ACHARYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

Acharya Dr. Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan Road, Soladevanahalli,

Bengaluru, Karnataka 560107

(Affiliated to VTU, Jnana Sangama, Belagavi)

Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering

Communication Laboratory

B.E - VI Semester, Electronics & Communication Engineering

[As per Choice Based Credit System (CBCS) scheme]

Subject Code - 18ECL67

Lab Manual – 2022-23

Name : _________________________________________________________

USN:___________________________________________________________

Branch:______________________________Section:____________________
 ACHARYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

Acharya Dr. Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan Road, Soladevanahalli,

Bengaluru, Karnataka 560107

(Affiliated to VTU, Jnana Sangama, Belagavi)

Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering

Communication Lab

B.E - VI Semester, Electronics & Communication Engineering

[As per Choice Based Credit System (CBCS) scheme]

Subject Code - 18ECL67

Prepared and Reviewed By:

Devasis Pradhan,
Assistant Professor, Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering,
AIT, Acharya, Bangalore -107

Approved By:
Prof. (Dr.) Rajeswari
Head of Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering,
AIT, Acharya, Bangalore -107
 ACHARYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
MOTTO
"Nurturing Aspirations Supporting Growth"
VISION
“Acharya Institute of Technology, committed to the cause of sustainable value-based
education in all disciplines, envisions itself as a global fountainhead of innovative
human enterprise, with inspirational initiatives for Academic Excellence”.
MISSION
“Acharya Institute of Technology strives to provide excellent academic ambiance to
the students for achieving global standards of technical education, foster intellectual
and personal development, meaningful research and ethical service to sustainable
societal needs.”

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION

ENGINEERING
VISION
To be a premier engineering department with excellence in teaching, research and
innovation to meet the global industrial standards and to have significant impact on
the wellbeing of the society.
MISSION
Mission 1. To provide student centric learning environment, inculcate profound
knowledge in both fundamental and applied areas of science and technology.
Mission 2. To train and mentor the students in developing leadership qualities and
team building skills along with professional ethics.

PROGRAM EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES (PEOs)

PEO1: Students shall have a successful professional career in industry, academia, R

& D organization or entrepreneur in specialized field of Electronics &
Communication engineering and allied disciplines.
PEO2: Students shall be competent, creative and valued professional in the chosen
field.
PEO3: Engage in life-long learning and professional development.
PEO4: Become effective global collaborators, leading or participating to address
technical, business, environmental and societal challenges.

PROGRAM OUTCOMES (POs)

PO1: Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science,

engineering fundamentals, and an engineering specialization to the solution of
complex engineering problems.
PO2: Problem analysis: Identify, formulate, review research literature, and analyze
complex engineering problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first
principles of mathematics, natural sciences, and engineering sciences.
PO3: Design/development of solutions: Design solutions for complex engineering
problems and design system components or processes that meet the specified needs
with appropriate consideration for the public health and safety, and the cultural,
societal, and environmental considerations.
PO4: Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research-based knowledge
and research methods including design of experiments, analysis and interpretation of
data, and synthesis of the information to provide valid conclusions.
PO5: Modern tool usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques, resources,
and modern engineering and IT tools including prediction and modeling to complex
engineering activities with an understanding of the limitations.
PO6: The engineer and society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual
knowledge to assess societal, health, safety, legal and cultural issues and the
consequent responsibilities relevant to the professional engineering practice.
PO7: Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional
engineering solutions in societal and environmental contexts, and demonstrate the
knowledge of, and need for sustainable development.
PO8: Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and
responsibilities and norms of the engineering practice.
PO9: Individual and team work: Function effectively as an individual, and as a
member or leader in diverse teams, and in multidisciplinary settings.
PO10: Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities
with the engineering community and with society at large, such as, being able to
comprehend and write effective reports and design documentation, make effective
presentations, and give and receive clear instructions.
PO11: Project management and finance: Demonstrate knowledge and
understanding of the engineering and management principles and apply these to one’s
own work, as a member and leader in a team, to manage projects and in
multidisciplinary environments.
PO12: Life-long learning: Recognize the need for, and have the preparation and
ability to engage in independent and life-long learning in the broadest context of
technological change.

PROGRAM SPECIFIC OUTCOMES (PSOs)

PSO1: Analog / Digital Circuit Design: Apply the conceptual knowledge in the
analysis and/or design, evaluate analog/digital circuits and systems.
PSO2: VLSI, Signal Processing and Embedded Systems: Demonstrate technical
competency in the analysis, design and validation of components in VLSI, Signal
Processing, and Embedded Systems
PSO3: Communication and Networking: Apply the domain knowledge in the
implementation and performance analysis of Communication Systems and Computer
Networks.
Communication Laboratory - 18ECL67 2022-23

ACHARYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

Acharya Dr. Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan Road,
Soladevanahalli,
Bengaluru, Karnataka 560107
Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering
Syllabus
Communication Laboratory
Subject Code: 18ECL67 CIE Marks : 40 SEE Marks : 60
No. of Practical Hrs/Week: 03 Exam Hours: 03
Total no. of Practical Hrs: 42

List of Experiment
Part A
1. Amplitude Modulation & Demodulation : I) Standard AM and ii) DSBSC Using IC
LM741 and IC LF398
2. Frequency Modulation and Demodulation Using IC 8038 / IC 2206
3. Pulse Sampling and Reconstruction
4. Time Division Multiplexing and De-multiplexing of two band limited signals.
5. ASK generation and detection
6. FSK and PSK generation and detection
7. Measurement of frequency, guide wavelength, power, VSWR and attenuation in
microwave test bench.
8. Determination of:
a. Coupling and isolation characteristics of micro strip directional coupler.
b. Resonance characteristics of micro strip ring resonator and computation of
dielectric constant of the substrate.
c. Power division and isolation of micro strip power divider.
9. To conduct an experiment to obtain radiation pattern and to measure the directivity and
gain of the Patch Dipole antenna and Yagi Antenna.
Part B
10. Simulate NRZ, RZ, half-sinusoid and raised cosine pulses and generate eye
diagram for binary polar signaling.

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10. Simulate the Pulse code modulation and demodulation system and display the
waveforms.
11. Simulate the QPSK transmitter and receiver. Plot the signals.

Recommended Text Books :

1. Digital communications, Simon Haykin, John Wiley India Pvt. Ltd,2008.

2. Microwave Engineering, Annapurna Das and Sisir K Das,Tata McGraw-Hill

Publishing Company, 2000

Prerequisites for the Course

1. Analog Communication

2. Basic of Antenna theory

Course Outcome

Course Outcomes-Program Outcomes mapping

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Conduct of Practical Examination:

 All laboratory experiments are to be considered for practical examination.
 For examination one question from PART-A and one question from PART-B or
only one question from PART-B experiments based on the complexity, to be set.
 Students are allowed to pick one experiment from the lot.
 Strictly follow the instructions as printed on the cover page of answer script for
breakup of marks.
 Change of experiment is allowed only once and Marks allotted to the procedure
part to be made zero.

Lab Rubrics for CIE : 40 Marks

Param POOR MODERAT EXCELLEN POs Max.

eter E T Marks
(1-3 Marks) Mappe
(4-7 Marks) (8-10 Marks) d
Design a Design/Writ Design/Write
Circuits/Writ e program to a program to 1,2,
CO1 e a program meet the meet the given 3,12 10
(Rubri
with errors, given specification,
c 1)
not meeting specification without errors.
all the given with
specification. minimal
errors.

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Conduct / Conduct / Conduct /

Demonstrate Demonstrate Demonstrate / 1, 2,
CO2 / Simulate / Simulate Simulate the 3, 4,
(Rubri
the the circuit/system 5, 9, 10
c 2)
circuit/syste circuit/syste and verify its 12
ms with m, but properties/out
additional unable to put obtained.
support. verify the
properties/ou
tput.
Tabulate/ Tabulate/ Tabulate/
1,2
Validate the Validate the Validate the
CO3 3, 4,
results with results but results and 10
(Rubri 5, 6,
additional unable to infer the
c 3) 9, 10, 12
support. infer the results
results satisfactorily.
satisfactorily
.
Poorly Moderately Effectively
interpret the interpret the interpret the 1, 2,
CO4
(Rubri concepts and concepts and concepts and 3, 6, 10
c 4) results - results- results - orally 8, 10,
orally and orally and and written 12
written form. written form. form.

TOTAL MARKS 40

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Experiment Name of Experiment Page No.

No.

1 1. To generate amplitude modulated wave and

determine the percentage modulation.
7-11
2. To Demodulate the modulated wave using envelope
detector.

2 To generate AM-Double Side Band Suppressed Carrier

12-14
(DSB-SC) signal.

3 1. To generate frequency modulated signal and

determine the modulation index and bandwidth for
various values of amplitude and frequency of
modulating signal. 15-18

2. To demodulate a Frequency Modulated signal using

FM detector.

4 Pulse Sampling and Reconstruction 19-23

5 To study the performance of the circuit that is used for 24-27

multiplexing of two band limited signals.
6 To design and verify the operation of ASK generator 28-33
and demodulator.
7 To design and verify the operation of FSK generator 34-37
and detector.
8 To design and verify the operation of PSK generator 38-42
and detector.
9 Measurement of frequency, guide wavelength, power, 43-47
VSWR and attenuation in microwave test bench.
10 1. To measure the resonance characteristics of a micro 48-52
strip ring resonator
2. To measure the power division and isolation
characteristics of a microstrip 3dB power Divider.
3. To determine coupling and isolation characteristics
of stripline directional coupler

11 To conduct an experiment to obtain radiation pattern 53-57

and to measure the directivity and gain of the Dipole

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antenna and Yagi Antenna.

