Unit I, Question 1: Define Data Structures.

Explain Their Types with Examples

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1. Key Terms

Data Structures: Organized formats to store, manage, and manipulate data efficiently.

Linear Data Structures: Sequential arrangement of data.

Non-Linear Data Structures: Hierarchical or interconnected arrangement of data.

Static Data Structures: Fixed size during execution.

Dynamic Data Structures: Flexible size during execution.

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2. Bullet Points

Definition

Data structures are methods or formats to store and organize data for efficient processing.

They enable tasks like searching, sorting, and data management.

Types of Data Structures

1. Linear Data Structures

Definition: Data elements are arranged sequentially, one after another.

Examples:

Array: Collection of elements in contiguous memory.

Linked List: Collection of nodes connected via pointers.

Use Cases: Managing to-do lists, queues in printing tasks.

2. Non-Linear Data Structures

Definition: Data elements are connected hierarchically or through complex relationships.

Examples:

Tree: Hierarchical structure, like a family tree.

Graph: Network of nodes and edges, like social networks.

Use Cases: Database indexing, route planning.

3. Static Data Structures

Definition: Size is fixed during program execution.

Example: Arrays.

4. Dynamic Data Structures

Definition: Size can change during execution.

Example: Linked lists.

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3. Humanize (Hinglish)

Data structures matlab ek organized tareeka data ko store aur manage karne ka, taaki
efficiently process kar sako.
Linear structures jaise array aur linked list ek sequence me hoti hain, jabki non-linear structures
jaise tree aur graph complex relationships me hote hain.

Static data structures fixed hote hain, jabki dynamic wale flexible hote hain.

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4. Summary

Data structures help organize and manage data efficiently. They are broadly classified into
Linear and Non-Linear types, further divided into Static and Dynamic categories based on
flexibility.

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5. Examples

1. Array Example

A list of student roll numbers arranged sequentially.

2. Tree Example

A folder structure in a computer, with subfolders nested inside parent folders.

3. Graph Example

Google Maps showing interconnected roads and intersections.

Let me know if you'd like elaboration on any specific part!

Unit I, Question 2: Differentiate Between Linear and Non-Linear Data Structures with Suitable
Examples
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1. Key Terms

Linear Data Structures: Data is arranged in a sequential, one-dimensional manner.

Non-Linear Data Structures: Data is organized in a hierarchical or interconnected form.

Traversal: Process of accessing data elements in a structure.

Relationships: Connections between data elements.

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2. Bullet Points

Linear Data Structures

Data elements are arranged sequentially, one after another.

Each element has a single successor and a single predecessor (except the first and last).

Examples:

Array: Elements stored in contiguous memory.

Linked List: Nodes connected via pointers.

Stack/Queue: Special forms of linear structures with specific rules.

Easy to implement and traverse.

Non-Linear Data Structures

Data elements are connected in a hierarchical or complex network.

Each element can have multiple connections (parents, children, or peers).

Examples:
Tree: Nodes arranged hierarchically, e.g., binary tree.

Graph: Nodes connected by edges, e.g., social networks.

More flexible and powerful but harder to implement.

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3. Humanize (Hinglish)

Linear structures ek seedhi line me data ko store karte hain, jaise train ke coaches.

Non-linear structures me data ko tree ya graph ki tarah arrange karte hain, matlab ek complex
relationship hota hai.

Linear easy hota hai samajhne aur traverse karne ke liye, par non-linear zyada powerful aur
flexible hota hai.

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4. Summary

Linear data structures arrange data sequentially, while non-linear structures allow complex,
hierarchical relationships. Linear structures are easier to traverse, but non-linear ones offer
greater flexibility for advanced applications.

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5. Examples

1. Linear Example:

Array: A list of students' marks arranged in a sequence.

2. Non-Linear Example:
Tree: A company's organizational hierarchy (CEO → Managers → Employees).

3. Hybrid Example:

Use of a Graph in social media platforms to represent user connections.

Let me know if you'd like further details or examples!

Unit I, Question 3: Explain Time Complexity and Space Complexity with Relevant Examples

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1. Key Terms

Time Complexity: Measures the amount of time an algorithm takes to execute as a function of
input size.

Space Complexity: Measures the amount of memory required by an algorithm during execution.

Big O Notation: Represents the upper bound of an algorithm's time or space complexity.

Input Size (n): The number of elements or the size of the problem being processed.

Worst Case: The maximum time or space required.

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2. Bullet Points

Time Complexity

Represents the growth of an algorithm’s runtime as input size increases.

Classified as:
O(1): Constant time (e.g., accessing an array element).

O(n): Linear time (e.g., traversing an array).

O(n²): Quadratic time (e.g., nested loops in bubble sort).

Helps evaluate the efficiency of algorithms for large inputs.

Space Complexity

Includes memory required for:

Input data.

Temporary variables.

Recursion stack (if any).

Important in systems with limited memory.

Classified similarly to time complexity (e.g., O(1), O(n)).

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3. Humanize (Hinglish)

Time Complexity: Algorithm kitna time lega input ke size ke hisaab se, uska measure hota hai.
Jaise agar ek list traverse karni ho toh O(n) hoga, aur agar kisi ek element ko directly access
karna ho toh O(1) hoga.

Space Complexity: Kitna memory chahiye ek algorithm ko chalane ke liye, woh batata hai. Agar
zyada temporary variables use karo toh space complexity badh jaati hai.

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4. Summary
Time complexity measures the time an algorithm takes to execute, while space complexity
measures its memory usage. Both are essential to evaluate algorithm efficiency, especially for
large datasets or constrained systems.

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5. Examples

1. Time Complexity Example:

Searching for an element in a list of size n using linear search takes O(n) time.

2. Space Complexity Example:

A program that uses an array of size n requires O(n) space.

3. Comparison Example:

Bubble Sort:

Time Complexity: O(n²) (due to nested loops).

Space Complexity: O(1) (uses only a few variables).

Let me know if you'd like more details or code examples!

Unit I, Question 4: Write an Algorithm to Reverse an Array

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1. Key Terms

Array: A collection of elements stored in contiguous memory locations.

Reverse an Array: Rearrange the array elements so that the first element becomes the last, the
second becomes second last, and so on.

Two-Pointer Technique: A common approach where two pointers are used to swap elements.

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2. Bullet Points

Algorithm: Two-Pointer Technique

1. Start with two pointers:

Left pointer at the first element (index 0).

Right pointer at the last element (index n-1).

2. Swap the elements at the two pointers.

3. Move the left pointer one step forward and the right pointer one step backward.

4. Repeat steps 2 and 3 until the pointers meet or cross.

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3. Humanize (Hinglish)

Ek array ko reverse karne ka simple idea hai: shuru aur end se elements ko swap karo aur
pointers ko aage badhate raho. Jaise agar array hai [1, 2, 3, 4, 5], toh pehle 1 aur 5 ko swap
karo, phir 2 aur 4 ko, aur aise hi reverse karte jao.

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4. Summary

To reverse an array, use a two-pointer approach to swap elements from both ends and move
inward until the array is fully reversed.

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5. Algorithm in Pseudocode

Algorithm ReverseArray(arr, n)
Input: arr (array of size n)
Output: arr reversed

1. Initialize left = 0, right = n-1

2. While left < right:
a. Swap arr[left] and arr[right]
b. Increment left by 1
c. Decrement right by 1
3. End While
4. Return arr

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6. Example in C Code

#include <stdio.h>

void reverseArray(int arr[], int n) {

int left = 0, right = n - 1;
while (left < right) {
// Swap elements
int temp = arr[left];
arr[left] = arr[right];
arr[right] = temp;
// Move pointers
left++;
right--;
}
}

int main() {
int arr[] = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5};
 int n = sizeof(arr) / sizeof(arr[0]);

printf("Original Array: ");

for (int i = 0; i < n; i++)
printf("%d ", arr[i]);

reverseArray(arr, n);

printf("\nReversed Array: ");

for (int i = 0; i < n; i++)
printf("%d ", arr[i]);

return 0;
}

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7. Examples

1. Example Input:

Original Array: [10, 20, 30, 40, 50]

Reversed Array: [50, 40, 30, 20, 10]

2. Real-Life Analogy:

Imagine flipping a deck of cards so that the card on top moves to the bottom, and vice versa.

Let me know if you'd like me to explain any part further!

Unit 1: Question 5 - What is a Sparse Matrix? Describe its Representation Using Arrays

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1. Key Terms
Sparse Matrix: A matrix with most elements as zero.

Dense Matrix: Opposite of sparse, with many non-zero elements.

Representation Techniques:

Compressed Sparse Row (CSR).

Compressed Sparse Column (CSC).

Triplet Representation.

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2. Bullet Points

Sparse Matrix

A matrix is sparse if the number of non-zero elements is significantly less than zero elements.

Saves memory by avoiding storage of zeroes.

Applications

Used in data compression, graph algorithms, and machine learning models.

Representation Using Arrays

1. Triplet Representation:

Stores non-zero elements with their row and column indices.

Example:
For a 4x4 matrix:

0 0 3 0
0 0 0 0
5 0 0 0
0 6 0 9
Triplet:

Row Col Value

0 2 3
2 0 5
3 1 6
3 3 9

2. Compressed Sparse Row (CSR):

Stores:

1. Values of non-zero elements.

2. Column indices.

3. Row pointers marking the start of each row in the data.

3. Compressed Sparse Column (CSC):

Similar to CSR but stores by columns instead of rows.

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3. Humanize (Hinglish)

"Ek sparse matrix wo hoti hai jisme mostly elements zero hote hain. Iska fayda hai ki memory
efficient hota hai, kyunki sirf non-zero values ko store karte hain. Triplet method simple hai: row,
column, aur value ko store karte hain arrays mein. Advanced methods jaise CSR aur CSC
memory aur operations aur optimize karte hain."
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4. Summary

A sparse matrix is memory-efficient and stores mainly non-zero values. Popular representations
include triplet format, CSR, and CSC, each optimizing space and computational efficiency.

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5. Examples

1. Graph Representation: Adjacency matrix of a sparse graph.

2. Image Compression: Black-and-white image data stored in sparse format.

3. Machine Learning: Representing feature matrices where many values are zero.

Subject: Data Structures

Unit 1, Question 6: Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of arrays.

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1. Key Terms:

Array - A fixed-size collection of elements of the same data type stored in contiguous memory
locations.

Static Data Structure - Fixed size, cannot grow or shrink dynamically.

Indexing - Accessing elements using indices.

Contiguous Memory - Consecutive memory locations used for storing elements.

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2. Bullet Points:

Advantages of Arrays:

1. Random Access:

Elements can be accessed directly using an index in O(1) time.

2. Ease of Implementation:

Simple to declare and initialize.

3. Memory Efficiency:

Compact storage due to contiguous memory allocation.

4. Sorting and Searching Algorithms:

Supports efficient algorithms like Binary Search, Quick Sort, etc.

5. Multi-dimensional Arrays:

Can represent matrices, graphs, and tables easily.

6. Traversal:

Linear traversal is straightforward using loops.

Disadvantages of Arrays:

1. Fixed Size:
Cannot resize once declared, leading to wastage or shortage of memory.

2. Insertion and Deletion:

Time-consuming operations (O(n)) as shifting of elements is required.

3. Contiguous Memory Requirement:

Needs continuous blocks of memory, which might be unavailable in fragmented memory

systems.

4. No Dynamic Behavior:

Inefficient for scenarios where the number of elements keeps changing.

5. Limited Flexibility:

Does not support complex structures like hierarchical relationships directly.

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3. Humanized Explanation (Hinglish):

Array ek simple data structure hai jo same type ke elements ko store karta hai ek saath. Yeh
bahut useful hai jab hume data ko fixed size me store karna ho aur hume fast access chahiye.
Par iska ek bada limitation hai ki iska size fix hota hai, toh agar zyada ya kam elements aaye
toh problem ho sakti hai. Insertion aur deletion me bhi dikkat hoti hai kyunki elements ko shift
karna padta hai.

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4. Summary:

Arrays are simple, fast, and memory-efficient data structures suitable for fixed-size data storage.
However, they lack dynamic resizing and require contiguous memory, which limits flexibility for
operations like insertion and deletion.

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5. Examples:

1. Student Marks List:

Storing marks of 50 students in an array:

int marks[50];

Easy access to the 10th student’s marks:

marks[9] (Index starts from 0).

