it may be too expensive to employ a human expert, or it might be a
difficult to reach location).

Examples of expert systems

1. Dendral
Was a chemical-analysis expert system. The substance to be analyzed might, for example, be a
complicated compound of carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen. Starting from spectrographic data
obtained from the substance, DENDRAL would hypothesize the substance’s molecular structure.
DENDRAL’s performance rivaled that of chemist’s expert at this task, and the program was used in
industry and in academia.
2. Mycin
Is an early expert system, or artificial intelligence (AI) program, for treating blood infections. In 1972
work began on MYCIN at Stanford University in California. MYCIN would attempt to diagnose
patients based on reported symptoms and medical test results. The program could request further
information concerning the patient, as well as suggest additional laboratory tests, to arrive at a
probable diagnosis, after which it would recommend a course of treatment. If requested, MYCIN
would explain the reasoning that led to its diagnosis and recommendation. Using about 500
production rules, MYCIN operated at roughly the same level of competence as human specialists in
blood infections and rather better than general practitioners).
Setting up an Expert System

- Information is gathered from experts in the field

- The knowledge base is created

- Information gathered from experts is added to the knowledge base

- The rule (base) is created

- The inference engine is created

- The user interface is designed/created (often use Yes/No options or multichoice)

An expert system is made up of three parts:

 A user interface - This is the system that allows a non-expert user to query (question) the
expert system, and to receive advice. The user-interface is designed to be a simple to use as
possible.
 A knowledge base - This is a collection of facts and rules. The knowledge base is created from
information provided by human experts
 An inference engine - This acts rather like a search engine, examining the knowledge base for
information that matches the user's query

The non-expert user queries the expert system. This is done by asking a question, or by answering
questions asked by the expert system.

The inference engine uses the query to search the knowledge base and then provides an answer or
some advice to the user.
Where Are Expert Systems Used?
1. Medical diagnosis (the knowledge base would contain medical information, the symptoms of the
patient would be used as the query, and the advice would be a diagnose of the patient’s illness)

2. Playing strategy games like chess against a computer (the knowledge base would contain strategies and
moves, the player's moves would be used as the query, and the output would be the computer's 'expert’.
moves)

3. Helping to identify items such as plants / animals / rocks / etc. (the knowledge base would contain
characteristics of every item, the details of an unknown item would be used as the query, and the advice
would be a likely identification)

4.Helping to discover locations to drill for water / oil (the knowledge base would contain characteristics
of likely rock formations where oil / water could be found, the details of a particular location would be
used as the query, and the advice would be the likelihood of finding oil / water there)

5. Helping to diagnose car engine problems (like medical diagnosis, but for cars!)

Benefits of Expert Systems

 Availability − They are easily available due to mass production of software.
 Less Production Cost − Production cost is reasonable. This makes them affordable.
 Speed − They offer great speed. They reduce the amount of work an individual puts in.
 Less Error Rate − Error rate is low as compared to human errors.
 Reducing Risk − they can work in the environment dangerous to humans.
 Steady response − they work steadily without getting motional, tensed or fatigued.

Limitations/Disadvantages of Expert Systems

 Can only provide knowledge on one restricted domain.

 Can only provide advice on knowledge entered into the system, which may be limited.
 Do not routinely update knowledge, as a human expert does.
 Lack of common sense.
 Have very high development costs (retaining services of an expert, purchasing powerful
hardware, continual programming to keep system up-to-date, training and maintenace costs).
Unit 14- Multimedia system
Multimedia can be defined as any application that combines text with graphics, animation, audio/
Sound, Music and video.
A Multimedia system has four basic characteristics:
 Multimedia systems must be computer controlled (producing the content of the information –
.g. by using the authoring tools, image editor, sound and video editor)
 Multimedia systems are integrated (audio, video, text, graphics)
 The information they handle must be represented digitally.
 The interface to the final presentation of media is usually interactive.
Graphic Design software’s
Graphic design is a combination of visual images and text to communicate to an audience. Graphic

design communicates by presenting images or text that distinguishes a brand from its competitors.

Areas where used

Graphic design is used on materials including packaging, brochures (incorporate the logo and images

in a style that captures the essence of the business), and websites.

Examples of Graphic Design software’s

AutoCAD, CorelDraw, Illustrator, Photoshop e.t.c

Advantages of graphic software’s

 Saves time as you can modify the existing ideas.

 It has a simplified user friendly interface.