12 To Simulate NRZ, RZ, half-sinusoid and raised cosine 58-63

pulses and generate eye diagram for binary polar
signaling

13 To Simulate the Pulse code modulation and 64-67

demodulation system and display the waveforms.
14 To Generate the Quadrature phase Shift Keying 38-72
Modulation and Demodulation signals using MATLAB

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Experiment No - 1
Aim of the Experiment :
1. To generate amplitude modulated wave and determine the percentage modulation.
2. To Demodulate the modulated wave using envelope detector.
Apparatus Required:

SL.No. Name of the Component Specification Quantity

1 Transistor(BC 107/ BF 194) fT = 300 MHz Pd = 1

1W Ic(max) = 100
mA

2 Diode(0A79) Max Current 35mA 1

3 Resistors RB =22 KΩ, 1 each

RE =47Ω
RD = 100 KΩ

4 Capacitor 0.01μF 2

5 IFT, AFT - 1 each

6 CRO 20 Mhz 1

7 Function Generator 1 Mhz 2

Theory:
Amplitude Modulation is defined as a process in which the amplitude of the carrier
wave c(t) is varied linearly with the instantaneous amplitude of the message signal
m(t).The standard form of an amplitude modulated (AM) wave is defined by
S(t) = Ac [1 + Ka m(t) cos(2πfct)]
Where Ka is a constant called the amplitude sensitivity of the modulator. The
demodulation circuit is used to recover the message signal from the incoming AM
wave at the receiver. An envelope detector is a simple and yet highly effective device
that is well suited for the demodulation of AM wave, for which the percentage
modulation is less than 100%.Ideally, an envelop detector produces an output signal
that follows the envelop of the input signal wave form exactly; hence, the name. Some
version of this circuit is used in almost all commercial AM radio receivers
The Modulation Index is defined

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���� − ����
�� =
���� + ����
Where Vmax and Vmin are the maximum and minimum amplitudes of the modulated
wave.
Circuit Diagram : Amplitude Modulator

+VCC 5V

AFT M(t) 500-1 KHz

IFT
S(t) O/p

CT
BF194

RT
RE

Circuit Diagram : De- modulator

OA79

AM I/p R C MI (t)

Procedure
1. Check all the components.

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2. IFT is tuned by connecting in between signal generator and CRO with Vi=2
Vp-p vary frequency of signal generator so that maximum output is obtained.
3. Make the connections as shown in the figure.
4. Switch off the AFT of modulating signal. For carrier frequency fc = 455 KHz
and modulating signal fm = 1 KHz. Adjust the carrier frequency to get
maximum output.
5. Switch on the modulating signal and adjust amplitude about 5Vp-p frequency
1 to 2 kHz and obtain an un distorted amplitude modulated o/p.
6. Keep carrier amplitude and frequency constant then vary modulating voltage
in steps. With respect to the variation measure Emax and Emin and calculate
modulation index.
7. Feed the AM wave to the demodulator circuit and observe the output.
8. Note down frequency and amplitude of the demodulated output waveform.
9. Trace : modulating signal, modulated signal (ma =1, ma<1) and demodulated
signal.

Observation Table

SL. No. Signal Vmax Vmin Modulation

amplitude Vm Index
1.

2.

3.

4.

Design for Demodulation

1/fc<<RC<<1/fm
1/455*103<<RC<<1/2*103
T=250microsec
Let C=0.1 micro F
Calculate R value

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Expected Waveform

Results

Questions
1. What is modulation and why modulation is needed?
2. Compare different AM techniques?
3. What is narrow banding?
4. What is frequency translation?
5. What is synchronous detection?
6. What are different methods of SSB?
7. What is envelope detection?
8. Explain the operation of the diode detector?
9. What is pilot carrier?

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10. Can you detect AM using synchronous detector?

11. What is frequency division multiplexing?
12. Draw the wave forms for under modulation over modulation and 100%
modulation?

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Experiment No - 2
Aim of the Experiment :
1. To generate AM-Double Side Band Suppressed Carrier (DSB-SC) signal.
Apparatus Required:

SL.No. Name of the Specification Quantity

Component

1 IC 1496 Wide frequency response 1

up to 100 MHz Internal
power dissipation –
500mw(MAX)

2 Resistors 6.8KΩ 1
10 KΩ, 3.9 KΩ 1KΩ ,51 2 each
KΩ
3 each

4 Capacitor 0.1μF 4

5 Variable Resistor 0-50 KΩ 1 each

6 CRO 20 Mhz 1

7 Function Generator 1 Mhz 2

Theory
Balanced modulator circuit is used to generate only the two side bands DSB-SC. The
balanced modulation system is a system is a system of adding message to carrier wave
frequency there by only the side bands are produced. It consists of two AM
modulators arranged in a balanced configuration. The AM modulator is assumed to be
identical. The carrier input to the two modulators is same. If we eliminate or suppress
the carrier then the system becomes suppressed carrier DSB-SC. In this we need
reinsert the carrier is complicated and costly. Hence the suppressed carrier DSB
system may be used in point to point communication system
Let us consider the same mathematical expressions for modulating and carrier signals
as we have considered in the earlier chapters.
i.e., Modulating signal

m(t)=Vm cos(2πfmt)

Carrier signal

c(t)=Ac cos(2πfct)

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Mathematically, we can represent the equation of DSBSC wave as the product of

modulating and carrier signals.

s(t)=m(t)*c(t)

⇒s(t)=Vm Ac cos(2πfmt)cos(2πfct)

Circuit Diagram

Procedure:
1. Connect the circuit diagram as shown in figure.
2. An Carrier signal of 1Vp-p amplitude and frequency of 83 KHz is applied as carrier
to pin no.10.
3. An AF signal of 0.5Vp-p amplitude and frequency of 5 KHz is given as message
signal to pin no.1.
4. Observe the DSB-SC waveform at pin no.12.

Observation Table

Sl.No. Modulating Signal Carrier Signal Modulated Signal

1 Amplitude = Amplitude = Amplitude =

Frequency Frequency = Frequency =

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Waveform Observed

Results

Questions
1. What are the two ways of generating DSB_SC?
2. What are the applications of balanced modulator?
3. What are the advantages of suppressing the carrier?
4. What are the advantages of balanced modulator?
5. What are the advantages of Ring modulator?
6. Write the expression for the output voltage of a balanced modulator?
7. Explain the working of balanced modulator and Ring Modulator using diodes.

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Experiment No - 3
Aim of the Experiment :
3. To generate frequency modulated signal and determine the modulation index and
bandwidth for various values of amplitude and frequency of modulating signal.
4. To demodulate a Frequency Modulated signal using FM detector.
Apparatus Required:

SL.No. Name of the Specification Quantity

Component

1 IC 8038 Power dissipation – 1 each

750mW Supply voltage -
±18V or 36V total

2 Resistors RA = RB = 1.5 K Ω 1 each

RL = 10 KΩ 1 each
R = 82 KΩ 1 each

4 Capacitor 0.01μF 1 each

0.1 μF 1 each

5 Variable Resistor 0-50 KΩ 1 each

6 CRO 20 Mhz 1

7 Function Generator 1 Mhz 2

Theory:
The process, in which the frequency of the carrier is varied in accordance with the
instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal, is called “Frequency Modulation”.
The FM signal is expressed as
S(t) = AC cos(2πfct +βsin(2πfmt))
Where AC is amplitude of the carrier signal, fC is the carrier frequency β is the
modulation index of the FM wave
The modulation system in which the modulator output is of constant amplitude, in
which the signal information is super imposed on the carrier through variations of the
carrier frequency. The frequency modulation is a non-linear modulation process. Each
spectral component of the base band signal gives rise to one or two spectral
components in the modulated signal. These components are separated from the carrier
by a frequency difference equal to the frequency of base band component. Most

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importantly the nature of the modulators is such that the spectral components which
produce decently on the carrier frequency and the base band frequencies.The spectral
components in the modulated wave form depend on the amplitude.
Procedure:
1. Check the functioning of IC 8038 as per the test circuit figure.
2. Verify the o/p at pin 2 sine wave, 3 triangle wave and at 9 square wave o/p to
ensure the IC is in good condition.
3. To find maximum phase deviation disconnect capacitor from pin no. 7&8
connect variable DC source to the same pin.
4. Vary the DC source from 0-10 volts note down the Vi and o/p frequency from
pin no. 2. Plot the graph of Vi Vs Fo.
5. Disconnect DC source and connect capacitor of 0.1 µF at pin 7 & 8 and apply
sine wave with the frequency from 2-5 KHz and Vi 3-6 volts Peak to peak and
observe the output of FM w.r.t message input.
6. Note down maximum and minimum frequency of the FM output and find the
frequency deviation ∆F = Fmax – Fmin and modulation index β = ∆f/fm.
7. Bandwidth of operation βT = 2 (∆F+fm).
8. Sensitivity of the FM modulator S = ∆Fc/∆Vi Hz/v
9. Maximum deviation Sm = S*Vm where Vm = amplitude of the modulating
signal.
10. Observe the FM wave at the output terminals and corresponding modulating
signal by adjusting the amplitude of the modulating signal
11. Trace the wave forms : modulating signal, modulated signal and demodulated
signal
12. Feed the FM wave to the detector ckt and observe the waveform a) before the
diode b) after the diode. Plot the waveform.

