LECTURE NOTES ON

ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS (ELC105B)

UNIT 1: DIRECT CURRENT CIRCUITS (Part C)

DR. UDOCHUKWU B. AKURU

YEAR 2025

Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment

Department of Electrical Engineering
 Learning Objectives
In this part of the lecture, students will learn...
• Nodal analysis, which is based on Kirchhoff current
law (K C L).’
• Mesh analysis, which is based on Kirchhoff voltage
law (K V L).
• The concept of superposition.
• Source transformation.
• Thevenin and Norton’s theorems.
• Maximum power transfer.
Nodal Analysis
• If instead of focusing on the voltages of the circuit elements, one looks
at the voltages at the nodes of the circuit, the number of simultaneous
equations to solve for can be reduced.
• Given a circuit with n nodes, without voltage sources, the nodal
analysis is accomplished via three steps:
1. Select a node as the reference node. Assign voltages v1,v2,…vn to the
remaining n-1 nodes, voltages are relative to the reference node.
2. Apply KCL to each of the n − 1 non-reference nodes. Use Ohm’s law to
express the branch currents in terms of node voltages.
3. Solve the resulting n − 1 simultaneous equations to obtain the unknown
node voltages.

• The reference node is commonly referred to as the ground since its

voltage is by default zero.

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Applying Nodal Analysis
• Let’s apply nodal analysis to this
circuit to see how it works.
• This circuit has a node that is
designed as ground. We will use that
as the reference node (node 0).
• The remaining two nodes are
designed 1 and 2 and assigned
voltages v1 and v2.
• Now apply KCL to each node:
• At node 1.
I1  I 2  i1  i2
• At node 2.
I 2  i2  i3
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Apply Nodal Analysis II
• We can now use OHM’s law to express the unknown currents i1, i2,
and i3 in terms of node voltages.
• In doing so, keep in mind that current flows from high potential to low.
• From this we get:
v1 v1  v2
I1  I 2  
v1  0 R1 R2
i1  or i1  G1v1 Substituting
R1
back into the v1  v2 v2
v1  v2 node I2  
i2  or i2  G2  v1  v2  R2 R3
R2 

equations
or
v 0
i3  2 or i3  G3v2
R3 I1  I 2  G1v1  G2  v1  v2 

I 2  G2  v1  v2   G3v2

• The last step is to solve the system of equations.

5
Including voltage sources
Depending on what nodes the source is
connected to, the approach varies.
Between the reference node and a non-
reference mode:
• Set the voltage at the non-reference node
to the voltage of the source.
• In the example circuit v1 = 10V.

Between two non-reference nodes.

• The two nodes form a supernode.

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Supernode
A supernode is formed by enclosing a voltage source (dependant or
independent) connected between two non-reference nodes and any
elements connected in parallel with it.
Why?
• Nodal analysis requires applying KCL.
• The current through the voltage source cannot be known in advance (Ohm’s
law does not apply).
• By lumping the nodes together, the current balance can still be described.

In the example circuit node 2 and 3 form a supernode.

The current balance would be: i1  i4  i2  i3

Or this can be expressed as:

v1  v2 v1  v3 v2  0 v3  0
  
2 4 8 6
7
Analysis with a supernode
• In order to apply KVL to the supernode in
the example, the circuit is redrawn as
shown.
• Going around this loop in the clockwise
direction gives:
 v2  5  v3  0  v2  v3  5
• Note the following properties of a
supernode:
1. The voltage source inside the supernode
provides a constraint equation needed to
solve for the node voltages.
2. A supernode has no voltage of its own.
3. A supernode requires the application of both
KCL and KVL.

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 Problem 1

Solve for Vx.

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Solution to Problem 1

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Solution to Problem 1

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Mesh Analysis
Another general procedure for analyzing circuits is to use the
mesh currents as the circuit variables.
Recall:
• A loop is a closed path with no node passed more than once.
• A mesh is a loop that does not contain any other loop within it.

Mesh analysis uses KVL to find unknown currents.

Mesh analysis is limited in one aspect: It can only apply to
circuits that can be rendered planar.
A planar circuit can be drawn such that there are no crossing
branches.

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Planar versus Nonpalanar

The figure on the left is a nonplanar The figure on the right is a planar
circuit: The branch with the 13 circuit: It can be redrawn to avoid
resistor prevents the circuit from being crossing branches
drawn without crossing branches

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Mesh Analysis Steps
Mesh analysis follows these steps:
1. Assign mesh currents i1,i2,…in to the n
meshes.
2. Apply KVL to each of the n mesh currents.
3. Solve the resulting n simultaneous
equations to get the mesh currents.