2. 2D Matrix Representation:

Representing a Tic-Tac-Toe game board:

XOX
OXO
OXO

Let me know if you need notes for more questions!

Subject: Data Structures

Unit 1, Question 7: Explain the difference between static and dynamic data structures.

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1. Key Terms:

Static Data Structure - Fixed size, memory allocated during compile time.
Dynamic Data Structure - Flexible size, memory allocated during runtime.

Memory Allocation - Assignment of memory to store data.

Flexibility - Ability to grow or shrink based on requirements.

Efficiency - Optimization of memory and processing time.

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2. Bullet Points:

Static Data Structure:

Definition:

Data structures with a fixed size defined at compile time.

Examples: Arrays, Structures.

Key Features:

1. Fixed memory allocation.

2. Faster access due to direct indexing.

3. Easy implementation but lacks flexibility.

4. Suitable for scenarios where size is known beforehand.

Dynamic Data Structure:

Definition:
Data structures that can grow or shrink during runtime.

Examples: Linked Lists, Stacks, Queues.

Key Features:

1. Memory allocated during runtime.

2. More flexible for storing variable-sized data.

3. Slower access due to sequential traversal.

4. Suitable for scenarios with unpredictable data size.

Key Differences:
| Aspect | Static Data Structure | Dynamic Data Structure |
|-------------------------|-------------------------------|----------------------------------| | Size | Fixed
(defined at compile time). | Flexible (changes at runtime). | | Memory Allocation | Compile-
time allocation. | Runtime allocation. | | Flexibility | No flexibility in size. |
Highly flexible. | | Speed | Faster access (direct indexing). | Slower access
(requires traversal). | | Implementation | Simpler to implement. | Slightly complex
implementation. |

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3. Humanized Explanation (Hinglish):

Static data structures jaise arrays ka size fix hota hai. Agar aapko pehle se pata hai ki kitne
elements store karne hain, toh yeh best option hai. Par agar data dynamically badhne ya ghatne
wala hai, toh dynamic data structures jaise linked lists zyada useful hote hain. Dynamic
structures runtime me size adjust kar lete hain, but unka access thoda slow hota hai.

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4. Summary:
Static data structures have fixed size and are faster for data access, but lack flexibility. Dynamic
data structures, on the other hand, are flexible and can adjust size at runtime, making them
more suitable for variable data requirements.

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5. Examples:

1. Static Example:

Array to store marks of 50 students:

int marks[50];

Fixed size and direct access.

2. Dynamic Example:

Linked List for storing student names dynamically:

head -> "Amit" -> "Rahul" -> "Priya" -> NULL

Can add or remove names as required.

Let me know if you need notes for more questions!

Subject: Data Structures

Unit 1, Question 8: Describe the operations of a singly linked list with algorithms.

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1. Key Terms:

Singly Linked List (SLL) - A linear data structure where each node points to the next node.
Node - A structure containing data and a pointer to the next node.

Head - Pointer to the first node in the list.

NULL - Indicates the end of the list.

Insertion - Adding a new node to the list.

Deletion - Removing a node from the list.

Traversal - Visiting each node in sequence.

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2. Bullet Points:

Operations on Singly Linked List:

1. Insertion:

At Beginning: Add a node before the head.

At End: Add a node at the end of the list.

At Position: Insert a node at a specified position.

2. Deletion:

From Beginning: Remove the first node.

From End: Remove the last node.

From Position: Delete a node from a specified position.

3. Traversal:

Visit each node and print its data.

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Algorithms:

1. Traversal:

Algorithm Traverse(head):
Step 1: Set temp = head
Step 2: While temp != NULL
Print temp.data
Move temp = temp.next
Step 3: End

2. Insertion at Beginning:

Algorithm Insert_Begin(head, value):

Step 1: Create new_node
new_node.data = value
new_node.next = head
Step 2: Set head = new_node
Step 3: End

3. Deletion at End:

Algorithm Delete_End(head):
Step 1: If head == NULL
Return "Empty List"
Step 2: Set temp = head
Step 3: While temp.next.next != NULL
Move temp = temp.next
Step 4: Set temp.next = NULL
Step 5: End

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3. Humanized Explanation (Hinglish):

Singly Linked List ek aisi data structure hai jisme nodes ek sequence me connected hote hain,
aur har node ke paas data aur next node ka address hota hai. Agar hume data add (insert)
karna ho, toh hum usse beginning, end ya specific position par add kar sakte hain. Agar hume
koi node delete karni ho, toh hum uska reference update karke usse remove karte hain.
Traversal ka matlab hai list ke har node ko ek-ek karke visit karna.

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4. Summary:

A singly linked list is a dynamic data structure that stores data in nodes, where each node points
to the next node. Key operations include insertion, deletion, and traversal, making it flexible for
dynamic data storage and manipulation.

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5. Examples:

1. Example for Traversal:

List: 10 → 20 → 30 → NULL
Output: 10, 20, 30

2. Real-Life Example:

Music Playlist: Each song is linked to the next song. Adding or removing a song modifies the list
dynamically.

Let me know if you'd like explanations for more questions!

Subject: Data Structures

Unit 1, Question 9: Differentiate between singly linked list and doubly linked list.

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1. Key Terms:

Singly Linked List (SLL) - Nodes have data and a pointer to the next node.

Doubly Linked List (DLL) - Nodes have data and pointers to both the next and previous nodes.
Traversal - Moving through nodes in a list.

Flexibility - Ability to navigate in one or both directions.

Memory Overhead - Additional memory used for storing pointers.

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2. Bullet Points:

Singly Linked List (SLL):

Definition: Each node contains data and a pointer to the next node.

Navigation: Can be traversed only in one direction (forward).

Memory Usage: Requires less memory as it stores a single pointer.

Operations:

1. Insertion and deletion are simpler.

2. Traversal is linear and requires O(n) time complexity.

Applications:

Implementing stacks and queues.

Managing dynamic memory allocation.

Doubly Linked List (DLL):

Definition: Each node contains data and two pointers—one for the next node and one for the
previous node.

Navigation: Can be traversed in both directions (forward and backward).

Memory Usage: Requires more memory due to storing two pointers.

Operations:

1. Insertion and deletion are faster because it allows direct access to both ends.

2. Traversal is flexible but requires more space.

Applications:

Implementing navigation systems (e.g., browsers with forward and back buttons).

Managing undo/redo functionality in editors.

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3. Key Differences:

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4. Humanized Explanation (Hinglish):

Singly linked list ek one-way road ki tarah hota hai, jisme aap sirf aage ja sakte ho. Yeh kam
memory leta hai aur simple data storage ke liye best hai. Dusri taraf, doubly linked list ek two-
way road ki tarah hota hai, jisme aap aage aur peeche dono taraf move kar sakte ho. Yeh thoda
zyada memory leta hai, par zyada flexible hota hai, jaise undo/redo features ya browser history
implement karne ke liye.

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5. Summary:

Singly linked lists are simple, memory-efficient, and suitable for linear traversal, whereas doubly
linked lists are flexible, allow bidirectional traversal, and are better for complex operations like
undo/redo functionality.
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6. Examples:

1. Singly Linked List Example:

10 → 20 → 30 → NULL (Forward navigation only).

2. Doubly Linked List Example:

NULL ← 10 ⇄ 20 ⇄ 30 → NULL (Forward and backward navigation).

Real-Life Example:

SLL - Music playlists where songs are played in order.

DLL - Browser history where you can move forward and backward between pages.

Let me know if you need more notes!

Unit 1: Question 10 - What is a Circular Linked List? Write a Program for Traversal

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1. Key Terms

Circular Linked List (CLL):

A linked list where the last node points back to the first node.

Can be singly or doubly linked.

Traversal:

Visiting all nodes starting from the head and returning to it.
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2. Bullet Points

Circular Linked List

Definition: A variation of linked list where the last node links back to the head.

Types:

Singly Circular Linked List: Each node points to the next, and the last node points to the head.

Doubly Circular Linked List: Each node points to the next and previous nodes, with the last
pointing back to the head and vice versa.

Advantages

Efficient for tasks where you need continuous cycling through elements (e.g., round-robin
scheduling).

No NULL pointers; all nodes are connected.

Disadvantages

Traversing to the end requires checking explicitly for the head node.

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3. Humanize (Hinglish)

"Circular linked list ek linked list ka special type hai jisme last node first node ko point karta hai.
Jaise ek gola, end par laut ke shuru par aa jaata hai. Traversal mein hum nodes ko ek ke baad
ek visit karte hain jab tak phir head node par nahi aa jate."

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4. Summary
A circular linked list links its last node back to the first, forming a continuous cycle. It’s ideal for
scenarios requiring cyclic traversal. Traversal ensures all nodes are visited exactly once before
stopping.

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5. Code Example (C Program for Traversal)

#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>

// Define node structure

struct Node {
int data;
struct Node* next;
};

// Function to traverse the circular linked list

void traverse(struct Node* head) {
if (head == NULL) {
printf("List is empty.\n");
return;
}

struct Node* temp = head;

do {
printf("%d -> ", temp->data);
temp = temp->next;
} while (temp != head); // Stop when we return to the head

printf("HEAD\n");
}

// Function to create a new node

struct Node* createNode(int data) {
struct Node* newNode = (struct Node*)malloc(sizeof(struct Node));
newNode->data = data;
newNode->next = NULL;
return newNode;
}

int main() {
 // Create nodes
struct Node* head = createNode(10);
struct Node* second = createNode(20);
struct Node* third = createNode(30);

// Link nodes to form a circular linked list

head->next = second;
second->next = third;
third->next = head;

// Traverse the list

printf("Circular Linked List Traversal:\n");
traverse(head);

return 0;
}

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6. Examples

1. Round-Robin Scheduling: In operating systems, tasks are processed in a circular manner

using circular linked lists.

2. Playlist: Music apps use circular linked lists to loop through songs continuously.

3. Traffic Lights: Circular traversal is used to manage traffic light sequences in intersections.

Unit 2: Question 1 - What Are Stacks? Explain Their Applications in Expression Conversion and
Evaluation

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1. Key Terms

Stack: A linear data structure that follows Last In, First Out (LIFO) principle.

Expression Conversion: Changing expressions between infix, postfix, and prefix forms.
Expression Evaluation: Computing the result of postfix or prefix expressions.

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2. Bullet Points

Definition of Stack

A stack is a data structure where elements are added (pushed) and removed (popped) from the
top.

Operations:

Push: Add an element.

Pop: Remove the top element.

Peek: View the top element without removing it.

Applications in Expression Conversion

1. Infix to Postfix/Prefix:

Infix: Operators between operands (e.g., A + B).

Postfix: Operators after operands (e.g., A B +).

Prefix: Operators before operands (e.g., + A B).

A stack is used to manage operators and ensure correct precedence during conversion.

Applications in Expression Evaluation

Postfix and prefix expressions are evaluated using stacks:

Postfix Evaluation: Operands are pushed, and operators pop operands for computation.
Prefix Evaluation: Similar but evaluated from right to left.

Other Applications of Stacks

Function call management (e.g., recursion).

Undo operations in text editors.

Parsing and syntax checking (e.g., matching parentheses).

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3. Humanize (Hinglish)

"Stack ek LIFO data structure hai, jo aise kaam aata hai jaise mathematical expressions ko
convert karna aur evaluate karna. Jaise agar expression A + B ko postfix (A B +) mein convert
karna ho, toh stack operator precedence handle karne ke liye use hota hai. Evaluate karte waqt
bhi operands aur operators stack mein store hote hain, computation step-by-step hoti hai."

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4. Summary

A stack is a LIFO data structure widely used in expression conversion and evaluation. It ensures
proper operator precedence and simplifies computation in postfix and prefix formats.