Circuit Diagram : Frequency Modulator

+12 V

RA RB RL

4 5 6 9 Square
O/p
3 Triangle O/p
0.1µF 7 IC 8038
2 Sine O/p
FM 8
10 11 12

C R

-12V
Frequency Modulation Ckt.

Circuit Diagram : Frequency De- Modulator

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Observation Table

Fmax Fmin ∆Fc Fm Β βT

Sensitivity
Sl.No. DC i/p Fo in Hz

Calculation:
Sensitivity = S = ∆Fc/ ∆Vi
Maximum Phase deviation δ = S * Vm
Modulation index β = δ / fm
Bandwidth of operation βT = 2 [∆fc + fm]

Expected Waveform

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Results

Questions
1. What is analog modulation?
2. What is angle modulation?
3. Compare AM with Narrow band FM?
4. What is exponential modulation?
5. What is linear modulation and non-linear modulation?
6. Compare NBFM and WBFM?
7. Advantages and disadvantages of AM and FM?
8. What is Carson rule?
9. What is single tone modulation?
10. Different methods of FM generation and demodulation?
11. What is threshold effect and how to reduce?
12. Relation between FM and PM?
13. What is frequency deviation?

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Experiment No - 4
Aim of the Experiment :
1. To conduct Pulse Sampling, Flat Top Sampling and Reconstruction and to observe the
waveforms

Apparatus Required:

SL.No. Name of the Specification Quantity

Component

1 Transistor SL 100 SL 100 01

2 Resistor 4.7 KΩ 01

3 Resistor 10 KΩ, 33 KΩ 01, 02

4 Capacitor 0.01μF, 1μF 01, 01

5 Signal generator 1 MHz 02

6 CRO 20 MHz 01

7 Opamp LM741 02

Theory
Sampling is the process of recording the values of a signal at given points in time. For
example in A/D converters. The signal which contains the information to be
transmitted is known as information signal and in case of voice communication this
will be a continuously changing signal containing speech information. The aim is to
reproduce this information signal as accurately as possible, at the distant, receiving
end of the communication system.
In Pulse Amplitude Modulation message information is encoded in the amplitude of a
series of signal pulses. It is an analog pulse modulation scheme in which the
amplitude of train of carrier pulse are varied according to the sample value of the
message signal. A train of very short pulses of constant amplitude and fast repetition
rate is chosen the amplitude of these pulse is made to vary in accordance with that of
a slower modulating signal the result is that of multiplying the train by the modulating
signal the envelope of the pulse height corresponds to the modulating wave .the Pam
wave contain upper and lower side band frequencies besides the modulating and pulse
signals.
Applications
There are few applications of the sampling theorem are listed below.

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a) To maintain sound quality in music recordings.

b) Sampling process is applicable in the conversion of analog to discrete form.
c) Speech recognition systems and pattern recognition systems.
d) Modulation and demodulation systems
e) In sensor data evaluation systems
f) Radar and radio navigation system sampling is applicable.
g) Digital watermarking and biometric identification systems, surveillance systems.

Procedure
1. Connections are made as shown in the circuit diagram.
2. Apply Carrier signal (10 Vp-p, 5-10 KHz) and message signal (2 Vp-p, 500 KHz)
3. Observe the PAM o/p on CRO.
4. Now apply PAM o/p as input to the low pass filter for demodulation.
5. Observe the demodulated o/p on CRO
6. Verify the sampling theorem under 3 different cases,
a. fc(fs)<2 fm
b. fc(fs)=2 fm
c. fc(fs)>2 fm
7. Plot the waveform.
Circuit Diagram

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Reconstruction Circuit Diagram

Expected Waveform

Procedure for Flat top Sampling

1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.

2. Sine wave input signal of 5V,1KHz and square wave (carrier signal) of 5V
10KHz is given as input to the circuit. Message signal is given to collector and
carrier signal (pulse signal) of high frequency is given to base of the transistor.
3. Output is taken at emitter and observed across the CRO.
4. Repeat the procedure for different conditions of sampling i.e., fs= 2fm, fs> 2fm,
fs<2fm.
5. Connect the demodulator circuit and the modulated output is given as input to the
demodulator to obtain the message signal. Obtain output for different conditions.
6. Plot the waveforms.

Circuit Diagram

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Design: For Demodulation:

1/fc << RC << 1 / fm

Let C = 0.1 μF

Then R = ……. kΩ

Expected Waveform

Results and Discussions:

Question :
1. What do you know about the sampling theorem.

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2. Discuss in detail about Nyquist Theorem.

3. What does sampling mean? Name the various sampling techniques.
4. What do you know about impulse sampling? Mention its disadvantage?
5. Explain in detail natural sampling? Discuss its disadvantages?
6. Discuss sample and hold operation?
7. Explain about aliasing effect?
8. How we can prevent aliasing?

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Experiment No - 5
Aim of the Experiment :
1. To study the performance of the circuit that is used for multiplexing of two band
limited signals.
Apparatus Required:

SL.No. Name of the Specification Quantity

Component

1 IC 4051 Operating Temperature 02

-550 to 1250C
Input/output continuous
current (Max) (mA)
10 mA
Bandwidth 20Mhz
2 CRO 20 Mhz 1

3 Function Generator 1 Mhz 2

Theory:
Time-division multiplexing (TDM) is a type of digital or (rarely) analog multiplexing
in which two or more signals or bit streams are transferred apparently simultaneously
as sub-channels in one communication channel, but are physically taking turns on the
channel. The time domain is divided into several recurrent timeslots of fixed length,
one for each sub-channel. A sample byte or data block of sub-channel 1 is transmitted
during time slot 1, sub-channel 2 during timeslot 2, etc. One TDM frame consists of
one time slot per sub-channel. After the last sub-channel the cycle starts all over again
with a new frame, starting with the second sample, byte or data block from sub-
channel 1, etc.
Applications:
1. The plesiochronous digital hierarchy (PDH) system, also known as the PCM
system, for digital transmission of several telephone calls over the same four-wire
copper cable (Tcarrier or E-carrier) or fiber cable in the circuit switched digital
telephone network.

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2. The SDH and synchronous optical networking (SONET) network transmission

standards that have surpassed PDH.
3. The RIFF (WAV) audio standard interleaves left and right stereo signals on a per-
sample basis
4. The left-right channel splitting in use for stereoscopic liquid crystal shutter
glasses
TDM can be further extended into the time division multiple accesses (TDMA)
scheme, where several stations connected to the same physical medium, for example
sharing the same frequency channel, can communicate. Application examples include:
GSM telephone system

Procedure:
1. Rig up the circuit as shown in the figure.
2. Switch on the power supplies and adjust the VCC to the required values.
3. Apply the TTL clock of 10 KHz at pin 11(IC 4051).
4. Apply the input signals at pin 14(sine wave 3Vp-p 1000Hz) and pin
13(triangular wave 3Vp-p 500 Hz) of IC 4051.
5. Observe the TDM output signal at pin 3 of 1st IC 4051(multiplexed output).
6. Change the frequency and amplitude of the input signals and observe the
output.
7. The 2nd IC 4051 acts as de-multiplexer. Observe the de-multiplexed output at
pin 13 and pin 14.
8. Compare the input and de-multiplexed output.

Circuit diagram:

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Waveforms:

Results and Discussions:

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Questions
1. Two signals g1(t) and g2(t) are to be transmitted over a common channel by means
of time division multiplexing. The highest freq of g1(t) is 1 KHz and that g2(t) is 1.5
KHz. What is the minimum value of the permissible sampling rate? Justify your
answer.
2. How is synchronization achieved in TDM?
3. Twenty four voice signals are sampled uniformly and then time division
multiplexed. The sampling operation uses flat top samples with 1μs duration. The
multiplexing operation includes provision for synchronization by adding an extra
pulse of sufficient amplitude and also 1μs duration. The highest frequency component
of each voice signal is 3.4KHz.
a. Assuming a sampling rate of 8 KHz, Find the spacing between successive pulses of
the multiplexed signal.
b. Repeat your calculation assuming the use of nyquist rate sampling.
4. What is the major drawback of digital communication?
5. Three signals m1,m2 and m3 are to be multiplexed.m1 and m2 have a 5 KHz
bandwidth and m3 has 10KHz bandwidth. Design a commutator switching system so
that each signal is sampled at its Nyquist rate.

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Experiment No - 6
Aim of the Experiment :
1. To design and verify the operation of ASK generator and demodulator.
Apparatus Required:

SL.No. Name of the Specification Quantity

Component

1 Transistor BC107/108/SL100 01

2 Diode, OA79 01

3 Resistor 22KΩ, 2.2KΩ, 10KΩ, 0I each

4 Capacitor 0.1μF 01

5 Op-Amp μA741 01

6 CRO 20 Mhz 1

7 Function Generator 1 Mhz 2

Theory:
Amplitude-shift keying (ASK) is a form of amplitude modulation that represents
digital data as variations in the amplitude of a carrier wave. In an ASK system, the
binary symbol 1 is represented by transmitting a fixed-amplitude carrier wave and
fixed frequency for a bit duration of T seconds. If the signal value is 1 then the carrier
signal will be transmitted; otherwise, a signal value of 0 will be transmitted.