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Mesh Analysis Example

• The above circuit has two paths that are meshes (abefa and bcdeb).
• The outer loop (abcdefa) is a loop, but not a mesh.
• First, mesh currents i1 and i2 are assigned to the two meshes.
• Applying KVL to the meshes:
V1  R1i1  R3  i1  i2   0 R2i2  V2  R3  i2  i1   0
 
 R1  R3  i1  R3i2  V1  R3i1   R2  R3  i2  V2

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Mesh Analysis with Current Sources
• The presence of a current source makes the mesh
analysis simpler in that it reduces the number of equations.
• If the current source is located on only one mesh, the
current for that mesh is defined by the source.
• For example:

• Here, the current i2 is equal to −2A.

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Supermesh
• Similar to the case of nodal analysis where a voltage source shared
two non-reference nodes, current sources (dependent or independent)
that are shared by more than one mesh need special treatment.
• The two meshes must be joined together, resulting in a supermesh.
• The supermesh is constructed by merging the two meshes and
excluding the shared source and any elements in series with it.
• A supermesh is required because mesh analysis uses KVL.
• But the voltage across a current source cannot be known in advance.
• Intersecting supermeshes in a circuit must be combined to for a larger
supermesh.

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Creating a Supermesh

• In this example, a 6A current course is shared between

mesh 1 and 2.
• The supermesh is formed by merging the two meshes.
• The current source and the 2 resistor in series with it are
removed.

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Supermesh Example
• Using the circuit from the last slide:
• Apply KVL to the supermesh.

 20  6i1  10i2  4i2  0 or 6i1  14i2  20

• We next apply KCL to the node in the branch where the two meshes
intersect.
i2  i1  6

• Solving these two equations we get:

i1  3.2A i2  2.8A

• Note that the supermesh required using both KVL and KCL.

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 Problem 2

Solve for i1 and i2.

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Solution to Problem 2

Matrix Inversion

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Nodal Analysis by Inspection
• There is a faster way to construct a matrix for solving a
circuit by nodal analysis.
• It requires that all current sources within the circuit be
independent.
• In general, for a circuit with N nonreference nodes, the
node-voltage equations may be written as:

 G11 G12  G1N   v1   i1 

G  G2 N   v2   i2 
 21 G22 
          
    
 GN 1 GN 2  GNN  vN  iN 

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Nodal Analysis by Inspection II 1

• Each diagonal term on the conductance matrix is

the sum of conductances connected to the node
indicated by the matrix index.
• The off diagonal terms, Gjk are the negative of the
sum of all conductances connected between
nodes j and k with j  k.

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Nodal Analysis by Inspection II 2

• The unknown voltages are denoted as vk

• The sum of all independent current sources
directly connected to node k are denoted as ik.
Current entering the node are treated as positive
and vice versa.
• This matrix equation can be solved for the
unknown values of the nodal voltages.

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Mesh Analysis by Inspection
• There is a similarly fast way to construct a matrix for solving a circuit by
mesh analysis.
• It requires that all voltage sources within the circuit be independent.
• In general, for a circuit with N meshes, the mesh-current equations
may be written as:

 R11 R12  R1N   i1   v1 

R R22  R2 N   i2   v2 
 21 
          
    
 RN 1 RN 2  RNN  iN  vN 

• Each diagonal term on the resistance matrix is the sum of resistances

in the mesh indicated by the matrix index.

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Mesh Analysis by Inspection II
• The off diagonal terms, Rjk are the negative of the sum of
all resistances in common with meshes j and k with j  k.
• The unknown mesh currents in the clockwise direction are
denoted as ik.
• The sum taken clockwise of all voltage sources in mesh k
are denoted as vk. Voltage rises are treated as positive.
• This matrix equation can be solved for the values of the
unknown mesh currents.

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Selecting an Appropriate Approach
In principle both the nodal analysis and mesh
analysis are useful for any given circuit.
What then determines if one is going to be more
efficient for solving a circuit problem?
There are two factors that dictate the best choice:
• The nature of the particular network is the first factor.
• The second factor is the information required.

27
Mesh analysis when…
If the network contains:
• Many series connected elements.
• Voltage sources.
• Supermeshes.
• A circuit with fewer meshes than nodes.

If branch or mesh currents are what is being solved for.