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5. Code Example (Postfix Evaluation)

#include <stdio.h>
#include <ctype.h>
#include <stdlib.h>

// Stack structure
#define SIZE 100
int stack[SIZE], top = -1;
// Push function
void push(int value) {
if (top == SIZE - 1) {
printf("Stack Overflow\n");
return;
}
stack[++top] = value;
}

// Pop function
int pop() {
if (top == -1) {
printf("Stack Underflow\n");
return -1;
}
return stack[top--];
}

// Postfix evaluation
int evaluatePostfix(char* expression) {
for (int i = 0; expression[i] != '\0'; i++) {
if (isdigit(expression[i])) {
push(expression[i] - '0'); // Convert char to int and push
} else {
int val2 = pop();
int val1 = pop();
switch (expression[i]) {
case '+': push(val1 + val2); break;
case '-': push(val1 - val2); break;
case '*': push(val1 * val2); break;
case '/': push(val1 / val2); break;
}
}
}
return pop();
}

int main() {
char expression[] = "23*54*+9-"; // Example postfix expression
printf("Result of Postfix Evaluation: %d\n", evaluatePostfix(expression));
return 0;
}
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6. Examples

1. Expression Conversion: Convert A + B * C to postfix: A B C * +.

2. Expression Evaluation: Evaluate 23*54*+9- (postfix): Result = 17.

3. Undo Operations: Stack helps manage the sequence of undo operations in applications.

Unit 2: Question 2 - Write Algorithms for Stack Operations (Push, Pop, Peek)

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1. Key Terms

Stack: A linear data structure following Last In, First Out (LIFO).

Push: Adding an element to the top of the stack.

Pop: Removing the top element from the stack.

Peek: Viewing the top element without removing it.

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2. Bullet Points

Push Operation

Check if the stack is full (overflow).

If not, increase the top pointer and add the element to the stack.

Pop Operation
Check if the stack is empty (underflow).

If not, return the element at the top and decrement the top pointer.

Peek Operation

Check if the stack is empty.

If not, return the element at the top without modifying the stack.

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3. Humanize (Hinglish)

"Stack mein push karne ka matlab hai ek nayi value upar rakhna, aur pop ka matlab hai upar
wali value ko nikalna. Peek sirf upar wali value dekhne ka kaam karta hai bina stack ko modify
kiye."

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4. Summary

Push, pop, and peek are basic stack operations. Push adds an element, pop removes the top
element, and peek views the top element. All operations ensure the LIFO principle is
maintained.

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5. Algorithms

Push Algorithm

1. Input: Stack array `stack[]`, integer `value`, integer `top`, and `maxSize`.
2. If `top == maxSize - 1`:
Print "Stack Overflow".
Exit.
3. Increment `top` by 1.
4. Set `stack[top] = value`.
5. End.
Pop Algorithm

1. Input: Stack array `stack[]`, integer `top`.

2. If `top == -1`:
Print "Stack Underflow".
Exit.
3. Retrieve `stack[top]` as the popped value.
4. Decrement `top` by 1.
5. Return the popped value.
6. End.

Peek Algorithm

1. Input: Stack array `stack[]`, integer `top`.

2. If `top == -1`:
Print "Stack is Empty".
Exit.
3. Return `stack[top]`.
4. End.

---

6. Code Example (C Implementation)

#include <stdio.h>
#define MAX 100

int stack[MAX], top = -1;

// Push operation
void push(int value) {
if (top == MAX - 1) {
printf("Stack Overflow\n");
return;
}
stack[++top] = value;
printf("Pushed %d\n", value);
}

// Pop operation
int pop() {
if (top == -1) {
 printf("Stack Underflow\n");
return -1;
}
int value = stack[top--];
printf("Popped %d\n", value);
return value;
}

// Peek operation
int peek() {
if (top == -1) {
printf("Stack is Empty\n");
return -1;
}
return stack[top];
}

int main() {
push(10);
push(20);
printf("Top Element: %d\n", peek());
pop();
pop();
pop(); // Demonstrating underflow
return 0;
}

---

7. Examples

1. Push Example: Push 10, 20, 30 into an empty stack → Stack = [10, 20, 30].

2. Pop Example: Pop from the stack → Removes 30 → Stack = [10, 20].

3. Peek Example: Peek the stack → Returns 20 without modifying the stack.

Unit 2: Question 3 - Differentiate Between Stack and Queue

---

1. Key Terms

Stack: A LIFO (Last In, First Out) data structure.

Queue: A FIFO (First In, First Out) data structure.

LIFO Principle: The last element added is the first to be removed.

FIFO Principle: The first element added is the first to be removed.

---

2. Bullet Points

Stack

Follows the LIFO principle.

Operations:

Push: Adds an element to the top.

Pop: Removes the top element.

Peek: Retrieves the top element without removing it.

Used for:

Expression evaluation.

Backtracking (e.g., maze solving, undo operations).

Queue

Follows the FIFO principle.

Operations:

Enqueue: Adds an element to the rear.

Dequeue: Removes an element from the front.

Peek: Retrieves the front element without removing it.

Used for:

Scheduling tasks (e.g., printer queue, CPU scheduling).

Managing requests in a server.

Key Differences

---

3. Humanize (Hinglish)

"Stack LIFO principle follow karta hai—jo cheez sabse pehle rakhte ho, woh sabse last mein
nikalti hai. Queue FIFO principle follow karta hai—jo sabse pehle aata hai, woh sabse pehle
nikalta hai. Stack jaise undo feature mein use hota hai aur queue jaise task scheduling ke liye."

---

4. Summary

Stacks follow the LIFO principle, suitable for tasks like backtracking and expression evaluation.
Queues use the FIFO principle, making them ideal for scheduling and managing sequential
tasks.

---

5. Examples

1. Stack Example: A stack of books—add and remove books from the top only.
2. Queue Example: A queue at a ticket counter—first person in line gets served first.

3. Real-Life Use: Undo operations in text editors (stack) and printer job scheduling (queue).

Unit 2: Question 4 - What is a Circular Queue? Write an Algorithm to Implement Insertion and
Deletion

---

1. Key Terms

Circular Queue: A linear data structure where the last position connects to the first to form a
circle.

Front: The position of the first element in the queue.

Rear: The position of the last element in the queue.

Overflow: When no space is available for insertion.

Underflow: When no elements are available for deletion.

---

2. Bullet Points

Circular Queue

Definition: A queue where the last position is connected to the first to make the queue circular.

Key Characteristics:

Prevents wastage of space in arrays by reusing empty slots.

Front and rear pointers move circularly using the modulo operator.
Applications:

Traffic light systems.

CPU scheduling in operating systems.

Buffer management in computer systems.

Advantages

Efficient use of memory compared to a simple queue.

No need to shift elements.

Disadvantages

Complexity increases due to circular pointer management.

---

3. Humanize (Hinglish)

"Circular queue ek aisi data structure hai jisme last position first se link hoti hai, memory ko
efficiently use karne ke liye. Jaise agar ek queue full lag rahi ho par middle mein jagah ho, toh
circular queue uss jagah ko phir se use kar leti hai. Iska fayda hai ki space kabhi waste nahi
hota."

---

4. Summary

A circular queue connects the last position back to the first, optimizing space usage. It supports
continuous insertion and deletion without wasting memory.

---

5. Algorithms
Insertion Algorithm (Enqueue)

1. Input: Queue array `queue[]`, integer `value`, `front`, `rear`, and `size`.
2. If `(rear + 1) % size == front`:
Print "Queue Overflow".
Exit.
3. If `front == -1`:
Set `front = rear = 0`.
4. Else:
Set `rear = (rear + 1) % size`.
5. Set `queue[rear] = value`.
6. End.

Deletion Algorithm (Dequeue)

1. Input: Queue array `queue[]`, `front`, `rear`, and `size`.

2. If `front == -1`:
Print "Queue Underflow".
Exit.
3. Retrieve `queue[front]` as the deleted value.
4. If `front == rear`:
Set `front = rear = -1` (queue is now empty).
5. Else:
Set `front = (front + 1) % size`.
6. End.

---

6. Code Example (C Implementation)

#include <stdio.h>
#define SIZE 5

int queue[SIZE];
int front = -1, rear = -1;

// Enqueue operation
void enqueue(int value) {
if ((rear + 1) % SIZE == front) {
printf("Queue Overflow\n");
return;
}
 if (front == -1) { // First element
front = rear = 0;
} else {
rear = (rear + 1) % SIZE;
}
queue[rear] = value;
printf("Inserted: %d\n", value);
}

// Dequeue operation
void dequeue() {
if (front == -1) {
printf("Queue Underflow\n");
return;
}
printf("Deleted: %d\n", queue[front]);
if (front == rear) { // Queue becomes empty
front = rear = -1;
} else {
front = (front + 1) % SIZE;
}
}

// Display queue
void display() {
if (front == -1) {
printf("Queue is Empty\n");
return;
}
printf("Queue elements: ");
int i = front;
while (1) {
printf("%d ", queue[i]);
if (i == rear)
break;
i = (i + 1) % SIZE;
}
printf("\n");
}

int main() {
enqueue(10);
enqueue(20);
enqueue(30);
 display();
dequeue();
display();
enqueue(40);
enqueue(50);
enqueue(60); // Should show overflow
display();
return 0;
}

---

7. Examples

1. Insertion Example: Insert 10, 20, 30 into a circular queue of size 5 → Queue = [10, 20, 30].

2. Deletion Example: Delete an element → Removes 10 → Queue = [20, 30].

3. Real-Life Application: Traffic light systems cycle through signals continuously using a circular
queue.

Unit 2: Question 5 - Explain the Differences Between a Queue and a Deque

---

1. Key Terms

Queue: A linear data structure that follows the FIFO (First In, First Out) principle.

Deque (Double-Ended Queue): A linear data structure where elements can be added or
removed from both ends.

Enqueue: Adding an element to the queue.

Dequeue: Removing an element from the queue.

---

2. Bullet Points

Queue

Definition: Elements are inserted at the rear and removed from the front.

Operations:

Enqueue: Adds an element at the rear.

Dequeue: Removes an element from the front.

Types:

Simple queue.

Circular queue.

Priority queue.

Applications:

Task scheduling.

Printer queue management.

Deque

Definition: A generalized form of a queue allowing insertions and deletions from both ends.

Types:

Input-Restricted Deque: Insertion only at one end; deletion from both ends.

Output-Restricted Deque: Deletion only at one end; insertion at both ends.

Applications:
Undo operations in text editors.

Sliding window algorithms.

---

Key Differences

---

3. Humanize (Hinglish)

"Queue simple hai—add karte ho piche (rear) aur remove karte ho aage se (front). Deque
zyada flexible hai—elements ko dono ends se add aur remove kar sakte ho. Deque ka fayda
tab hota hai jab flexibility chahiye, jaise sliding window algorithms mein."

---

4. Summary

A queue is a simple FIFO structure, while a deque allows insertions and deletions from both
ends. Queues are suitable for task scheduling, whereas deques provide more flexibility for
advanced algorithms.

---

5. Examples

1. Queue Example: Task scheduling in an operating system where the first task in line is
processed first.

2. Deque Example: Sliding window problems in arrays where elements need to be processed
dynamically from both ends.

3. Real-Life Example:
Queue: Ticket counter where people join at the end and are served from the front.

Deque: A train compartment where passengers can board or leave from either door.

Here’s the detailed answer for Unit 2: Question 6 - What is a Priority Queue? Explain with an
Example.

---

1. Key Terms

Priority Queue: A special type of queue where elements are dequeued based on priority, not
arrival time.

Priority: A value assigned to each element that determines its importance.

Min-Heap: Implements a priority queue where the smallest priority is dequeued first.

Max-Heap: Implements a priority queue where the highest priority is dequeued first.

---

2. Bullet Points

Definition

A priority queue is a data structure where each element is associated with a priority, and
elements with higher (or lower) priority are dequeued before others, regardless of their insertion
order.

Operations:

Insert (Enqueue): Add an element with a priority.

Remove (Dequeue): Remove the element with the highest/lowest priority.

Peek: Retrieve the element with the highest/lowest priority without removing it.
Types of Priority Queues:

Min-Priority Queue: Element with the smallest priority is dequeued first.

Max-Priority Queue: Element with the highest priority is dequeued first.

Applications:

Task scheduling (e.g., CPU scheduling).

Dijkstra’s algorithm for shortest paths.

Emergency room patient handling based on severity.

---

3. Humanize (Hinglish)

"Priority Queue normal queue se alag hai kyunki yeh arrival order ko follow nahi karti. Isme
elements ko unki importance (priority) ke basis pe remove kiya jata hai. Jaise hospital mein
serious patient ko pehle dekha jata hai, chahe woh baad mein aaya ho."