ASK Generation: - A block diagram of a basic ASK modulator is shown in Fig.

below. The multiplier can be modeled by analog multiplier or by analog switch.

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Demodulation methods
It is apparent from Figures 1 that the ASK signal has a well-defined envelope. Thus it
is amenable to demodulation by an envelope detector. A synchronous demodulator
would also be appropriate.
Note that:
 Envelope detection circuitry is simple.
 Synchronous demodulation requires a phase-Iocked local carrier and therefore
carrier acquisition circuitry.
With band limiting of the transmitted ASK neither of these demodulation methods
would recover the original binary sequence; instead, their outputs would be a band
limited version. Thus further processing - by some sort of decision-making circuitry
for example would be necessary. Thus demodulation is a two-stage process:
 Recovery of the bandlimited bit stream
 Regeneration of the binary bit stream

Envelope Detection
To demodulation by an envelope detector. Envelope detection is used if Signal to
Noise Ratio (SNR) is high. The envelope detector is a rectifier and low pass filter
circuit. The circuit rejects the carrier frequency components and produces a dc output
that corresponds to the original binary-data. The output from the detector will be a
distorted binary signal. A threshold device, such as comparator or decision maker, can

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be used to ‘clean up’ the recovered envelope detector output waveform. Figure.4
shows the block diagram for such system.

Procedure:
Generation of ASK:
1. Rig up the circuit as shown in circuit diagram.
2. Apply the message signal m(t)>8Vp-p,500Hz square wave
3. Apply the carrier signal c(t) 5Vp-p,10kHz sine wave
4. Observe the ASK output at the emitter of transistor using a CRO.
Demodulation of ASK:
1. Rig up the circuit as shown in the figure.
2. Observe the output at the envelope detector (diode).
3. Observe the amplitude and waveform at the pin no 6 of op-amp which gives output
corresponding to envelope detector stage.
4. Vary the comparator voltage (pin 2)0-5v to obtain the clear square wave.
5. The demodulated signal m’(t) at the comparator (pin 6) matches with the message
signal m(t).
6. Calculate the bit error from m’(t) and m(t).
Working:
 Since we are using an NPN transistor (BC108 / 107) for proper working of a
transistor, emitter base junction should be forward biased and CB junction
should be reverse biased.
 When data ‘1’ is applied to base then transistor works and it acts as a closed
switch transmitting the carrier from collector to emitter.
 If data ‘0’ is fed to base of the transistor then it acts as an open switch hence
no output at the emitter terminal hence the ASK.
 Envelop detector is used to detect the digital data, when bit 1 is transmitted
capacitor charges and discharges rapidly maintaining some finite voltage at the
output. When bit 0 is transmitted capacitor completely discharges as shown in
waveform.
 Finally comparator is used to compare the output of detector and the threshold,
if output greater than threshold it generates a new bit 1 else 0.

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Like AM, ASK is also linear and sensitive to atmospheric noise, distortions,
propagation conditions on different routes in PSTN, etc. Both ASK modulation and
demodulation processes are relatively inexpensive. The ASK technique is also
commonly used to transmit digital data over optical fiber.
For LED transmitters, binary 1 is represented by a short pulse of light and binary 0 by
the absence of light. Laser transmitters normally have a fixed "bias" current that
causes the device to emit a low light level. This low level represents binary 0, while a
higher-amplitude light wave represents binary 1.

Circuit Diagram:
ASK Modulator and Demodulator

Design:
Let Vc = 5 volts peak-to-peak, Vm =10 volts peak-to-peak, fm = 500 Hz, fc
=50 kHz.
Assume hfe= 30, VBEsat= 0.7 volts, VCEsat= 0.3 volts, Ic=1 mA, Ic = Ie.
Vc peak = VCEsat + IeRe
2.5 = 0.3 + (1 m)Re,
=> Re = 2.2 kΩ
Vm,peak = Rb Ib + VBE,sat + Ie Re
5 = RbIb + 0.7 + 2.2,
where Ib=Ic/hfe

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then Rbmax = 63 kΩ , Choose Rb = 22 k Ω

Envelope Detector:
1/fm>RdCd>1/fc, hence 2ms>RdCd>100μs
Let RdCd =50/fc=1 ms
Assume Cd=0.1 μF, then Rd=10 kΩ

ASK modulation and demodulation waveforms:

Results and Discussions:

Observation:

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1. Modulating Signal______________________
2. Modulated Signal (ASK)_________________
3. Carrier Signal__________________________
4. Demodulated Signal_____________________

Questions:
1. Define Amplitude shift keying?
2. What is the bandwidth of ASK?
3. What are the advantages of ASK?
4. What are the disadvantages of ASK?
5. Give the applications of ASK?
6. Draw a ASK signal for an input bit sequence of 100111

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Experiment No -7
Aim of the Experiment :
1. To design and verify the operation of FSK generator and detector.
Apparatus Required:

SL.No. Name of the Specification Quantity

Component

1 Transistor BC107/108/SL100 01

2 Diode, OA79 01

3 Resistor 22KΩ, 2.2KΩ, 10KΩ, 0I each

4 Capacitor 0.1μF 01

5 Op-Amp μA741 01

6 CRO 20 Mhz 1

7 Function Generator 1 Mhz 2

Theory:
FSK is one of the digital modulation technique. Here frequency of the carrier is
switched between two values. A sinusoidal of amplitude' A' and frequency fc1 is used
to represent a binary '1' and frequency fc2 is used to represent binary '0'.

Application:
Some early CW transmitters employed an arc converter that could not be conveniently
keyed. Instead of turning the arc on and off, the key slightly changed the transmitter
frequency in a technique known as the compensation-wave method. The
compensation-wave was not used at the receiver. Spark transmitters used for this
method consumed a lot of bandwidth and caused interference, so it was discouraged
by 1921.
Most early telephone-line modems used audio frequency-shift keying (AFSK) to send
and receive data at rates up to about 1200 bits per second. The Bell 103 and Bell 202
modems used this technique. Even today, North American caller ID uses 1200 baud
AFSK in the form of the Bell 202 standard. Some early microcomputers used a
specific form of AFSK modulation, the Kansas City standard, to store data on audio

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cassettes. AFSK is still widely used in amateur radio, as it allows data transmission
through unmodified voice band equipment.
AFSK is also used in the United States' Emergency Alert System to transmit warning
information. It is used at higher bitrates for Weather copy used on Weather radio by
NOAA in the U.S.

Procedure:
1. Rig up the modulator circuit as shown in the figure.
2. Apply carrier of amplitude 2 V(P- P) and frequency 1 kHz.
3. Apply carrier of amplitude 2 V(P- P) and frequency 2 kHz.
4. Apply message signal of amplitude 10 V(P - P) and frequency of 250 Hz. .
5. Observe ASK outputs at each collector of transistor, and also observe FSK output
at pin 6 of op-amp.
6. Connect demodulator circuit.
7. Observe the demodulated output on CRO.
Circuit Diagram

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Design

1. Modulator
Let Vc = 5 volts peak-to-peak, Vm =10 volts peak-to-peak, fm = 500 Hz, fc
=50 kHz.
Assume hfe= 30, VBEsat= 0.7 volts, VCEsat= 0.3 volts, Ic=1 mA, Ic = Ie.
Vc peak = VCEsat + IeRe
2.5 = 0.3 + (1 m)Re,
=> Re = 2.2 kΩ
Vm,peak = Rb Ib + VBE,sat + Ie Re
5 = RbIb + 0.7 + 2.2,
where Ib=Ic/hfe
then Rbmax = 63 kΩ , Choose Rb = 22 k Ω
2. Demodulator
Low Pass/High Pass filter f = 5 kHz, Let C= 0.1μF
1
f = 2���

So, R = 318Ω, Choose 330Ω Std. value

Envelope Detector
1/fm>RdCd>1/fc, hence 2ms>RdCd>100μs
Let RdCd =50/fc=1 ms
Assume Cd=0.1 μF, then Rd=10 kΩ

Observation/Comments:
1. Modulating Signal______________________
2. Modulated Signal (ASK)_________________
3. Carrier Signal__________________________
4. Demodulated Signal_____________________

Results and Discussions:

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Expected Wave form:

Question:
1. Define frequency shift keying?
2. What is meant by carrier swing?
3. Define Frequency deviation of FSK?
4. What are the advantages of FSK?
5. Give the differences between FSK & FM?
6. What are the disadvantages of FSK?
7. What is the bandwidth required for coherent FSK?
8. Compare FSK with ASK signaling schemes?
9. Define Binary FSK signal?
10. Draw a FSK signal for an input bit sequence of 10011001?

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Experiment No -8
Aim of the Experiment :
1. To design and verify the operation of PSK generator and detector.
Apparatus Required:

SL.No. Name of the Specification Quantity

Component

1 Transistor BC107/108/SL100 01

2 Diode, OA79 01

3 Resistor 22KΩ, 2.2KΩ, 10KΩ, 0I each

4 Capacitor 0.1μF 01

5 Op-Amp μA741 01

6 CRO 20 Mhz 1

7 Function Generator 1 Mhz 2

Theory:
BPSK (also sometimes called PRK, phase reversal keying, or 2PSK) is the simplest
form of phase shift keying (PSK). It uses two phases which are separated by 180° and
so can also be termed 2-PSK. It does not particularly matter exactly where the
constellation points are positioned, and in this figure they are shown on the real axis,
at 0° and 180°. Therefore, it handles the highest noise level or distortion before the
demodulator reaches an incorrect decision. That makes it the most robust of all the
PSKs. It is, however, only able to modulate at 1 bit/symbol and so is unsuitable for
high data-rate applications.
In the presence of an arbitrary phase-shift introduced by the communications channel,
the demodulator is unable to tell which constellation point is which. As a result, the
data is often differentially encoded prior to modulation. BPSK is functionally
equivalent to 2- QAM modulation.