Mesh analysis is the only suitable analysis for transistor
circuits.
It is not appropriate for operational amplifiers because there
is no direct way to obtain the voltage across an op-amp.

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Nodal analysis if…
If the network contains:
• Many parallel connected elements.
• Current sources.
• Supernodes.
• Circuits with fewer nodes than meshes.

If node voltages are what are being solved for.

Non-planar circuits can only be solved using nodal analysis.
This format is easier to solve by computer.

29
 Problem 3

Determine the node voltage v1 and v2 by

inspection.

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Solution to Problem 3

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Solution to Problem 3

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Application: DC transistor circuit
• Here we will use the approaches
learned in this chapter to analyze a
transistor circuit.
• In general, there are two types of
transistors commonly used: Field Effect
(FET) and Bipolar Junction (BJT).
• This problem will use a BJT.
• A BJT is a three terminal device, where
the input current into one terminal (the
base) affects the current flowing out of a
second terminal (the collector).
• The third terminal (the emitter) is the
common terminal for both currents.

33
Linearity
• Linearity in a circuit means that as current is
changed, the voltage changes
proportionally.
• It also requires that the response of a circuit
to a sum of sources will be the sum of the
individual responses from each source
separately.
• A resistor satisfies both of these criteria.

34
Superposition
If there are two or more independent sources there
are two ways to solve for the circuit parameters:
• Nodal or mesh analysis.
• Use superposition.

The superposition principle states that the voltage

across (or current through) an element in a linear
circuit is the algebraic sum of the voltages across
(or currents through) that element due to each
independent source acting alone.

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Applying Superposition
• Using superposition means applying one independent
source at a time.
• Dependent sources are left alone.
• The steps are:

1. Turn off all independent sources except one source. Find

the output (voltage or current) due to that active source on
an element using the techniques already covered.
2. Repeat step 1 for each of the other independent sources.
3. Find the total contribution by adding algebraically all the
contributions due to the independent sources.

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 Problem 4

Determine Ix using superposition theorem

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Solution to Problem 4

38
Solution to Problem 4

39
Solution to Problem 4

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Solution to Problem 4

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Source Transformation
• Much like the delta-wye transformation, it is
possible to transform a source from one
form to another.
• This can be useful for simplifying circuits.
• The principle behind all of these
transformations is equivalence.

42
Source Transformation II
• A source transformation is the process of
replacing a voltage source vs in series with
a resistor R by a current source is in parallel
with a resistor R, or vice versa.

43
Terminal Equivalency
• These transformations work because the two
sources have equivalent behavior at their
terminals.
• If the sources are turned off the resistance at the
terminals are both R.
• If the terminals are short circuited, the currents
need to be the same.
• From this we get the following requirement:
vs
vs  is R or is 
R
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Dependent Sources
• Source transformation also applies to dependent
sources.
• But, the dependent variable must be handled
carefully.
• The same relationship between the voltage and
current holds here:

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Source transformation rules
• Note that the arrow of the current source is
directed towards the positive terminal of the
voltage source.
• Source transformation is not possible when
R = 0 for an ideal voltage source.
• For a realistic source, R  0.
• For an ideal current source, R = ∞ also
prevents the use of source transformation.

46
 Problem 5

Determine i0 using source transformation.

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Solution to Problem 5

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Solution to Problem 5

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Thevenin’s Theorem
• In many circuits, one element will be
variable.
• An example of this is mains power; many
different appliances may be plugged into the
outlet, each presenting a different
resistance.
• This variable element is called the load.
• Ordinarily one would have to reanalyze the
circuit for each change in the load.

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Thevenin’s Theorem II
• Thevenin’s theorem states
that a linear two terminal
circuit may be replaced with
a voltage source and resistor.
• The voltage source’s value is
equal to the open circuit
voltage at the terminals.
• The resistance is equal to the
resistance measured at the
terminals when the
independent sources are
turned off.

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Thevenin’s Theorem III
• There are two cases to consider when finding the
equivalent resistance.
• Case 1: If there are no dependent sources, then
the resistance may be found by simply turning off
all the sources.

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Thevenin’s Theorem IV
• Case 2: If there are
dependent sources, we
still turn off all the
independent sources.
• Now apply a voltage v0
(or current i0)to the
terminals and
determine the current i0
(voltage v0).

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Thevenin’s Theorem V
• Thevenin’s theorem is very powerful in
circuit analysis.
• It allows one to simplify a circuit.
• A large circuit may be replaced by a single
independent voltage source and a single
resistor.
• The equivalent circuit behaves externally
exactly the same as the original circuit.