---

4. Summary

A priority queue dequeues elements based on their priority instead of arrival order. It is widely
used in scenarios like task scheduling, shortest path algorithms, and emergency handling.

---

5. Examples

1. Real-Life Example:
In an emergency room, patients are treated based on severity (priority), not arrival time.

2. Technical Example:
Dijkstra’s algorithm uses a min-priority queue to always process the node with the smallest
distance.

3. Coding Example (C Code for Min-Priority Queue):

#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>

typedef struct {
int data;
int priority;
} Element;

void insert(Element queue[], int *n, int data, int priority) {

queue[*n].data = data;
queue[*n].priority = priority;
(*n)++;
}

int dequeue(Element queue[], int *n) {

int minPriorityIndex = 0;
for (int i = 1; i < *n; i++) {
if (queue[i].priority < queue[minPriorityIndex].priority) {
minPriorityIndex = i;
}
}
int dequeuedData = queue[minPriorityIndex].data;
for (int i = minPriorityIndex; i < *n - 1; i++) {
queue[i] = queue[i + 1];
}
(*n)--;
return dequeuedData;
}

int main() {
Element queue[10];
int n = 0;

insert(queue, &n, 10, 2);

insert(queue, &n, 20, 1);
insert(queue, &n, 30, 3);

printf("Dequeued Element: %d\n", dequeue(queue, &n));

 printf("Dequeued Element: %d\n", dequeue(queue, &n));

return 0;
}

Output:

Dequeued Element: 20
Dequeued Element: 10

---

Let me know if you'd like more details or examples!

Here’s the detailed answer for Unit 2: Question 7 - Convert an Infix Expression to Postfix
Notation.

---

1. Key Terms

Infix Expression: Operators are placed between operands (e.g., A + B).

Postfix Expression: Operators are placed after operands (e.g., A B +).

Operator Precedence: The order in which operators are evaluated (e.g., * > +).

Stack: Used for managing operators during conversion.

---

2. Bullet Points

Steps for Conversion

1. Scan the Infix Expression: Read the expression from left to right.
2. Use a Stack:

Push operators onto the stack.

Pop them when an operator of lower precedence is encountered or at closing parentheses ).

3. Handle Operands:

Directly append operands (like A, B) to the postfix expression.

4. Handle Parentheses:

Push opening parentheses ( onto the stack.

Pop and append operators until a matching ) is found.

5. Pop Remaining Operators: Append all remaining operators from the stack at the end.

---

Operator Precedence Table

---

3. Humanize (Hinglish)

"Infix expression mein operators beech mein hote hain, jaise A + B. Postfix expression mein
operators operands ke baad aate hain, jaise A B +. Conversion ke liye ek stack ka use karte
hain jo operators ko manage karta hai aur precedence ka dhyan rakhta hai."

---

4. Summary
Converting infix to postfix involves scanning the infix expression, using a stack for operators and
parentheses, and appending operands directly to the output. Operators are added to the postfix
expression based on precedence and associativity.

---

5. Examples

Example 1:

Convert A + B * C to Postfix.
Steps:

1. Scan A: Append to postfix → Postfix: A.

2. Scan +: Push onto stack → Stack: +.

3. Scan B: Append to postfix → Postfix: A B.

4. Scan *: Push onto stack → Stack: + *.

5. Scan C: Append to postfix → Postfix: A B C.

6. Pop stack: Append remaining operators → Postfix: A B C * +.

Result: A B C * +

---

Example 2 (With Parentheses):

Convert (A + B) * C to Postfix.
Steps:
1. Scan (: Push to stack → Stack: (.

2. Scan A: Append to postfix → Postfix: A.

3. Scan +: Push to stack → Stack: ( +.

4. Scan B: Append to postfix → Postfix: A B.

5. Scan ): Pop and append operators until ( → Postfix: A B +.

6. Scan *: Push onto stack → Stack: *.

7. Scan C: Append to postfix → Postfix: A B + C.

8. Pop stack: Append remaining operators → Postfix: A B + C *.

Result: A B + C *

---

C Code for Infix to Postfix

#include <stdio.h>
#include <ctype.h>
#include <string.h>

#define MAX 100

char stack[MAX];
int top = -1;

void push(char c) {
stack[++top] = c;
}
char pop() {
return stack[top--];
}

int precedence(char c) {
if (c == '^') return 3;
if (c == '*' || c == '/') return 2;
if (c == '+' || c == '-') return 1;
return 0;
}

int isOperator(char c) {
return c == '+' || c == '-' || c == '*' || c == '/' || c == '^';
}

void infixToPostfix(char infix[], char postfix[]) {

int i, j = 0;
for (i = 0; i < strlen(infix); i++) {
if (isalnum(infix[i])) {
postfix[j++] = infix[i];
} else if (infix[i] == '(') {
push(infix[i]);
} else if (infix[i] == ')') {
while (stack[top] != '(') {
postfix[j++] = pop();
}
pop(); // Remove '('
} else if (isOperator(infix[i])) {
while (top != -1 && precedence(stack[top]) >= precedence(infix[i])) {
postfix[j++] = pop();
}
push(infix[i]);
}
}
while (top != -1) {
postfix[j++] = pop();
}
postfix[j] = '\0';
}

int main() {
char infix[MAX], postfix[MAX];
printf("Enter an infix expression: ");
 scanf("%s", infix);
infixToPostfix(infix, postfix);
printf("Postfix Expression: %s\n", postfix);
return 0;
}

---

Let me know if you need further clarification or additional examples!

Here are the detailed answers for Unit 2: Questions 8 and 9:

---

Question 8: Write a Program to Implement a Queue Using an Array

---

1. Key Terms

Queue: A linear data structure that follows the FIFO (First In, First Out) principle.

Enqueue: Add an element to the rear of the queue.

Dequeue: Remove an element from the front of the queue.

Overflow: Occurs when the queue is full.

Underflow: Occurs when attempting to remove an element from an empty queue.

---

2. Bullet Points

Steps to Implement Queue Using an Array

1. Define an Array: Fixed-size array to store queue elements.

2. Initialize Front and Rear: Set front = -1 and rear = -1 initially.

3. Enqueue Operation:

Increment rear and add the element.

Handle overflow if rear exceeds the maximum size.

4. Dequeue Operation:

Increment front to remove an element.

Handle underflow if front > rear.

5. Display Queue: Traverse from front to rear and print elements.

---

3. Humanize (Hinglish)

"Queue ka implementation ek array se kar sakte hain jisme hum front aur rear pointers ka use
karte hain. Enqueue nayi value ko end mein dalta hai aur dequeue sabse pehle wali value ko
nikalta hai. Overflow tab hota hai jab queue full ho jaye aur underflow tab jab queue empty ho."

---

4. Summary

Queues can be implemented using arrays by managing indices for insertion (rear) and deletion
(front). Proper checks for overflow and underflow ensure safe operations.

---

5. Example Code (C Program)

#include <stdio.h>
#define MAX 5

int queue[MAX];
int front = -1, rear = -1;

void enqueue(int element) {

if (rear == MAX - 1) {
printf("Queue Overflow\n");
return;
}
if (front == -1) front = 0;
queue[++rear] = element;
printf("Enqueued: %d\n", element);
}

void dequeue() {
if (front == -1 || front > rear) {
printf("Queue Underflow\n");
return;
}
printf("Dequeued: %d\n", queue[front++]);
if (front > rear) front = rear = -1; // Reset queue
}

void display() {
if (front == -1) {
printf("Queue is Empty\n");
return;
}
printf("Queue Elements: ");
for (int i = front; i <= rear; i++) {
printf("%d ", queue[i]);
}
printf("\n");
}

int main() {
enqueue(10);
enqueue(20);
enqueue(30);
display();
dequeue();
 display();
return 0;
}

---

Question 9: Discuss the Limitations of Arrays. How Do Linked Lists Overcome Them?

---

1. Key Terms

Array: A fixed-size, contiguous data structure for storing elements of the same type.

Linked List: A dynamic data structure where elements (nodes) are connected using pointers.

Contiguous Memory: Memory allocated in a continuous block for arrays.

Dynamic Memory: Memory allocated as needed for linked lists.

---

2. Bullet Points

Limitations of Arrays

1. Fixed Size: The size of an array is fixed at declaration, leading to wasted or insufficient
memory.

2. Contiguous Memory Requirement: Arrays need a large block of contiguous memory, which
might not always be available.

3. Insertion and Deletion: Adding or removing elements in the middle requires shifting, which is
inefficient.

4. Memory Waste: Extra memory might remain unused if the array size is overestimated.
Advantages of Linked Lists Over Arrays

1. Dynamic Size: Linked lists grow or shrink dynamically as needed.

2. Efficient Insertions/Deletions: No shifting of elements is required; updates involve changing

pointers.

3. No Contiguous Memory Required: Nodes can be scattered across memory.

4. Better Memory Utilization: Memory is allocated only when required.

---

3. Humanize (Hinglish)

"Arrays ka size fixed hota hai aur contiguous memory chahiye hoti hai, jo kabhi-kabhi available
nahi hoti. Iske alawa, beech mein kuch insert/delete karne ke liye kaafi shifting karni padti hai.
Linked lists ka size dynamic hota hai, aur insertion-deletion fast hota hai kyunki pointers ka use
hota hai."

---

4. Summary

Arrays are limited by their fixed size and the need for contiguous memory. Linked lists, being
dynamic, efficiently manage memory and support faster insertions and deletions by using
pointers.

---

5. Example Comparison

Insertion in Array:
To insert 50 at index 2:
Array before: [10, 20, 30, 40]
Array after: [10, 20, 50, 30, 40] (Shifting required).

Insertion in Linked List:

To insert 50 after node containing 20:

Create a new node for 50.

Update pointers without shifting any data.

Let me know if further clarification or additional examples are needed!

Here’s the detailed answer for Unit 2: Question 10 - Explain Applications of Stacks with
Examples (e.g., Parenthesis Matching).

---

1. Key Terms

Stack: A LIFO (Last In, First Out) data structure.

Parenthesis Matching: Validating the balance of brackets in an expression.

Expression Evaluation: Converting and solving expressions using stacks.

Recursion: Function calls stored in a stack during program execution.

---

2. Bullet Points

Applications of Stacks

1. Expression Evaluation and Conversion:

Used to convert infix expressions to postfix or prefix.

Evaluate postfix expressions efficiently.

2. Parenthesis Matching:

Ensures proper pairing and nesting of brackets in expressions (e.g., {[()]}).

3. Backtracking:

Used in maze-solving or puzzle-solving (e.g., Sudoku).

4. Undo Mechanism:

Maintains a stack of previous states for undo operations in text editors.

5. Function Call Management:

Stores function calls in the call stack for recursive and nested functions.

6. Browser History:

Tracks visited pages using stacks (e.g., back and forward functionality).

---

3. Humanize (Hinglish)

"Stack kaafi jagah use hota hai. Jaise brackets ko check karne ke liye ({[()]} balanced hai ya
nahi), undo karne ke liye, aur expression ko solve karne ke liye. Yeh recursion ke time function
calls ko bhi handle karta hai aur browser history maintain karta hai."
---

4. Summary

Stacks are versatile data structures used in expression evaluation, backtracking, recursion,
undo operations, and more. Their LIFO nature is ideal for solving problems requiring sequential,
reversible processing.