Applications:
Owing to PSK's simplicity, particularly when compared with its competitor
quadrature amplitude modulation, it is widely used in existing technologies.

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The wireless LAN standard, IEEE 802.11b-1999, uses a variety of different PSKs
depending on the data-rate required. At the basic-rate of 1 M bit/s, it uses DBPSK
(differential BPSK). To provide the extended-rate of 2 M bit/s, DQPSK is used. In
reaching 5.5 Mbit/s and the full-rate of 11 M bit/s, QPSK is employed, but has to be
coupled with complementary code keying. The higher-speed wireless LAN standard,
IEEE 802.11g-2003 has eight data rates: 6, 9, 12, 18, 24, 36, 48 and 54 M bit/s. The 6
and 9 M bit/s modes use OFDM modulation where each sub-carrier is BPSK
modulated. The 12 and 18 M bit/s modes use OFDM with QPSK. Because of its
simplicity BPSK is appropriate for low-cost passive transmitters, and is used in RFID
standards such as ISO/IEC 14443 which has been adopted for biometric passports,
credit cards such as American Express's Express Pay, and many other applications.
Bluetooth 2 will use π / 4-DQPSK at its lower rate (2 M bit/s) and 8-DPSK at its
higher rate (3 M bit/s) when the link between the two devices is sufficiently robust.
Bluetooth 1 modulates with Gaussian minimum-shift keying, a binary scheme, so
either modulation choice in version 2 will yield a higher data-rate. A similar
technology, IEEE 802.15.4 (the wireless standard used by ZigBee) also relies on PSK.
IEEE 802.15.4 allows the use of two frequency bands: 868–915 MHz using BPSK
and at 2.4 GHz using OQPSK.
Notably absent from these various schemes is 8-PSK. This is because its error-rate
performance is close to that of 16-QAM — it is only about 0.5 dB better — but its
data rate is only quarters that of 16-QAM. Thus 8-PSK is often omitted from
standards and, as seen above, schemes tend to 'jump' from QPSK to 16-QAM (8-
QAM is possible but difficult to implement).

Procedure:
Generation of PSK:
1. Rig up the circuit as shown in circuit diagram.
2. Apply the message signal m(t)>8vp-p,500hz square wave
3. Apply the carrier signal c(t) 5vp-p,5kHz sine wave
4. Observe ASK1 and ASK2 output at SL100 and SK100 emitter respectively.
5. Observe the PSK output at the end of adder stage using a CRO.
Demodulation of PSK:
1. Rig up the circuit as shown in the figure.

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2. Observe the output at the envelope detector (diode).

3. Observe the amplitude and waveform at the pin no 6 of op-amp which gives output
corresponding to envelope detector stage.
4. Vary the comparator voltage (pin 2)0-5V to obtain the clear square wave.
5. The demodulated signal m1 (t) at the comparator (pin 6) matches with the message
signal m (t).
6. Calculate the bit error from m1 (t) and m (t).
Working: Here we are using two transistors one is of NPN and other PNP transistor.
During bit ‘1’ NPN transistor is switched on and gives ask1 output. During bit’0’ PNP
transistor is switched on and NPN is turned of again yielding ask2. ASK1 and ASK2
are summed up by using summer circuit as shown in circuit producing PSK output.
In the demodulation, first carrier in one bit duration (during bit 0) is eliminated again
by using adder circuit to obtain ASK. Finally an envelope Detector and comparator is
used to obtain binary data as explained in ASK demodulator.

Circuit Diagram

Design:
Let Vc = 5 volts peak-to-peak, Vm =10 volts peak-to-peak, fm = 500 Hz, fc
=50 kHz.
Assume hfe= 30, VBEsat= 0.7 volts, VCEsat= 0.3 volts, Ic=1 mA, Ic = Ie.
Vc peak = VCEsat + IeRe
2.5 = 0.3 + (1 m)Re,

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=> Re = 2.2 kΩ
Vm,peak = Rb Ib + VBE,sat + Ie Re
5 = RbIb + 0.7 + 2.2,
where Ib=Ic/hfe
then Rbmax = 63 kΩ , Choose Rb = 22 k Ω
Envelope Detector:
1/fm>RdCd>1/fc, hence 2ms>RdCd>100μs
Let RdCd =50/fc=1 ms
Assume Cd=0.1 μF, then Rd=10 kΩ

Expected BPSK modulation and de modulation waveforms:

Observation/Comments:
5. Modulating Signal______________________
6. Modulated Signal (ASK)_________________

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7. Carrier Signal__________________________
8. Demodulated Signal_____________________

Results and Discussions:

Questions:
1. Explain concept of PSK?
2. What is the band width requirement of a DPSK?
3. Explain the operation of DPSK detection?
4. What are the advantages of PSK?
5. What is meant by differential encoding?
6. In Differential encoding technique which type of logic gates are used?
7. Draw the waveforms of PSK?
8. What is the difference between PSK&DPSK?
9. What is the minimum bandwidth required in PSK?
10. Explain the Demodulation scheme of PSK?

Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering, Acharya Institute of Technology, Bangalore -560107 42
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Experiment No -9
Aim of the Experiment :
1. Measurement of frequency, guide wavelength, power, VSWR and attenuation in
microwave test bench.
Apparatus Required:

SL.No. Name of the Specification Quantity

Component

1 Reflex Klystron 2k25 01

2 Klystron power SKPS – 610 01

supply
3 Klystron mount XM-251 01

4 Isolator, XI-621 01

5 Frequency meter XF-710 01

6 Variable attenuator XA-520 01

7 Detector mount XD-451 01

8 Waveguide stands X4-535 01

Theory
1. Klystron power supply SKPS – 610
The model Klystron Power Supply SKPS-610 is general purpose laboratory power
supply which is specially designed to use for reflex klystron tubes of S to X band
frequency range. It is reliable power source with very high regulation and low ripple
contents. The klystron power supply SKPS-610 has built in modulation facilities of
amplitude and frequency modulation. Amplitude modulation can be applied with 0-
110V (p.p.) Square wave and with frequency of 500 Hz to 2.5 KHz. This amplitude
modulation is generally used along with VSWR measurements in slotted line
technique. Frequency modulation is used for direct study of klystron modes on the
Oscilloscope. Pure carrier wave operation and in external modulation facilities is also
provided with the instrument for generalized use.
2. Klystron tube 2k25
The klystron tube 2k25 is a single cavity variable frequency microwave generator of
low power and low efficiency. It consists of an electron gun, a filament surrounded by
cathode and a focusing electrode at cathode potential. The electrons emitted by the
cathode travel 2 towards the reflector through an anode kept at higher potential

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compared to the cathode. When they approach the anode, the electrons form bunches
and the bunches ultimately return towards the anode cavity after traveling a small
distance towards the reflector. The power is taken from the anode reentrant cavity.
3. Isolator XI-621
It is a two port device which provides very small amount of attenuation for
transmission from port 1 to port 2 and provides maximum attenuation for transmission
from port 2 to port 1. It is very much desirable when we want to match a source with
variable load. It allows power flow only from the generator towards the load and
suppresses any reflected power.
4. Frequency meter XF-710
It is also called wave meter. Usual construction of it consist a cylindrical cavity
mounted on a shaft. By rotating the shaft the volume in the cavity is changed and it
becomes resonant and gives minimum impedance at the resonant frequency. The scale
calibrated and the resonant frequency can be directly read from the scale after
observing a dip in the output meter.
5. Variable attenuator XA-520
This is a wave guide piece having a groove on the lateral side. By rotating the screw
the depth of penetration of resistive pad changes, there by introducing some
attenuation. Attenuators are commonly used for measuring power game or loss in dBs
for providing isolation between instruments for reducing the power input to a
particular stage to prevent over loading and also for providing the signal generators
with means of calibrating there outputs accurately. Variable attenuator provide
continuous or step wise variable attenuation.
6. Reflex Klystron
The reflex klystron makes use of velocity modulation to transform a continuous
electron beam into microwave power. Electrons emitted from the cathode are
accelerated and passed through the positive resonator towards negative reflector,
which retards and finally reflects the electrons towards the resonator. The accelerated
electrons have the resonator with increased velocity and the retarded electrons leave at
reduced velocity. As the electrons bunch pass through resonator, they interact with
voltage at resonator grids. If the bunches pass the grid, at such time, that the 3
electrons are slowed down by the voltage, energy will be delivered to the resonator
and the klystron will oscillate.