 It enables you to produce very accurate designs than hand-drawn designs

 Drawings can be created in 2D or 3D and rotated

 It enables the clients to view the designs at an earlier stage in the design process

Disadvantages of graphic software’s

 It has expansive start up costs (the hardware, the software, and training).

 Consumes large amounts of the computer processing power.

 Unit 15- Other Computer applications
1. Computer-assisted instruction (CAI)
A program of instructional material presented by means of a computer or computer systems.

Example on how it works

If the computer has a tutorial program, the student is asked a question by the computer; the student
types in an answer and then gets an immediate response to the answer. If the answer is correct, the
student is routed to more challenging problems; if the answer is incorrect, various computer
messages will indicate the flaw in procedure, and the program will bypass more complicated
questions until the student shows mastery in that area.

Types of Computer Assisted Instruction

1. Drill-and-practice Drill and practice provide opportunities or students to repeatedly practice the
skills that have previously been presented and that further practice is necessary for mastery.

2. Tutorial Tutorial activity includes both the presentation of information and its extension into
different forms of work, including drill and practice, games and simulation.

3. Games Game software often creates a contest to achieve the highest score and either beat others
or beat the computer.

4. Simulation Simulation software can provide an approximation of reality that does not require the
expense of real life or its risks.

5. Discovery Discovery approach provides a large database of information specific to a course or

content area and challenges the learner to analyze, compare, infer and evaluate based on their
explorations of the data.

6. Problem Solving This approach helps children develop specific problem solving skills and
strategies.
Advantages of CAI

• One-to-one interaction

• Instantaneous response/immediate feedback to the answers elicited

• Self pacing - allow students to proceed at their own pace

• Individual attention (teacher can now devote more time to individual students)
• Privacy helps the shy and slow learner to learns

• Learn more and more rapidly

• Self directed learning – students can decide when, where, and what to learn
Disadvantages of CAI

1. Generally costly system to purchase, maintains, and update.

2. Decreases human physical interaction between teacher and students.

3. Program provided may not suit the particular needs of the individual class or curriculum.

4. Instruction tends to be boring and repetitive, with tests and questions following the same pattern

2. Computer-assisted learning (CAL)

Any use of computers in educational environment where a computer program is used to assist/ aid
the user in learning a particular subject.

It is a device/learning strategy to make teaching more interesting joyful and sustainable.

Advantages of CAL

1. CAL is individualized, that is each student is free to work at his own place.

2. CAL forces active participation on the part of the student, which contrasts with the more passive
role in reading a book or attending a lecture.

3. CAL utilizes a reporting system that provides the student with a clear picture of his progress
therefore students can identify the subject areas in which they have improved and in which they
need improvement.

4. It reduces the time taken to comprehend difficult concepts (By enabling students to manipulate
concepts directly and explore the results of such manipulation.

5. CAL offers a wide range of experiences that are otherwise not available to the student. It works as
multimedia providing audio as well as visual inputs. It enables the student to understand concepts
clearly with the use of stimulating techniques such as animation, blinking, graphical displays etc.

6. CAL provides a lot of drilling which can prove useful for low aptitude students.
Disadvantages of CAL
1. A CAL package may be regarded simply as a novelty, rather than an integral part of the educational
process. It may threaten the objectives of the package.

2. Hands-on experience is missing. Moreover, CAL packages cannot develop manual skills such as
handling an apparatus, working with a machine etc.

3. There are real costs associated with the development of CAL systems. It is expensive in terms of
staff time to devise and programme effective CAL.

4. Content covered by a certain CAL package may become outdated.

3. Computer-aided engineering (CAE)

The integration of design and manufacturing into a system under the direct control of digital
computers.
In a CAE system, drawings developed and revised during the design process are converted directly
into instructions for the production machines that will manufacture the desired object. CAE systems
reduce the time needed to develop new products and increase productivity by optimizing production
flow and scheduling and by providing greater flexibility in altering machine operations.
CAE combines the use of computers in industrial-design work, computer-aided design (CAD), with
their use in manufacturing operations, computer-aided manufacturing (CAM). This
integrated process is commonly called CAD/CAM.

i.Computer-aided design (CAD)

Generally consist of a computer with one or more terminals featuring video monitors and interactive
graphics-input devices; they can be used to design such things as machine parts, patterns for
clothing, or integrated circuits.
Example
An engineer can design a bridge, use modeling software to display it, and study it under different
loads.

ii.Computer-aided manufacturing (CAM)

CAM Systems involve the use of numerically controlled machine tools and high-performance
programmable industrial robots.