---

5. Examples

Example 1: Parenthesis Matching

Expression: {[()]}

Steps:

1. Push {, [, ( onto the stack as they are opening brackets.

2. Pop ( when ) is encountered.

3. Continue until stack is empty and all brackets match.

C Code:

#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdbool.h>
#define MAX 100

char stack[MAX];
int top = -1;

void push(char c) {
stack[++top] = c;
}

char pop() {
 return stack[top--];
}

bool isMatchingPair(char left, char right) {

return (left == '(' && right == ')') ||
(left == '{' && right == '}') ||
(left == '[' && right == ']');
}

bool isBalanced(char expression[]) {

for (int i = 0; expression[i] != '\0'; i++) {
char ch = expression[i];
if (ch == '(' || ch == '{' || ch == '[') {
push(ch);
} else if (ch == ')' || ch == '}' || ch == ']') {
if (top == -1 || !isMatchingPair(pop(), ch)) {
return false;
}
}
}
return top == -1;
}

int main() {
char expression[] = "{[()]}";
if (isBalanced(expression)) {
printf("Balanced\n");
} else {
printf("Not Balanced\n");
}
return 0;
}

---

Example 2: Expression Evaluation (Postfix)

Postfix: 5 3 + 2 *

Steps:

1. Push 5, 3.
2. Pop 5, 3; evaluate 5 + 3 = 8; push 8.

3. Push 2.

4. Pop 8, 2; evaluate 8 * 2 = 16.

Result: 16

C Code:

#include <stdio.h>
#include <ctype.h>
#define MAX 100

int stack[MAX];
int top = -1;

void push(int num) {

stack[++top] = num;
}

int pop() {
return stack[top--];
}

int evaluatePostfix(char expression[]) {

for (int i = 0; expression[i] != '\0'; i++) {
char ch = expression[i];
if (isdigit(ch)) {
push(ch - '0');
} else {
int b = pop();
int a = pop();
switch (ch) {
case '+': push(a + b); break;
case '-': push(a - b); break;
case '*': push(a * b); break;
case '/': push(a / b); break;
 }
}
}
return pop();
}

int main() {
char expression[] = "53+2*";
printf("Result: %d\n", evaluatePostfix(expression));
return 0;
}

---

Let me know if you'd like more examples or clarifications!

Detailed Explanation for Unit 3: Question 1 - Explain Linear and Binary Search with Examples

1. Key Terms

Linear Search: A search technique that checks each element sequentially.

Binary Search: A faster search technique that works on sorted data by dividing the search
range.

Time Complexity: Measure of efficiency. Linear search: O(n), Binary search: O(log n).

2. Bullet Points

Linear Search:

Works on both sorted and unsorted data.

Sequentially checks each element until the target is found or the list ends.

Time Complexity: O(n).

Binary Search:

Requires the list to be sorted.

Divides the list into two halves and eliminates half the search space in each step.

Time Complexity: O(log n).

3. Humanize (Hinglish)

"Linear search simple hai, ek-ek karke saare elements ko check karta hai jaise kisi book ke har
page ko dekhna. Binary search smart hai, yeh pehle beech ka element check karta hai aur
decide karta hai ki left ya right side mein search karna hai, jaise ek dictionary mein word
dhoondhna."

4. Summary

Linear search is straightforward but slow for large datasets. Binary search is faster but works
only on sorted lists, making it efficient for structured data.

5. Examples

---

Example 1: Linear Search

Input: Array = [4, 7, 1, 9, 2], Target = 9

Steps:

1. Compare 9 with 4 → Not Found.

2. Compare 9 with 7 → Not Found.

3. Compare 9 with 1 → Not Found.

4. Compare 9 with 9 → Found.

C Code for Linear Search:

#include <stdio.h>
int linearSearch(int arr[], int size, int target) {
for (int i = 0; i < size; i++) {
if (arr[i] == target) {
return i; // Return index if found
}
}
return -1; // Return -1 if not found
}

int main() {
int arr[] = {4, 7, 1, 9, 2};
int target = 9;
int size = sizeof(arr) / sizeof(arr[0]);
int result = linearSearch(arr, size, target);
if (result != -1) {
printf("Element found at index %d\n", result);
} else {
printf("Element not found\n");
}
return 0;
}

Output:
Element found at index 3

---

Example 2: Binary Search

Input: Array = [1, 3, 5, 7, 9] (Sorted), Target = 7

Steps:

1. Middle element = 5. Compare with 7. → 7 > 5, search in the right half.

2. New range: [7, 9]. Middle element = 7. → Found.

C Code for Binary Search:

#include <stdio.h>
int binarySearch(int arr[], int size, int target) {
int left = 0, right = size - 1;
while (left <= right) {
int mid = left + (right - left) / 2;
if (arr[mid] == target) {
return mid; // Return index if found
} else if (arr[mid] < target) {
left = mid + 1;
} else {
right = mid - 1;
}
}
return -1; // Return -1 if not found
}

int main() {
int arr[] = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9};
int target = 7;
int size = sizeof(arr) / sizeof(arr[0]);
int result = binarySearch(arr, size, target);
if (result != -1) {
printf("Element found at index %d\n", result);
} else {
printf("Element not found\n");
}
return 0;
}

Output:
Element found at index 3

---

Let me know if you'd like further examples or clarifications!

Detailed Explanation for Unit 3 Questions 2, 3, and 4

---

Question 2: Write Algorithms for Merge Sort and Bubble Sort. Compare their Time Complexities

1. Key Terms
Merge Sort: A divide-and-conquer algorithm that splits the array into halves, sorts, and merges
them.

Bubble Sort: A simple sorting algorithm that swaps adjacent elements if they are in the wrong
order.

Time Complexity: Merge Sort: O(n log n), Bubble Sort: O(n²).

2. Bullet Points

Merge Sort:

Splits array into halves recursively until single-element arrays remain.

Merges sorted halves back together.

Efficient for large datasets.

Bubble Sort:

Compares and swaps adjacent elements repeatedly.

Inefficient for large datasets due to high time complexity.

3. Humanize (Hinglish)

"Merge sort smartly array ko chhoti-chhoti parts mein todta hai aur unhe sort karke combine
karta hai. Bubble sort ek simple aur slow technique hai jo har baar do adjacent elements ko
compare aur swap karta hai."

4. Summary

Merge Sort is faster and suitable for large datasets, while Bubble Sort is easier to implement but
inefficient for large arrays.

5. Examples and Code

Merge Sort Algorithm (C Code):

#include <stdio.h>
void merge(int arr[], int left, int mid, int right) {
int n1 = mid - left + 1;
int n2 = right - mid;
int L[n1], R[n2];

for (int i = 0; i < n1; i++) L[i] = arr[left + i];

for (int i = 0; i < n2; i++) R[i] = arr[mid + 1 + i];

int i = 0, j = 0, k = left;
while (i < n1 && j < n2) {
if (L[i] <= R[j]) arr[k++] = L[i++];
else arr[k++] = R[j++];
}
while (i < n1) arr[k++] = L[i++];
while (j < n2) arr[k++] = R[j++];
}

void mergeSort(int arr[], int left, int right) {

if (left < right) {
int mid = left + (right - left) / 2;
mergeSort(arr, left, mid);
mergeSort(arr, mid + 1, right);
merge(arr, left, mid, right);
}
}

int main() {
int arr[] = {12, 11, 13, 5, 6, 7};
int size = sizeof(arr) / sizeof(arr[0]);
mergeSort(arr, 0, size - 1);
printf("Sorted array: ");
for (int i = 0; i < size; i++) printf("%d ", arr[i]);
return 0;
}

Bubble Sort Algorithm (C Code):

#include <stdio.h>

void bubbleSort(int arr[], int size) {

for (int i = 0; i < size - 1; i++) {
for (int j = 0; j < size - i - 1; j++) {
if (arr[j] > arr[j + 1]) {
 int temp = arr[j];
arr[j] = arr[j + 1];
arr[j + 1] = temp;
}
}
}
}

int main() {
int arr[] = {5, 1, 4, 2, 8};
int size = sizeof(arr) / sizeof(arr[0]);
bubbleSort(arr, size);
printf("Sorted array: ");
for (int i = 0; i < size; i++) printf("%d ", arr[i]);
return 0;
}

---

Question 3: Explain the Working of Quick Sort with an Example. Derive its Time Complexity

1. Key Terms

Quick Sort: A divide-and-conquer sorting algorithm that selects a pivot and partitions the array.

Pivot: An element used to divide the array into smaller and larger elements.

Time Complexity: Best case: O(n log n), Worst case: O(n²).

2. Bullet Points

Steps:

1. Select a pivot element.

2. Partition the array into two halves (elements smaller and larger than the pivot).

3. Recursively apply quick sort to both halves.

3. Humanize (Hinglish)

"Quick sort ek smart sorting technique hai jo pivot choose karke array ko do parts mein todta
hai: chhote aur bade elements. Phir in dono parts ko alag-alag sort karta hai."

4. Summary

Quick Sort is efficient due to its divide-and-conquer nature. However, improper pivot selection
can lead to inefficiency.

5. Example and Code

Quick Sort Algorithm (C Code):

#include <stdio.h>

int partition(int arr[], int low, int high) {

int pivot = arr[high];
int i = (low - 1);

for (int j = low; j < high; j++) {

if (arr[j] < pivot) {
i++;
int temp = arr[i];
arr[i] = arr[j];
arr[j] = temp;
}
}
int temp = arr[i + 1];
arr[i + 1] = arr[high];
arr[high] = temp;
return (i + 1);
}

void quickSort(int arr[], int low, int high) {

if (low < high) {
int pi = partition(arr, low, high);
quickSort(arr, low, pi - 1);
quickSort(arr, pi + 1, high);
}
}

int main() {
 int arr[] = {10, 7, 8, 9, 1, 5};
int size = sizeof(arr) / sizeof(arr[0]);
quickSort(arr, 0, size - 1);
printf("Sorted array: ");
for (int i = 0; i < size; i++) printf("%d ", arr[i]);
return 0;
}

---

Detailed Explanation for Unit 3: Question 4 - What is Hashing? Explain Collision Resolution
Techniques

---

1. Key Terms

Hashing: A method to map data to a fixed-size table using a hash function.

Hash Function: A function that computes an index for the data.

Collision: Occurs when two keys map to the same index.

Collision Resolution Techniques: Strategies to handle collisions.

---

2. Bullet Points

Hashing:

Converts data (keys) into a unique index using a hash function.

Ideal for fast data retrieval.

Collisions in Hashing:

Happens when multiple keys map to the same index in the hash table.
Collision Resolution Techniques:

1. Chaining:

Each index in the hash table contains a linked list to store multiple elements.

Example: Keys 10 and 20 hash to index 0. Linked list stores both keys.

2. Open Addressing:

Finds an alternative empty slot for the key using techniques like:

Linear Probing: Check the next slot sequentially.

Quadratic Probing: Check slots using a quadratic function.

Double Hashing: Use a second hash function to find a new slot.

---

3. Humanize (Hinglish)

"Hashing ek tareeka hai data ko fast access karne ka, jaise ek index banake data ko rakhna.
Agar do data ek hi jagah store hone lagen (collision), toh ya toh ek list banate hain (chaining),
ya doosri jagah dhoondhte hain (open addressing)."

---

4. Summary

Hashing is an efficient method to store and retrieve data. Collisions are resolved using
techniques like chaining or open addressing to ensure data integrity and fast access.

---
5. Examples and Code

Chaining Example in C:

#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>

#define SIZE 7

typedef struct Node {

int data;
struct Node* next;
} Node;

Node* hashTable[SIZE] = {NULL};

int hashFunction(int key) {

return key % SIZE;
}

void insert(int key) {

int index = hashFunction(key);
Node* newNode = (Node*)malloc(sizeof(Node));
newNode->data = key;
newNode->next = hashTable[index];
hashTable[index] = newNode;
}

void display() {
for (int i = 0; i < SIZE; i++) {
Node* temp = hashTable[i];
printf("Index %d: ", i);
while (temp) {
printf("%d -> ", temp->data);
temp = temp->next;
}
printf("NULL\n");
}
}

int main() {
insert(10);
insert(20);
 insert(15);
insert(7);
display();
return 0;
}

Output:

Index 0: 20 -> 10 -> NULL

Index 1: NULL
Index 2: NULL
Index 3: NULL
Index 4: NULL
Index 5: 15 -> NULL
Index 6: 7 -> NULL

Open Addressing Example (Linear Probing):

#include <stdio.h>
#define SIZE 7

int hashTable[SIZE];
int EMPTY = -1;

int hashFunction(int key) {

return key % SIZE;
}

void insert(int key) {

int index = hashFunction(key);
while (hashTable[index] != EMPTY) {
index = (index + 1) % SIZE; // Linear probing
}
hashTable[index] = key;
}

void display() {
for (int i = 0; i < SIZE; i++) {
if (hashTable[i] != EMPTY)
printf("Index %d: %d\n", i, hashTable[i]);
else
printf("Index %d: EMPTY\n", i);
}
}
int main() {
for (int i = 0; i < SIZE; i++) hashTable[i] = EMPTY;

insert(10);
insert(20);
insert(15);
insert(7);
display();

return 0;
}

Output:

Index 0: 10
Index 1: 20
Index 2: 15
Index 3: EMPTY
Index 4: EMPTY
Index 5: EMPTY
Index 6: 7

Let me know if you'd like additional clarification!