Block diagram:

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Procedure:
1. Connect the components and equipment as shown in Block Diagram.
2. Keep the control knob of klystron power supply as below:
Mode switch : AM
Beam Voltage knob : Fully anti-clockwise
Repeller voltage knob : Fully clockwise
Meter switch: Beam Voltage/Beam
Current/ Repeller Voltage: Beam current Current
3. Rotate the frequency meter at one side (NOTE: Rotate frequency meter very
slowly).
4. Switch on the klystron power supply, V.S.W.R/CRO and cooling fan for the
klystron tube. Wait for 1-2 minutes for the klystron to respond.
5. Cathode voltage knob at minimum position gives a beam voltage about 235V to
300V. Observe beam current on the meter by changing meter switch to beam current
position. “The beam current should not be more than 30mA”. (Try to set Beam
current at 20 mA by increasing/Decreasing beam voltage knob)
6. Now change the meter switch to repeller/reflector voltage position.
7. Decreasing the reflector/repeller voltage, record output power and frequency.
8. To measure frequency, switch the Mode-switch of klystron to AM mode and
observe output on CRO display. Use AM amplitude, frequency controls and controls
on Oscilloscope front panel try to get clear display on C.R.O. By rotating the
frequency meter observe for dip in the output and note the corresponding frequency.
9. Move the probe along with the slotted section. The deflection in CRO will vary.

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10. Move the probe position move the probe to next minimum position and note again.
11. Calculate the guide wavelength as twice the distance between two minimum
positions.
12. Measure the wave guide inner broad dimension ‘a’ which will be around 22.85 to
22.86 mm for X band. (λc = 2a)
13. Calculate the frequency (fcal)

Observations and calculations:

Frequency (f0) = __________GHz.
Wavelength:
L1= ______cm Vmax= _______mV
L2= ______cm Vmin= _______mV
L3= ______cm Vmax= _______mV
L4= ______cm Vmin= _______mV
1 1 1
�0
= ( ��2 + ��2 )

λg=(L1-L3)*2
2�
λc= a = 2.54cm and m = 1 for TE10 mode
�
����
VSWR=
����

Result:

Questions:
1. Explain the operation of the reflex klystron tube.
2. What is the basic principle involved in microwave tubes.
3. What is the difference between velocity modulation and current density
modulation?
4. What happens to the power output as the repeller voltage increases?
5. What are the various modes of operation in the reflex klystron.
6. How electronic tuning is achievable in klystron.
7. What changes occurs in the frequency due to the repeller voltage variation.

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8. What is the maximum theoretical efficiency, frequency range of the reflex

klystron?
9. How bunching is achieved in reflex klystron.
10. What is the advantage of reflex klystron over two cavity klystron.

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Experiment No -10
Aim of the Experiment :
3. To measure the resonance characteristics of a micro strip ring resonator
4. To measure the power division and isolation characteristics of a microstrip 3dB
power Divider.
3. To determine coupling and isolation characteristics of stripline directional coupler
Apparatus Required:

SL.No. Name of the Specification Quantity

Component

1 Microwave Source C-Band (4-6 Ghz) 01

2 6dB attenuator - 01

3 50Ω transmission - 01
line
4 Ring resonator - 01

5 Detector 20Ghz 01

6 Active filter - 01

7 VSWR or CRO 30 Mhz 01

Theory
1. Ring Resonator
The open-end effect encountered in a rectangular resonator at the feeding gaps can be
minimized by forming the resonator as a closed loop. Such a resonator is called a ring
resonator. The Figure 1. shown below is the layout of a ring resonator along with the
input and output feed lines. Resonance is established when the mean circumference
of the ring is equal to integral multiples of guide wavelength.

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Figure 1. Ring Resonator input and output feed line

2. Power Divider
The microstrip power divider provided is of the 3 dB Wilkinson type the impedance
of the input/output lines is 50 and the isolation resistor connected between the two
output lines has a value of 100. Measuring the power division property involves
measuring the transmission response between the input port (port 1) and the two
output ports (ports 2 and 3). While measuring the transmission response between any
two ports, the third port has to be terminated in a matched load. Measuring the
isolation property involves measuring the transmission response between ports 2 and
3 by terminating port 1 in a matched load. Figure2. shows the line diagram of Y-
junction as a power divider. Let port 1 be the input port that is matched to the source
(S11 = 0).

Figure 2. Y-Junction Power Divider

3. Directional Coupler
Provided in the device, is a parallel line (backward wave) directional coupler (15dB).
The impedance of input/output lines is 50. The length of the parallel coupled line
region is quarter wavelength at the centre frequency (around 2.4 GHz). The ports are
decoupled by bending the auxiliary line and main line at either ends of the parallel
coupled section. For the experiment, anyone of the ports can be chosen as the input
port. With respect to this input port, identify the direct output port (port 2), the
coupled port (port 3) and the isolated port (port 4). Measurement of coupling involves
measuring the transmission response between the input port (port 1) and the coupled
port (port 3). Similarly, measurement of isolation of the coupler involves measuring
the transmission response between the input port and the isolated port (port4). While
making the measurement between any two ports, the remaining two ports will have to
be terminated in matched loads.

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Figure 3. Parallel Line Directional Coupler

Block diagram:

Procedure:
A) Resonance Characteristics
 Set up the system as shown in the figure
 Keeping the voltage minimum switch on the power supply
 Insert a 50ohm transmission line and check for the output at the end of the
system using CRO/VSWR/power meter.
 Vary the power supply voltage and check the output for different VCO
frequency
 Replace 50ohm transmission line with ring resonator.
 Vary the supply voltage, tabulate VCO frequency Vs output.
 Plot a graph frequency Vs output and find the resonant frequency.
Tabulation:

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B) Power Division & Isolation

 Set up the system as shown in the figure
 Keeping the voltage at minimum Switch on the power supply.
 Insert a 50ohm transmission line and check for the output at the end of the
system using a CRO/ VSWR/ power meter.
 Vary the power supply voltage and the check the output for different VCO
frequencies.
 Keep the VCO frequency constant note down the output. This value can be
taken has the input to the power divider.
 Replace 50ohm transmission line with the power divider
 Tabulate the output at port2 and port3
 Calculate the insertion loss and coupling factor in each coupled arm.
 Calculate the isolation between port2 and port3 by feeding the input to port2
and measure output at port3 by terminating port1.
 Repeat the experiment for different VCO frequencies.

With CRO
Isolation between port2&3 =10log (V2/V3)
Coupling factor at arm 3 =10log (V3/V1)
Coupling factor at arm 2=10log (V2/V1)

C) Coupling & Isolation of directional coupler

 Set up the system as shown in figure
 Keeping the voltage at minimum, switch on the power supply.
 Insert 5oohm transmission line and check for the output at the end of the
system using CRO/ VSWR/ power meter.

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 Vary the power supply voltage and check the output for different VCO
frequencies
 Not down the output for different VCO frequencies(this value can be taken has
the input to branch line coupler)
 Replace 50ohm transmission line with branch line coupler.
 Check the output at port2 (through output), 3(coupled output),4(isolated
output).
 Calculate the insertion loss, coupling factor and isolation using the formula
given.
 Repeat the experiment for the parallel line coupler.
With oscilloscope:
Insertion loss in (dB) = 10log (V1/V2)
Coupling factor in (dB) = 10log (V1/V3)
Isolation in (dB) = 10log (V1/V4)
Directivity in (dB) = 10log (V1/V4)

Results & Discussion

Question
1. What is the primary purpose of a directional coupler?
2. How far apart are the two holes in a simple directional coupler?
3. What is the purpose of the absorbent material in a directional coupler?
4. In a directional coupler that is designed to sample the incident energy, what
happens to the two portions of the wavefront when they arrive at the pickup probe?
5. What happens to reflected energy that enters a directional coupler that is designed
to sample incident energy?

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Experiment No -11
Aim of the Experiment :
To conduct an experiment to obtain radiation pattern and to measure the directivity
and gain of the Dipole antenna and Yagi Antenna.
Apparatus Required:
The following Equipment, Devices, Components are required to conduct the
experiment

1. Microwave Signal Source (VCO)

2. Transmitting antenna turn table
3. Receiving antenna turn table
4. Transmitting Dipole antenna
5. Receiving Dipole antenna
6. RF Detector (Crystal Detector)
7. VSWR Meter/CRO/Power meter

Theory:
If a transmission line propagating energy is left open at one end, there will be
radiation from this end. The Radiation pattern of an antenna is a diagram of field
strength or more often the power intensity as a function of the aspect angle at a
constant distance from the radiating antenna. An antenna pattern is of course three
dimensional but for practical reasons it is normally presented as a two dimensional
pattern in one or several planes. An antenna pattern consists of several lobes, the main
lobe, side lobes and the back lobe. The major power is concentrated in the main lobe
and it is required to keep the power in the side lobes arid back lobe as low as possible.
The power intensity at the maximum of the main lobe compared to the power
intensity achieved from an imaginary omni-directional antenna (radiating equally in
all directions) with the same power fed to the antenna is defined as gain of the antenna.

Procedure
A. Gain of antenna:

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1. Set up the system as shown in Figure 1. for a receiving power measurement

(Pr), red line in the diagram indicates the RF SMA (male) to (male) cable
connectors.
2. Keeping the tuning voltage at minimum in the front panel of the VCO and
switch on the VCO.
3. Select the Modulation Square wave by changing the toggle switch position in
rare panel.
When the power meter is used in the place of VSWR meter then select the CW
mode.
4. Adjust the minimum distance between the transmitting and receiving antennas
using the formula S≥2d2/λ where d is the broader dimension of the antenna.