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Negative Resistance?
• It is possible for the result of this analysis to end
up with a negative resistance.
• This implies the circuit is supplying power.
• This is reasonable with dependent sources.
• Note that in the end, the Thevenin equivalent
makes working with variable loads much easier.
• Load current can be calculated with a voltage
source and two series resistors.
• Load voltages use the voltage divider rule.

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 Problem 6

Determine I0 using Thevenin Theorem.

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Solution to Problem 6

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Solution to Problem 6

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Norton’s Theorem
• Similar to Thevenin’s
theorem, Norton’s
theorem states that a
linear two terminal circuit
may be replaced with an
equivalent circuit
containing a resistor and a
current source.
• The Norton resistance will
be exactly the same as
the Thevenin.

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Norton’s Theorem II
• The Norton current IN is found by short
circuiting the circuit’s terminals and
measuring the resulting current.
I N  isc

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Norton versus Thevenin
• These two equivalent circuits can be related to
each other.
• One need only look at source transformation to
understand this.
• The Norton current and Thevein voltage are
related to each other as follows:

VTh
IN 
RTh

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Norton versus Thevenin II
• With VTH, IN, and (RTH=RN) related, finding the
Thevenin or Norton equivalent circuit requires that
we find:
• The open-circuit voltage across terminals a and b.
• The short-circuit current at terminals a and b.
• The equivalent or input resistance at terminals a
and b when all independent sources are turned
off.

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 Problem 7

Find the Norton equivalent circuit viewed from R.

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 Solution to Problem 7

• Norton resistance is gotten by first shorting the voltage

source and opening the current source
• The total resistance looking from R is 20 Ω parallel to 20
Ω plus 10 Ω
• Norton current is gotten by first shorting the R branch
and then calculating the current through it
• Apply source transformation for the 30 V and 20 Ω
series connected source to convert to 1.5 A and 20 Ω
shunted source
• Reduce the parallel 20 Ω and 20 Ω branches to a 10 Ω
branch
64
 Solution to Problem 7

• Apply source transformations to the 1.5 A and 10 Ω shunted

source to convert to 15 V and 10 Ω series connected source
• Apply source transformations to the 2 A and 10 Ω shunted
source to convert to 20 V and 10 Ω series connected source
• Lastly, solve the series circuit using KVL to determine the
Norton current through the R branch

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Maximum Power Transfer
• In many applications, a circuit is designed to
power a load.
• Among those applications there are many
cases where we wish to maximize the
power transferred to the load.
• Unlike an ideal source, internal resistance
will restrict the conditions where maximum
power is transferred.

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Maximum Power Transfer II
• We can use the Thevenin equivalent circuit for finding the
maximum power in a linear circuit.
• We will assume that the load resistance can be varied
• Looking at the equivalent circuit with load included, the
power transferred is:

2
 VTh 
p  RL
 RTh  RL 

67
Maximum Power Transfer III
• For a given circuit, VTH and RTH are fixed. By varying the
load resistance RL, the power delivered to the load varies
as shown.
• You can see that as RL approaches 0 and ∞ the power
transferred goes to zero.
• In fact the maximum power transferred is when RL= RTH.

68
 Problem 8

a) Find the Thevenin equivalent at terminals a-b.

b) Determine the current RL in = 8 Ω.
c) Determine RL for maximum power transfer.
d) Determine the maximum power transferred.

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Solution to Problem 8

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Solution to Problem 8

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 Home Work

1. Find the nodal voltage vo and currents i1 to i4 in

the network below.

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 Home Work

1. Find the nodal voltage vo and currents i1 to i4 in

the network below.

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 Home Work

2. Determine the voltage Vx using matrix

inversion.

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 Home Work

3. Find i using analysis.

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 Home Work

4. Using source transformations, solve for Io.

N.B. Same as Problem 6.

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 Home Work

5. Find the Thevenin equivalent circuit as seen

from R.

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 Extra Study

• Maximum Power Transfer

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 Prescribed Text

• Electrical and Electronic Technology 11th

Edition, by Edward Hughes (Revised by John
Hiley, Keith Brown and Ian McKenzie Smith)
– Chapter 4: Network Theorems
 Other References

• Fundamentals of Electric Circuits 7th Edition,

by Charles Alexander & Matthew N. O. Sadiku
• Principles and Applications of Electrical
Engineering 7th Edition, by Giorgio Rizzoni and
James Kearns
THANK YOU

Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment

Department of Electrical Engineering