Detailed Explanation for Unit 3: Question 5 - Differentiate Between Open Hashing and Closed
Hashing

---

1. Key Terms

Open Hashing (Chaining): Collisions are resolved using linked lists at each index.

Closed Hashing (Open Addressing): Collisions are resolved by finding an alternate slot in the
table.

Load Factor: A measure of how full the hash table is, affecting the performance of both
methods.

---
2. Bullet Points

---

3. Humanize (Hinglish)

"Open hashing mein, jab collision hoti hai, toh ek linked list banakar saare data ko ek jagah
store karte hain. Closed hashing mein, doosri khali jagah dhoondhte hain probing techniques ke
through. Open hashing flexible hota hai, par zyada memory leta hai, jabki closed hashing
efficient hai, par space limited hai."

---

4. Summary

Open hashing resolves collisions by chaining (linked lists), offering flexibility and ease of
deletion. Closed hashing uses probing, which saves space but becomes inefficient with higher
load factors.

---

5. Examples and Code

---

Open Hashing Example (Chaining in C)

#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>

#define SIZE 7

typedef struct Node {

int data;
struct Node* next;
} Node;

Node* hashTable[SIZE] = {NULL};

int hashFunction(int key) {
return key % SIZE;
}

void insert(int key) {

int index = hashFunction(key);
Node* newNode = (Node*)malloc(sizeof(Node));
newNode->data = key;
newNode->next = hashTable[index];
hashTable[index] = newNode;
}

void display() {
for (int i = 0; i < SIZE; i++) {
Node* temp = hashTable[i];
printf("Index %d: ", i);
while (temp) {
printf("%d -> ", temp->data);
temp = temp->next;
}
printf("NULL\n");
}
}

int main() {
insert(10);
insert(20);
insert(15);
insert(7);
display();
return 0;
}

Output:

Index 0: 20 -> 10 -> NULL

Index 1: NULL
Index 2: NULL
Index 3: NULL
Index 4: NULL
Index 5: 15 -> NULL
Index 6: 7 -> NULL
---

Closed Hashing Example (Linear Probing in C)

#include <stdio.h>
#define SIZE 7

int hashTable[SIZE];
int EMPTY = -1;

int hashFunction(int key) {

return key % SIZE;
}

void insert(int key) {

int index = hashFunction(key);
while (hashTable[index] != EMPTY) {
index = (index + 1) % SIZE; // Linear probing
}
hashTable[index] = key;
}

void display() {
for (int i = 0; i < SIZE; i++) {
if (hashTable[i] != EMPTY)
printf("Index %d: %d\n", i, hashTable[i]);
else
printf("Index %d: EMPTY\n", i);
}
}

int main() {
for (int i = 0; i < SIZE; i++) hashTable[i] = EMPTY;

insert(10);
insert(20);
insert(15);
insert(7);
display();

return 0;
}

Output:
Index 0: 10
Index 1: 20
Index 2: 15
Index 3: EMPTY
Index 4: EMPTY
Index 5: EMPTY
Index 6: 7

---

Let me know if you need further clarifications!

Detailed Explanation for Unit 3: Question 6 - Describe the Radix Sort Algorithm with an Example

---

1. Key Terms

Radix Sort: A non-comparative sorting algorithm that processes numbers digit by digit, starting
from the least significant digit (LSD).

Stable Sort: Preserves the relative order of elements with equal keys.

Time Complexity: O(nk), where n is the number of elements and k is the number of digits.

---

2. Bullet Points

Steps in Radix Sort:

1. Identify the maximum number to determine the number of digits (k).

2. Start sorting from the least significant digit (units place).

3. Use a stable sorting technique (like counting sort) for each digit.
4. Repeat the process for the next significant digit until all digits are processed.

Advantages:

Efficient for sorting integers with fixed-length digits.

Stable and suitable for large datasets.

Disadvantages:

Requires additional memory for intermediate sorting.

Not suitable for floating-point numbers or negative values without modification.

---

3. Humanize (Hinglish)

"Radix sort ek unique sorting method hai jo number ke digits ko sort karta hai, sabse chhoti digit
se shuru karke badi digit tak. Jaise ek roll number list ko digit-wise order mein lagana."

---

4. Summary

Radix Sort is a stable, non-comparative algorithm that processes digits sequentially to sort
numbers efficiently. It is especially effective for datasets with a uniform number of digits.

---

5. Example and Code

---

Example:
Array: [170, 45, 75, 90, 802, 24, 2, 66]
Steps:

1. Sort by units place → [170, 90, 802, 2, 24, 45, 75, 66].

2. Sort by tens place → [802, 2, 24, 45, 66, 170, 75, 90].

3. Sort by hundreds place → [2, 24, 45, 66, 75, 90, 170, 802].

Sorted Array: [2, 24, 45, 66, 75, 90, 170, 802].

---

Radix Sort Algorithm (C Code)

#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>

void countingSort(int arr[], int size, int exp) {

int output[size];
int count[10] = {0};

// Count occurrences of digits

for (int i = 0; i < size; i++)
count[(arr[i] / exp) % 10]++;

// Update count array

for (int i = 1; i < 10; i++)
count[i] += count[i - 1];

// Build the output array

for (int i = size - 1; i >= 0; i--) {
output[count[(arr[i] / exp) % 10] - 1] = arr[i];
count[(arr[i] / exp) % 10]--;
}

// Copy output to original array

for (int i = 0; i < size; i++)
arr[i] = output[i];
}

void radixSort(int arr[], int size) {

// Find the maximum number to determine number of digits
int max = arr[0];
for (int i = 1; i < size; i++)
if (arr[i] > max) max = arr[i];

// Sort by each digit

for (int exp = 1; max / exp > 0; exp *= 10)
countingSort(arr, size, exp);
}

int main() {
int arr[] = {170, 45, 75, 90, 802, 24, 2, 66};
int size = sizeof(arr) / sizeof(arr[0]);

printf("Original array: ");

for (int i = 0; i < size; i++) printf("%d ", arr[i]);

radixSort(arr, size);

printf("\nSorted array: ");

for (int i = 0; i < size; i++) printf("%d ", arr[i]);

return 0;
}

---

Output:

Original array: 170 45 75 90 802 24 2 66

Sorted array: 2 24 45 66 75 90 170 802

---

Let me know if you need further clarifications!

Unit III, Question 7: What is Heap Sort? Explain its process with an example.

Key Terms:
Heap: A binary tree that satisfies the heap property (Max-Heap or Min-Heap).

Heap Property: In a Max-Heap, each parent node is greater than or equal to its children. In a
Min-Heap, each parent node is less than or equal to its children.

Heapify: The process of arranging nodes to maintain the heap property.

Sorting: Extracting the root node repeatedly to sort the array.

---

Bullet Points:

Heap Sort Basics:

Heap Sort is a comparison-based sorting algorithm.

It uses a binary heap data structure to sort elements.

Steps in Heap Sort:

1. Build a Max-Heap:

Convert the input array into a Max-Heap.

Ensure the heap property is satisfied for all nodes.

2. Heapify:

Maintain the Max-Heap property when nodes are swapped.

3. Sort the Array:

Repeatedly extract the largest element (root of the heap) and place it at the end of the array.

Reduce the heap size and heapify again.

4. Continue until the heap size becomes 1.

Time Complexity:

Building the heap: O(n)

Heapify operations: O(n log n)

Total: O(n log n)

Space Complexity:

In-place sorting: O(1) (no extra space is used).

---

Humanized Explanation:

Heap Sort ek efficient algorithm hai jo binary heap use karke array ko sort karta hai. Max-Heap
banane ke baad, root (sabse bada element) ko last position par le jaake repeat karte hain until
array sorted ho jaye. Iska advantage hai ki yeh in-place hota hai aur stable nahi hota, but bahut
effective hai.

---

Summary:

Heap Sort ek efficient sorting algorithm hai jo Max-Heap banakar repeatedly largest element ko
extract karta hai aur array ko sort karta hai. Iska time complexity O(n log n) hai aur yeh in-place
algorithm hai.

---
Example:

1. Input Array: [4, 10, 3, 5, 1]

2. Build Max-Heap:

After heapifying: [10, 5, 3, 4, 1]

3. Sorting Process:

Swap root with the last element: [1, 5, 3, 4, 10]

Heapify: [5, 4, 3, 1, 10]

Repeat until sorted.

4. Sorted Array: [1, 3, 4, 5, 10]

Would you like a C program for Heap Sort as well?

Unit III, Question 8: Discuss the advantages of using hashing over other search methods.

Key Terms:

Hashing: A technique to map data to a fixed-size array called a hash table using a hash
function.

Hash Function: A function that converts input data (keys) into a hash code.

Collision: When two keys produce the same hash code.

Efficiency: Refers to the time required to insert, delete, or search elements.

---
Bullet Points:

Advantages of Hashing:

1. Fast Access:

Average time complexity for search, insert, and delete is O(1).

2. Efficient for Large Data:

Handles large datasets efficiently as compared to linear or binary search.

3. No Sorting Required:

Unlike binary search, data doesn’t need to be sorted.

4. Dynamic Operations:

Hash tables allow quick updates without reorganizing the structure.

5. Versatility:

Used in various applications like databases, caching, and password storage.

6. Collision Handling:

Techniques like chaining or open addressing resolve collisions effectively.

Comparison with Other Methods:

Linear Search: Time complexity is O(n) for search.

Binary Search: Requires sorting first, and time complexity is O(log n).

Hashing: Direct access to data in O(1) time.

---

Humanized Explanation:

Hashing ek superfast search method hai jo directly data ko locate karta hai using hash function.
Isme binary search ke jaise sorting ki zarurat nahi hoti, aur large data sets handle karna easy
hota hai. Plus, agar collisions aate hain, toh chaining ya open addressing se unhe resolve karte
hain.

---

Summary:

Hashing ek efficient search technique hai jo O(1) time complexity ke saath fast access deta hai.
Yeh large datasets ke liye best hai aur binary search ya linear search se zyada dynamic aur
versatile hai.

---

Examples:

1. Database Indexing:

Imagine ek library system jisme books ko search karna hai. Hash table banakar books ka title
use karke instantly unhe locate kiya ja sakta hai.

2. Caching:

Websites user data ko hash table mein store karti hain taaki frequently accessed data jaldi load
ho sake.
3. Password Storage:

Passwords ko hash karke store karte hain taaki security breach hone par raw passwords
exposed na ho.

Would you like me to provide examples of collision resolution techniques?

Unit III, Question 9: Explain the concept of a hash function.

Key Terms:

Hash Function: A function that converts input data (keys) into a fixed-size value called a hash
code.

Hash Code: The output generated by a hash function, typically an integer.

Hash Table: A data structure where hash codes are used as indices to store values.

Deterministic: A property where the same input always produces the same hash code.

Collision: Occurs when two keys generate the same hash code.

---

Bullet Points:

Definition:

A hash function is used to map keys to specific locations in a hash table.

It ensures that data can be quickly accessed based on its key.

Characteristics of a Good Hash Function:

1. Deterministic: Produces the same hash code for the same input.
2. Uniform Distribution: Distributes hash codes uniformly across the table to minimize collisions.

3. Fast Computation: Should generate hash codes quickly, even for large inputs.

4. Minimize Collisions: Reduces the likelihood of multiple keys mapping to the same location.

Applications:

Efficient data retrieval in hash tables.

Password storage using cryptographic hash functions.

Data indexing in databases.

---

Humanized Explanation:

Hash function ek tarika hai jo kisi bhi input (jaise name, number) ko ek fixed-size number mein
convert karta hai. Is number ko hash code bolte hain, jo hash table mein data ko fast locate
karne ke kaam aata hai. Agar do inputs same hash code de (collision), toh uske liye solutions
hote hain jaise chaining.

---

Summary:

Hash function ek mathematical formula hai jo kisi key ko hash table ke index mein map karta
hai. Yeh efficient data retrieval ke liye important hai aur uniformly data distribute karke collisions
avoid karta hai.

---

Examples:
1. Simple Hash Function:

int hashFunction(int key, int tableSize) {

return key % tableSize; // Modulo operation
}

Key: 25

Table Size: 10

Hash Code: 25 % 10 = 5

2. Password Hashing:

Password 12345 hashed to: 5f4dcc3b5aa765d61d8327deb882cf99.