Sample Calculation for Diploe antenna

��� � � (�. � ��)� c 3 x 1010
� ≥ = = �. �� �� λ = =
� �� �� f 2.5 X 109
� ≥ �. �� �� (Minimum distance from Tx- Rx) λ = 12 cm

Fig-1 Receiving power measurement set-up diagram

5. Vary the tuning voltage and check the output for different VCO frequencies.
6. Note down the frequency (RF) by reading the Display on front panel of VCO
as an operating frequency of RF signal.
7. Keeping both the antennas in line of sight and note down the Received power
in VSWR meter directly in dBm (Pre-Receiving Power)
8. Now without disturbing the RF level and RF Frequency change the Setup as
shown in the Figure 2. and use the same detector which is used in the
measurement of Received power.

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Figure2. Transmitting Power Measurement Setup

9. After the completion of the setup note down the Transmitting power in VSWR
meter directly in dBm (pt-Transmitting power)
10. After note down the Pre-Receiving Power, Pt-Transmitting power, f-operating
Frequency, S-distance between Transmitting and receiving antenna.

Tabular column

Pr dBm Power measured at receiving end

Pt dBm Power measured art Source end

F GHz Operating frequency of RF signal

d Cm Distance between Tx and Rx antennas

Calculation

��� ��
�=
� ��

�� �� (���) − �� (���)
= �������
�� ��

�
� =
�

�� ����� � = . . . . . . . . . ��

B. Directivity of Antenna:

1. Set up the system as shown in Figure 3., red line in the diagram indicates the
RF SMA (male) to SMA (male) cable connections.

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Figure 3. Basic Antenna Setup

2. Keeping the tuning voltage at minimum in the front panel of VCO and switch
on the VCO.
3. Select the Modulation square wave by changing the toggle switch position in
rare panel. When the power meter is used in the place of VSWR meter then
select the CW mode.
4. Adjust the minimum distance between the transmitting and receiving antennas
��²
using the formula S ≥ �
where d is the broader dimension of the antenna.

5. Vary the tuning voltage and check the output for different VCO frequencies.
The frequency at which the output becomes maximum is the resonant
frequency of the antenna.
6. Note down the frequency (RF) by reading the Display on front panel of VCO
as an Operating frequency of RF signal.
7. Keeping both the antennas in line of sight and adjust the angle scale to zero by
rotating receiving antenna table.
8. Now, rotate the antenna clockwise in steps of 100 at time (900) and note the
reading on the VSWR meter in dB scale,
9. Return to the 00 position. Repeat the measurement by rotating the antenna anti
clock wise in 100 steps (till-900) and record the VSWR meter reading at every
step.
10. Now turn both dipole antennas by 900 in the vertical plane to get horizontal
polarization. Align the antennas for maximum reading on the VSWR meter.
Measure the pattern using the same procedure as given above (step 8 and 9).
This gives the E-plane pattern of the rotating dipole.

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11. Plot a graph of angle vs output. Find the half power beam width (HPBW) from
the points where the power becomes half (3db points)
12. Calculate Directivity of the antenna by using the formula,
����� 32400
�= = = 3.85
�� ��� 70° � 120°

�� ���(�) = �. �� ��

**Note : Repeat above procedure for both Patch and Yagi Antenna

Result:

Questions

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Experiment No -12
Aim of the Experiment :
1. To Simulate NRZ, RZ, half-sinusoid and raised cosine pulses and generate eye
diagram for binary polar signaling

Equipment Required:
a) Personal Computer
b) MATLAB Software R2014a

Theory:
Line coding refers to the process of representing the bit stream (1’s and 0’s) in the
form of voltage or current variations optimally tuned for the specific properties of the
physical channel being used. The selection of a proper line code can help in so many
ways: One possibility is to aid in clock recovery at the receiver. Some common types
of line encoding in common-use nowadays are unipolar, polar, bipolar, Manchester
and Duo-binary encoding.

These codes are explained here:

Unipolar (Unipolar NRZ and Unipolar RZ): Unipolar is the simplest line coding
scheme possible. It has the advantage of being compatible with TTL logic. Unipolar
coding uses a positive rectangular pulse p(t) to represent binary 1, and the absence of
a pulse (i.e., zero voltage) to represent a binary 0. Two possibilities for the pulse p(t)
exist3: Non-Return-to-Zero (NRZ) rectangular pulse and Return-to-Zero (RZ)
rectangular pulse. The difference between Unipolar NRZ and Unipolar RZ codes is
that the rectangular pulse in NRZ stays at a positive value (e.g., +5V) for the full
duration of the logic 1 bit, while the plus in RZ drops from +5V to 0V in the middle
of the bit time.
A drawback of unipolar (RZ and NRZ) is that its average value is not zero, which
means it creates a significant DC-component at the receiver (see the impulse at zero
frequency in the corresponding power spectral density (PSD) of this line code.

Procedure:
1. Open Matlab version R2014a

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2. Open new file and enter the program and save it.
3. Add the path to the location of the file in the system.
4. Compile the program and check for any error and debug it.
5. Note down the output.

Matlab Code
Unipolar NRZ and RZ

clc, clear all, close all;

% ******************* Digital/Binary input information ********************
% x = input('Enter Digital Input Information = '); % Binary information as stream of
bits (binary signal 0 or 1)
x = [1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0];
N = length(x);
Tb = 0.0001; %Data rate = 1MHz i.e., bit period (second)
disp('Binary Input Information at Transmitter: ');
disp(x);
% ************* Represent input information as digital signal *************
nb = 100; % Digital signal per bit
digit = [];
for n = 1:1:N
if x(n) == 1;
sig = ones(1,nb);
else x(n) == 0;
sig = zeros(1,nb);
end
digit = [digit sig];
end
t1 = Tb/nb:Tb/nb:nb*N*(Tb/nb); % Time period
figure('Name','Line Coding Schemes','NumberTitle','off');
subplot(5,1,1);
plot(t1,digit,'LineWidth',2.5);
grid on;

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axis([0 Tb*N -0.5 1.5]);

xlabel('Time(Sec)');
ylabel('Amplitude(Volts)');
title('Digital Input Signal');
% ***************************** Unipolar NRZ *************************
for i = 0:N-1
if x(i+1) == 1
Y(i*nb+1:(i+1)*nb) = 1;
else
Y(i*nb+1:(i+1)*nb) = 0;
end
end
subplot(5,1,2)
plot(t1,Y,'LineWidth',2.5); grid on;
axis([0 Tb*N -0.5 1.5]);
xlabel('Time(Sec)');
ylabel('Amplitude(Volts)');
title(['Unipolar NRZ']);
% ************************* Unipolar RZ ******************************
for i = 0:N-1
if x(i+1) == 1
Y(i*nb+1:(i+0.5)*nb) = 1;
Y((i+0.5)*nb+1:(i+1)*nb) = 0;
else
Y(i*nb+1:(i+1)*nb) = 0;
end
end
subplot(5,1,3)
plot(t1,Y,'LineWidth',2.5); grid on;
axis([0 Tb*N -0.5 1.5]);
xlabel('Time(Sec)');
ylabel('Amplitude(Volts)');

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title(['Unipolar RZ']);
Half Sinusoid
close all;
clear all;
clc;
f = 50; % Frequency assumption
l=linspace(0,10,100); % time axis
sig=sin(2*pi*f*l); % sinusoidal signal
subplot(211) % Plot sinusoidal signal
plot(sig);
grid
hold on;
for t=1:100
if sin(2*pi*50*l(t))<=0
sig(t)=0;
else
sig(t) = sin(2*pi*50*l(t));
end
end
subplot(212)
plot(sig);
grid

Raised Cosine
clc;
clear all;
close all;
Nsym = 6; % Filter span in symbol durations
beta = 0.5; % Roll-off factor
sampsPerSym = 8; % Upsampling factor
rctFilt = comm.RaisedCosineTransmitFilter(...
'Shape', 'Normal', ...

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'RolloffFactor', beta, ...

'FilterSpanInSymbols', Nsym, ...
'OutputSamplesPerSymbol', sampsPerSym)
% Visualize the impulse response
fvtool(rctFilt, 'Analysis', 'impulse')

EYE Diagram for Bipolar Signaling

clear all;
close all;
clc;
data=sign(randn(1,400)); % generate 400 random bits
Tau=64; % define the symbol period
for i=1:length(data)
dataup((i-1)*64+1:i*64)=[data(i),zeros(1,63)];
end
dataup=upsample(date,Tau); % Generate impluse train
yrz=conv(dataup,prz(Tau)); % Return to zero polar signal
yrz=yrz(1:end-Tau+1);
ynrz=conv(dataup,pnrz(Tau)); % Non-return to zero polar
ynrz=ynrz(1:end-Tau+1);
ysine=conv(dataup,psine(Tau)); % half sinusoid polar
ysine=ysine(1:end-Tau+1);
Td=4; % truncating raised cosine to 4 periods
yrcos=conv(dataup,prcos(0.5,Td,Tau)); % rolloff factor=0.5
yrcos=yrcos(2*Td*Tau:end-2*Td*Tau+1); % generating RC pulse train
eye1=eyediagram(yrz,2*Tau,Tau,Tau/2);
title('RZ eye-diagram');
eye2=eyediagram(ynrz,2*Tau,Tau,Tau/2);
title('NRZ eye-diagram');
eye3=eyediagram(ysine,2*Tau,Tau,Tau/2);
title('Half-sine eye-diagram');
eye4=eyediagram(yrcos,2*Tau,Tau);

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title('Raised-cosine eye-diagram');
% (pnrz.m)
% generating a rectangular pulse of width T
% usage function pout=pnrz(T);
function pout=pnrz(T);
pout=ones(1,T);
end
% (prcos.m)
% Usage y=prcos(rollfac,length,T)
% rollfac = 0 to 1 is the rolloff factor
% length is the onesided pulse length in the number of T
% length=2T+1
% T is the oversampling tate
function y=prcos(rollfac,length,T)
y=rcosfir(rollfac,length,T,1,'normal');
end

%(prz.m)
% genrating a rectangular pulse of width T/2
function pout=prz(T);
pout=[zeros(1,T/4) ones(1,T/2) zeros(1,T/4)];

end
%(psine.m)
% generating a sinusoid pulse of width T
function pout=psine(T);
pout=sin(pi*[0:T-1]/T);
end

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Experiment No -13
Aim of the Experiment :
1. To Simulate the Pulse code modulation and demodulation system and display the
waveforms.