Even if someone sees the hash, they can’t guess the password directly.

3. Student Roll Numbers:

Roll numbers hashed using a function to quickly locate students in a database.

Would you like details on collision resolution techniques as well?

Unit III, Question 10: Compare the time complexities of different sorting algorithms.

Key Terms:

Time Complexity: Measures the time an algorithm takes based on the size of input .

Sorting Algorithm: A method to arrange elements in ascending or descending order.

Comparison-Based Sort: Algorithms that compare elements to determine order.

Non-Comparison-Based Sort: Sorts using data properties, e.g., counting sort, radix sort.
---

Bullet Points:

1. Comparison-Based Sorting Algorithms:

Bubble Sort:

Best Case: (already sorted)

Worst Case:

Average Case:

Selection Sort:

Best, Worst, Average Case:

Insertion Sort:

Best Case: (nearly sorted)

Worst/Average Case:

Merge Sort:

All Cases:

Stable Sort

Quick Sort:

Best/Average Case:

Worst Case: (bad pivot selection)

Heap Sort:
All Cases:

2. Non-Comparison-Based Sorting Algorithms:

Counting Sort:

Best, Worst, Average Case: (where is the range of input values)

Radix Sort:

Best, Worst, Average Case: (where is the number of digits in the largest number)

Bucket Sort:

Best Case:

Worst Case: (if uneven distribution)

3. Comparison Table:

---

Humanized Explanation:

Sorting algorithms ka main focus speed aur efficiency hota hai. For smaller datasets, bubble ya
insertion sort theek hote hain, lekin bade datasets ke liye merge, quick, ya heap sort zyada
effective hote hain. Non-comparison sorts jaise counting ya radix, range pe depend karte hain
aur specific cases mein zyada fast hote hain.

---

Summary:
Different sorting algorithms vary in time complexity. Comparison-based algorithms like Merge
and Quick Sort are faster for general cases (), while non-comparison-based ones like Counting
Sort work best with limited data ranges.

---

Examples:

1. Small Dataset:

Input: [5, 2, 9, 1, 5, 6]

Insertion Sort quickly organizes it in .

2. Large Dataset:

Input: 1 million random numbers.

Merge Sort efficiently handles it in .

3. Limited Range Dataset:

Input: Test scores ranging from 0 to 100.

Counting Sort works best in .

Would you like C code for any specific sorting algorithm?

Unit IV, Question 1: Define a Binary Search Tree (BST). Write an algorithm for insertion and
deletion in a BST.

Key Terms:

Binary Search Tree (BST): A tree where each node has at most two children, and the left child
is smaller while the right child is larger than the parent node.
Node: Basic unit of a BST containing a value, left child, and right child.

Insertion: Adding a new node while maintaining the BST property.

Deletion: Removing a node and restructuring the tree to maintain the BST property.

---

Bullet Points:

1. Definition:

A BST is a binary tree with the following properties:

Left subtree of a node contains only nodes with values less than the node's value.

Right subtree contains only nodes with values greater than the node's value.

No duplicate nodes are allowed.

2. Applications:

Searching, sorting, dynamic sets, and implementing associative arrays.

3. Algorithm for Insertion:

Input: Root of BST and a value to insert.

Output: Updated BST.

Steps:

1. Start at the root.

2. If the tree is empty, create a new node and make it the root.
3. Recursively:

If the value is less than the current node, move to the left child.

If the value is greater, move to the right child.

4. Insert the node at the appropriate position.

4. Algorithm for Deletion:

Input: Root of BST and a value to delete.

Output: Updated BST.

Steps:

1. Start at the root.

2. Search for the node to delete.

3. Three cases:

Leaf Node: Simply delete it.

One Child: Replace the node with its child.

Two Children: Find the in-order successor (smallest value in the right subtree), replace the
node's value with the successor, and delete the successor node.
---

Humanized Explanation:

BST ek tree hai jo data ko aise organize karta hai ki searching aur inserting fast ho jaye. Agar
left side ka data hamesha chhota ho aur right side ka data bada, toh ye BST ke rules ko follow
karta hai. Naye nodes ko insert karne ya delete karne ke liye rules ko maintain karna zaruri hota
hai.

---

Summary:

A Binary Search Tree is a structured way to store data, ensuring efficient search, insertion, and
deletion operations. Its key property is that the left subtree has smaller values, and the right
subtree has larger values than the root.

---

Examples:

1. Insertion Example:

Insert values: 15, 10, 20, 8, 12 into an empty BST.

Resulting BST:

15
/ \
10 20
/ \
8 12

2. Deletion Example:

Delete 10:

Replace 10 with 12 (in-order successor).

Updated BST:

15
/ \
12 20
/
8

---

C Code for Insertion and Deletion:

Insertion:

struct Node {
int data;
struct Node* left;
struct Node* right;
};

struct Node* insert(struct Node* root, int value) {

if (root == NULL) {
struct Node* newNode = (struct Node*)malloc(sizeof(struct Node));
newNode->data = value;
newNode->left = newNode->right = NULL;
return newNode;
}
if (value < root->data) {
root->left = insert(root->left, value);
} else if (value > root->data) {
root->right = insert(root->right, value);
}
return root;
}
Deletion:

struct Node* findMin(struct Node* root) {

while (root->left != NULL) {
root = root->left;
}
return root;
}

struct Node* deleteNode(struct Node* root, int value) {

if (root == NULL) return root;

if (value < root->data) {

root->left = deleteNode(root->left, value);
} else if (value > root->data) {
root->right = deleteNode(root->right, value);
} else {
if (root->left == NULL) {
struct Node* temp = root->right;
free(root);
return temp;
} else if (root->right == NULL) {
struct Node* temp = root->left;
free(root);
return temp;
}
struct Node* temp = findMin(root->right);
root->data = temp->data;
root->right = deleteNode(root->right, temp->data);
}
return root;
}

Would you like a detailed explanation of the code or a diagram of the tree after each operation?

Unit IV, Question 2: Explain Tree Traversals (Inorder, Preorder, Postorder) with examples.

Key Terms:

Tree Traversal: The process of visiting all nodes in a tree in a specific order.

Inorder Traversal: Visit left subtree, root, and then right subtree.

Preorder Traversal: Visit root, left subtree, and then right subtree.
Postorder Traversal: Visit left subtree, right subtree, and then root.

---

Bullet Points:

1. Tree Traversal Types:

Inorder (Left → Root → Right):

Nodes are visited in ascending order in a Binary Search Tree (BST).

Preorder (Root → Left → Right):

Useful for creating a copy of the tree or prefix expressions in expressions trees.

Postorder (Left → Right → Root):

Useful for deleting nodes or postfix expressions in expression trees.

2. Applications:

Inorder: Used in BSTs to retrieve data in sorted order.

Preorder: Used to generate prefix expressions or save tree structure.

Postorder: Used in expression evaluation and deleting the tree.

3. Algorithm for Traversals:

Inorder:

1. Traverse the left subtree.

2. Visit the root.

3. Traverse the right subtree.

Preorder:

1. Visit the root.

2. Traverse the left subtree.

3. Traverse the right subtree.

Postorder:

1. Traverse the left subtree.

2. Traverse the right subtree.

3. Visit the root.

---

Humanized Explanation:

Tree traversal ka matlab hai tree ke har node ko ek fixed sequence mein visit karna. Agar
sorted data chahiye, toh Inorder use karte hain. Preorder mein pehle root node visit hota hai, jo
useful hai tree ko reconstruct karne mein. Postorder tab kaam aata hai jab tree ko delete ya
evaluate karna ho.
---

Summary:

Tree traversal is a systematic way to visit all nodes in a tree. Inorder retrieves data in sorted
order, Preorder helps reconstruct the tree, and Postorder is used for evaluation or deletion.

---

Example:

Given Tree:

10
/ \
5 15
/\ /\
2 7 12 20

1. Inorder Traversal (Left → Root → Right):

Sequence: 2, 5, 7, 10, 12, 15, 20

2. Preorder Traversal (Root → Left → Right):

Sequence: 10, 5, 2, 7, 15, 12, 20

3. Postorder Traversal (Left → Right → Root):

Sequence: 2, 7, 5, 12, 20, 15, 10

---

C Code for Traversals:

#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>

struct Node {
 int data;
struct Node* left;
struct Node* right;
};

// Function to create a new node

struct Node* newNode(int data) {
struct Node* node = (struct Node*)malloc(sizeof(struct Node));
node->data = data;
node->left = node->right = NULL;
return node;
}

// Inorder Traversal
void inorder(struct Node* root) {
if (root != NULL) {
inorder(root->left);
printf("%d ", root->data);
inorder(root->right);
}
}

// Preorder Traversal
void preorder(struct Node* root) {
if (root != NULL) {
printf("%d ", root->data);
preorder(root->left);
preorder(root->right);
}
}

// Postorder Traversal
void postorder(struct Node* root) {
if (root != NULL) {
postorder(root->left);
postorder(root->right);
printf("%d ", root->data);
}
}

// Main Function
int main() {
struct Node* root = newNode(10);
root->left = newNode(5);
 root->right = newNode(15);
root->left->left = newNode(2);
root->left->right = newNode(7);
root->right->left = newNode(12);
root->right->right = newNode(20);

printf("Inorder: ");
inorder(root);
printf("\nPreorder: ");
preorder(root);
printf("\nPostorder: ");
postorder(root);

return 0;
}

Would you like a step-by-step explanation of how the code executes for each traversal?

Unit IV, Question 3: What are AVL Trees? Explain how to perform rotations in AVL Trees.

Key Terms:

AVL Tree: A self-balancing binary search tree where the height difference (balance factor) of the
left and right subtrees of any node is at most 1.

Balance Factor: Difference between the height of the left subtree and the right subtree.

Balance Factor = Height(Left Subtree) - Height(Right Subtree)

Rotations: Tree adjustments to restore balance. Includes Left Rotation, Right Rotation, Left-
Right Rotation, and Right-Left Rotation.

---

Bullet Points:

1. Definition:

AVL tree maintains balance during insertions and deletions by performing rotations.
Ensures time complexity for search, insertion, and deletion.

2. Balance Factor:

: Tree is balanced.

or : Tree is unbalanced and requires rotations.

3. Rotations in AVL Tree:

Left Rotation (LL):

Applied when a node is unbalanced due to heavy right subtree.

Right Rotation (RR):

Applied when a node is unbalanced due to heavy left subtree.

Left-Right Rotation (LR):

Applied when the left child is right-heavy.

Perform Left Rotation on left child, then Right Rotation on the root.

Right-Left Rotation (RL):

Applied when the right child is left-heavy.

Perform Right Rotation on right child, then Left Rotation on the root.

4. Advantages:

Ensures tree height is .

Maintains efficiency of search, insert, and delete operations.

---

Humanized Explanation:

AVL tree ek binary search tree hai jo hamesha balanced rehta hai. Agar left aur right subtree ka
height ka difference (balance factor) -1, 0, ya +1 se zyada ho jaye, toh tree ko balance karne ke
liye rotations karte hain. Rotations ka matlab hai nodes ko idhar-udhar ghumana.

---

Summary:

AVL tree ek self-balancing binary tree hai jo insertion aur deletion ke baad apna balance
maintain karta hai using rotations (LL, RR, LR, RL). Yeh ensure karta hai ki operations mein
complete ho.

---

Example:

Step-by-Step Rotation Example:

1. Insert the keys: 10, 20, 30 into an AVL Tree.

Insert 10: Tree is balanced.

Insert 20: Tree is balanced.

Insert 30: Unbalanced at node 10 (Right-Right case).

Perform Left Rotation:

20
/ \
10 30
Left-Right Case Example:

1. Insert 30, 20, 25:

Insert 30: Tree is balanced.

Insert 20: Tree is balanced.

Insert 25: Unbalanced at node 30 (Left-Right case).