Equipment Required:
A) Personal Computer
B) MATLAB Software R2014a

Theory:
Pulse Code Modulation: Pulse code modulation is a method that is used to convert an
analog signal into a digital signal, so that modified analog signal can be transmitted
through the digital communication network. PCM is in binary form, so there will be
only two possible states high and low (0 and 1). We can also get back our analog
signal by demodulation. The Pulse Code Modulation process is done in three steps
Sampling, Quantization, and Coding. There are two specific types of pulse code
modulations such as differential pulse code modulation (DPCM) and adaptive
differential pulse code modulation(ADPCM)

Block Diagram of PCM

Pulse Code Demodulation: Pulse Code Demodulation will be doing the same
modulation process in reverse. Demodulation starts with decoding process, during
transmission the PCM signal will effected by the noise interference. So, before the
PCM signal sends into the PCM demodulator, we have to recover the signal into the
original level for that we are using a comparator. The PCM signal is a series pulse
wave signal, but for demodulation we need wave to be parallel. By using a serial to
parallel converter the series pulse wave signal will be converted into a parallel digital
signal. After that the signal will pass through n-bits decoder, it should be a Digital to

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Analog converter. Decoder recovers the original quantization values of the digital
signal. This quantization value also includes a lot of high frequency harmonics with
original audio signals. For avoiding unnecessary signals we utilize a low-pass filter at
the final part.

Procedure:
1. Open Matlab version R2014a
2. Open new file and enter the program and save it.
3. Add the path to the location of the file in the system.
4. Compile the program and check for any error and debug it.
5. Note down the output.

Matlab Code
clc;
close all;
clear all;
n=input('Enter n value for n-bit PCM system : ');
n1=input('Enter number of samples in a period : ');
L=2^n;
% % Signal Generation
% x=0:1/100:4*pi;
% y=8*sin(x); % Amplitude Of signal is 8v
% subplot(2,2,1);
% plot(x,y);grid on;
% Sampling Operation
x=0:2*pi/n1:4*pi; % n1 nuber of samples have tobe selected
s=8*sin(x);
subplot(3,1,1);
plot(s);
title('Analog Signal');
ylabel('Amplitude--->');
xlabel('Time--->');
subplot(3,1,2);

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stem(s);grid on; title('Sampled Sinal'); ylabel('Amplitude--->'); xlabel('Time--->');

% Quantization Process
vmax=8;
vmin=-vmax;
del=(vmax-vmin)/L;
part=vmin:del:vmax; % level are between vmin and vmax with
difference of del
code=vmin-(del/2):del:vmax+(del/2); % Contain Quantized valuses
[ind,q]=quantiz(s,part,code); % Quantization process
% ind contain index number and q contain quantized
values
l1=length(ind);
l2=length(q);
for i=1:l1
if(ind(i)~=0) % To make index as binary decimal so started
from 0 to N
ind(i)=ind(i)-1;
end
i=i+1;
end
for i=1:l2
if(q(i)==vmin-(del/2)) % To make quantize value inbetween the levels
q(i)=vmin+(del/2);
end
end
subplot(3,1,3);
stem(q);grid on; % Display the Quantize values
title('Quantized Signal');
ylabel('Amplitude--->');
xlabel('Time--->');
% Encoding Process
figure
code=de2bi(ind,'left-msb'); % Cnvert the decimal to binary

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k=1;
for i=1:l1
for j=1:n
coded(k)=code(i,j); % convert code matrix to a coded row vector
j=j+1;
k=k+1;
end
i=i+1;
end
subplot(2,1,1); grid on;
stairs(coded); % Display the encoded signal
axis([0 100 -2 3]); title('Encoded Signal');
ylabel('Amplitude--->');
xlabel('Time--->');
% Demodulation Of PCM signal
qunt=reshape(coded,n,length(coded)/n);
index=bi2de(qunt','left-msb'); % Getback the index in decimal form
q=del*index+vmin+(del/2); % getback Quantized values
subplot(2,1,2); grid on;
plot(q); % Plot Demodulated signal
title('Demodulated Signal');
ylabel('Amplitude--->');
xlabel('Time--->');

Expected Output Waveform:

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Experiment No -14
Aim of the Experiment :
1. To Generate the Quadrature phase Shift Keying Modulation and Demodulation
signals using MATLAB

Equipment Required:
1. Software required: MATLAB
2. Personal Computer

Theory
• QPSK is an M‐ary encoding scheme where N = 2 and QPSK is an M ary encoding
scheme where N = 2 and
M= 4
• Therefore, with QPSK, the binary input data are combined into groups of two bits,
called dibits.
• Each dibit code generates one of the four possible output phases (+45°, +135°, ‐45°,
and ‐135°).
QPSK is also known as quaternary PSK, quadriphase PSK, 4-PSK, or 4-QAM. It is a
phase modulation technique that transmits two bits in four modulation states.

Algorithm:
Step1: The binary bit sequence is first taken into a variable.
Step2: The suitable carrier frequency is selected and two carriers one with zero phase
and other with 90o phase are generated.
Step3: The input bit stream is given to the de-multiplexer and is decoded.
Step4: The de-multiplexer output is divided into two and one is multiplied with in
phase component and the other with the out of phase component.
Step5: Both the multiplexer outputs are taken and are added together which gives us
the QPSK output wave.
Step6: In the de-modulation process the input QPSK wave is multiplied with both the
in phase and out phase components by an multiplier.
Step7: Both the outputs are passed through an low pass filter which acts as an
integrator that adds up all the values of the signal.

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Step8: The low pass filter outputs are given to the decision device which assigns the
values to the wave.
Step9: The decision device output is given to the multiplexer circuit which gives the
output as the input bit stream.

Block Diagrams:

Matlab Code:
clc;
clear all;
close all;
%GENERATE QUADRATURE CARRIER SIGNAL
Tb=1;t=0:(Tb/100):Tb;fc=1;
c1=sqrt(2/Tb)*cos(2*pi*fc*t);
c2=sqrt(2/Tb)*sin(2*pi*fc*t);
%generate message signal

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N=8;m=rand(1,N);
t1=0;t2=Tb
for i=1:2:(N-1)
t=[t1:(Tb/100):t2]
if m(i)>0.5
m(i)=1;
m_s=ones(1,length(t));
else
m(i)=0;
m_s=-1*ones(1,length(t));
end
%odd bits modulated signal
odd_sig(i,:)=c1.*m_s;
if m(i+1)>0.5
m(i+1)=1;
m_s=ones(1,length(t));
else
m(i+1)=0;
m_s=-1*ones(1,length(t));
end
%even bits modulated signal
even_sig(i,:)=c2.*m_s;
%qpsk signal
qpsk=odd_sig+even_sig;
%Plot the QPSK modulated signal
subplot(3,2,4);
plot(t,qpsk(i,:));
title('QPSK signal');
xlabel('t---->');
ylabel('s(t)');
grid on;
hold on;

Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering, Acharya Institute of Technology, Bangalore -560107 70
Communication Laboratory - 18ECL67 2022-23

t1=t1+(Tb+.01);
t2=t2+(Tb+.01);
end
hold off
subplot(3,2,1);
stem(m);
title('binary data bits');
xlabel('n---->');
ylabel('b(n)');
grid on;
subplot(3,2,2);
plot(t,c1);
title('carrier signal-1');
xlabel('t---->');
ylabel('c1(t)');
grid on;
subplot(3,2,3);
plot(t,c2);
title('carrier signal-2');
xlabel('t---->');
ylabel('c2(t)');
grid on;
t1=0;t2=Tb
for i=1:N-1
t=[t1:(Tb/100):t2]
%correlator
x1=sum(c1.*qpsk(i,:));
x2=sum(c2.*qpsk(i,:));
%decision device
if (x1>0&&x2>0)
demod(i)=1;
demod(i+1)=1;

Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering, Acharya Institute of Technology, Bangalore -560107 71
Communication Laboratory - 18ECL67 2022-23

elseif (x1>0&&x2<0)
demod(i)=1;
demod(i+1)=0;
elseif (x1<0&&x2<0)
demod(i)=0;
demod(i+1)=0;
elseif (x1<0&&x2>0)
demod(i)=0;
demod(i+1)=1;
end
t1=t1+(Tb+.01); t2=t2+(Tb+.01);
end
subplot(3,2,5);
stem(demod);
title('qpsk demodulated bits');
xlabel('n---->');
ylabel('b(n)');
grid on;

Expected Output Wave Form

Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering, Acharya Institute of Technology, Bangalore -560107 72