Perform Left Rotation on 20, then Right Rotation on 30:

25
/ \
20 30

---

C Code for Rotations in an AVL Tree:

#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>

// Structure for AVL Tree Node

struct Node {
int data;
struct Node* left;
struct Node* right;
int height;
};

// Function to get the height of the tree

int height(struct Node* node) {
return (node == NULL) ? 0 : node->height;
}

// Create a new Node

struct Node* newNode(int data) {
struct Node* node = (struct Node*)malloc(sizeof(struct Node));
node->data = data;
node->left = NULL;
node->right = NULL;
node->height = 1;
return node;
}

// Get balance factor

int getBalance(struct Node* node) {
return (node == NULL) ? 0 : height(node->left) - height(node->right);
}

// Right Rotation
struct Node* rightRotate(struct Node* y) {
struct Node* x = y->left;
struct Node* T2 = x->right;

x->right = y;
y->left = T2;

y->height = 1 + (height(y->left) > height(y->right) ? height(y->left) : height(y->right));

x->height = 1 + (height(x->left) > height(x->right) ? height(x->left) : height(x->right));

return x;
}

// Left Rotation
struct Node* leftRotate(struct Node* x) {
struct Node* y = x->right;
struct Node* T2 = y->left;

y->left = x;
x->right = T2;

x->height = 1 + (height(x->left) > height(x->right) ? height(x->left) : height(x->right));

y->height = 1 + (height(y->left) > height(y->right) ? height(y->left) : height(y->right));

return y;
}

// Insert a Node in AVL Tree

struct Node* insert(struct Node* node, int key) {
 if (node == NULL)
return newNode(key);

if (key < node->data)

node->left = insert(node->left, key);
else if (key > node->data)
node->right = insert(node->right, key);
else
return node; // Duplicates not allowed

node->height = 1 + (height(node->left) > height(node->right) ? height(node->left) :

height(node->right));

int balance = getBalance(node);

// Left-Left Case
if (balance > 1 && key < node->left->data)
return rightRotate(node);

// Right-Right Case
if (balance < -1 && key > node->right->data)
return leftRotate(node);

// Left-Right Case
if (balance > 1 && key > node->left->data) {
node->left = leftRotate(node->left);
return rightRotate(node);
}

// Right-Left Case
if (balance < -1 && key < node->right->data) {
node->right = rightRotate(node->right);
return leftRotate(node);
}

return node;
}

// Print Inorder Traversal

void inorder(struct Node* root) {
if (root != NULL) {
inorder(root->left);
printf("%d ", root->data);
inorder(root->right);
 }
}

int main() {
struct Node* root = NULL;

root = insert(root, 10);

root = insert(root, 20);
root = insert(root, 30);

printf("Inorder traversal of AVL Tree: ");

inorder(root);

return 0;
}

Would you like a detailed breakdown of the code execution or visual representation of rotations?

Unit IV, Question 4: Differentiate Between Binary Trees and Binary Search Trees.

Key Terms:

Binary Tree: A tree data structure where each node has at most two children (left and right).

Binary Search Tree (BST): A specialized binary tree where the left child is smaller, and the right
child is larger than the parent node.

Key Property: BST follows an ordering rule, whereas binary trees do not.

---

Bullet Points:

1. Definition:

Binary Tree:

A general tree structure with a maximum of two children for each node.

Binary Search Tree (BST):

A binary tree that maintains a sorted order of elements.

2. Key Differences:

3. Applications:

Binary Tree: Represent hierarchical data like file systems, organizational structures, etc.

Binary Search Tree: Fast searching and dynamic data manipulation.

4. Structure:

Binary Tree:

A
/\
B C
/\
D E

Binary Search Tree:

10
/ \
5 15
/\
2 7

5. Traversal:

Binary trees can use Preorder, Inorder, and Postorder.

BST’s Inorder traversal always produces sorted data.

---

Humanized Explanation:

Binary tree ek general tree structure hai jisme har node ke maximum do children ho sakte hain,
chahe koi order follow ho ya na ho. Binary search tree ek special type ka binary tree hai jo
hamesha left child chhota aur right child bada rakhta hai, isliye searching aur sorting efficient
hoti hai.

---

Summary:

Binary trees are general-purpose tree structures without order, while Binary Search Trees are
specifically designed for efficient searching and dynamic data operations, ensuring ordered data
placement.

---

Examples:

1. Binary Tree Example:

File system:

Root
/ \
Folder1 Folder2

2. Binary Search Tree Example:

Insert keys: 10, 5, 15, 2, 7:

10
/ \
5 15
/\
2 7

Would you like additional C code to show differences in traversals or applications?

Unit IV, Question 5: Write a program to find the height of a binary tree.

Key Terms:

Height of a Tree: The number of edges on the longest path from the root to a leaf node.

Leaf Node: A node with no children.

Recursion: A method where a function calls itself to solve smaller subproblems.

---

Bullet Points:

1. Definition:

The height of a binary tree is the depth of its deepest node.

Height of an empty tree: (or , depending on convention).

2. Formula:

3. Steps to Calculate:

If the tree is empty, return or .

Recursively find the height of the left and right subtrees.

Take the maximum of the two heights and add .

4. Applications:

Helps in balancing binary trees like AVL or Red-Black trees.

Useful for tree traversal optimizations.

---

Humanized Explanation:

Binary tree ka height ka matlab hai ki root se sabse dur ke leaf node tak kitne edges hain. Agar
tree khali ho, height hogi. Recursion ka use karke har subtree ki height calculate karte hain aur
jo sabse badi height ho, usme add karte hain.

---

Summary:

The height of a binary tree is the longest path from the root to a leaf node. It can be calculated
using recursion by finding the maximum height of the left and right subtrees and adding .

---

Example:

Given Tree:

10
/ \
5 20
/\
3 7

Height Calculation:
Left Subtree (Root: 5): Height = 2

Right Subtree (Root: 20): Height = 0

Tree Height:

---

C Code to Find Height of a Binary Tree:

#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>

// Structure for a Node

struct Node {
int data;
struct Node* left;
struct Node* right;
};

// Function to create a new Node

struct Node* newNode(int data) {
struct Node* node = (struct Node*)malloc(sizeof(struct Node));
node->data = data;
node->left = NULL;
node->right = NULL;
return node;
}

// Function to calculate the height of the binary tree

int height(struct Node* root) {
if (root == NULL)
return -1; // Return 0 if you consider height of an empty tree as 0
else {
int leftHeight = height(root->left);
int rightHeight = height(root->right);
return 1 + (leftHeight > rightHeight ? leftHeight : rightHeight);
}
}
// Main Function
int main() {
struct Node* root = newNode(10);
root->left = newNode(5);
root->right = newNode(20);
root->left->left = newNode(3);
root->left->right = newNode(7);

printf("Height of the tree: %d\n", height(root));

return 0;
}

---

Output:

For the given tree, the program will output:

Height of the tree: 2

---

Would you like an explanation of the code execution or visual steps for this example?

Unit IV, Question 6: Compare General Trees and Binary Trees

---

Key Terms

1. General Tree: A tree where each node can have any number of children.

2. Binary Tree: A tree where each node can have at most two children.

3. Nodes: Elements of the tree containing data and links to child nodes.

4. Degree of Node: Number of children a node has.

5. Parent and Child Relationship: Nodes are connected hierarchically.

6. Tree Traversal: Visiting all nodes of the tree in a specific order.

---

Bullet Points

General Trees

Each node can have any number of children.

Flexible structure, often used in file systems and organizational charts.

Traversal is usually done using depth-first search (DFS) or breadth-first search (BFS).

Difficult to implement and represent in memory due to varying child numbers.

Binary Trees

Each node can have at most two children (left and right).

Easier to represent in memory using arrays or linked structures.

Used in binary search trees (BST), heaps, and expression trees.

Traversal methods include Inorder, Preorder, and Postorder.

Key Differences

---

Humanized Explanation
General trees ke nodes ke paas jitne bhi children ho sakte hain, jitni zarurat ho. Binary tree me
har node ke paas maximum do (left aur right) children hote hain. File systems jaise complex
structures ke liye general trees use karte hain, aur searching/sorting tasks ke liye binary trees
zyada efficient hote hain.

---

Summary

General trees allow any number of children per node and are versatile but harder to implement.
Binary trees are restricted to two children per node, making them simpler and better suited for
computational tasks.

---

Examples

1. General Tree:

Folder structure in a computer:

Root Folder
├── Documents
│ ├── Resume.docx
│ └── Report.pdf
└── Photos
├── Vacation.jpg
└── Birthday.png

2. Binary Tree:

10
/ \
5 20
/\ /\
3 7 15 25

Would you like a C program to demonstrate tree traversal?

Unit IV, Question 7: Explain the concept of a heap. Explain Max-Heap and Min-Heap with
examples.

---

Key Terms

1. Heap: A specialized binary tree-based data structure.

2. Max-Heap: A heap where the parent node is always greater than or equal to its children.

3. Min-Heap: A heap where the parent node is always smaller than or equal to its children.

4. Complete Binary Tree: A binary tree in which all levels, except possibly the last, are fully
filled.

---

Bullet Points

Definition

A heap is a complete binary tree used to implement a priority queue.

Heaps are classified as Max-Heap and Min-Heap based on the ordering of nodes.

Max-Heap

The value of the root node is the largest among all nodes.

Every parent node is greater than or equal to its child nodes.

Example:

20
 / \
15 10
/\ /
7 85

Min-Heap

The value of the root node is the smallest among all nodes.

Every parent node is smaller than or equal to its child nodes.

Example:

5
/ \
10 20
/\ /
15 30 25

Applications

1. Priority Queues: Efficiently implement priority-based systems.

2. Heap Sort: Sorting algorithms based on heaps.

3. Graph Algorithms: Used in algorithms like Dijkstra's shortest path.

---

Humanized Explanation

Heap ek special binary tree hoti hai jo priority queues banane ke liye use hoti hai. Max-Heap me
parent node hamesha apne children se bada hota hai, aur Min-Heap me parent node sabse
chhota hota hai. Heap sort aur graph algorithms me iska bahut use hota hai.

---
Summary

A heap is a complete binary tree used to manage priority efficiently. Max-Heap ensures the
parent node is the largest, while Min-Heap ensures the parent is the smallest.

---

Example in C

#include <stdio.h>
#define MAX 100

void maxHeapify(int arr[], int n, int i) {

int largest = i; // Initialize largest as root
int left = 2 * i + 1; // Left child
int right = 2 * i + 2; // Right child

// If left child is larger

if (left < n && arr[left] > arr[largest])
largest = left;

// If right child is larger

if (right < n && arr[right] > arr[largest])
largest = right;

// If largest is not root

if (largest != i) {
int temp = arr[i];
arr[i] = arr[largest];
arr[largest] = temp;

// Recursively heapify the affected subtree

maxHeapify(arr, n, largest);
}
}

void buildMaxHeap(int arr[], int n) {

for (int i = n / 2 - 1; i >= 0; i--)
maxHeapify(arr, n, i);
}

int main() {
 int arr[] = {3, 5, 9, 6, 8, 20, 10, 12, 18, 9};
int n = sizeof(arr) / sizeof(arr[0]);

buildMaxHeap(arr, n);

printf("Max-Heap array: ");

for (int i = 0; i < n; ++i)
printf("%d ", arr[i]);

return 0;
}

---

Output

Max-Heap array: 20 18 10 12 9 9 3 6 8 5

Would you like additional examples or details on Min-Heap?

Unit IV, Question 8: Insert the following keys into a BST: 15, 10, 20, 8, 12, 17, 25. Draw the
resulting tree.

---

Key Terms

1. Binary Search Tree (BST): A binary tree where the left child of a node contains smaller
values, and the right child contains larger values.

2. Insertion in BST: Inserting a value while maintaining the BST property.

3. Root Node: The topmost node in a tree.

---

Bullet Points
Steps to Insert Keys in a BST

1. Start from the root node.

2. If the key is smaller than the current node, move to the left child.

3. If the key is larger, move to the right child.

4. If the position is empty, insert the key.

Resulting Tree

After inserting the given keys (15, 10, 20, 8, 12, 17, 25) into a BST:

15
/ \
10 20
/\ /\
8 12 17 25

---

Humanized Explanation

Binary Search Tree ka rule simple hai: har node ke left mein chhoti values aur right mein badi
values hoti hain. 15 ko root banake, baaki values ko step-by-step BST ke rule follow karte hue
insert karte hain.

---

Summary

A BST is constructed by following the rule: smaller values go to the left and larger ones to the
right. The resulting tree organizes values efficiently for searching.
---

Example Code in C

#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>

// Structure for a Node

struct Node {
int data;
struct Node* left;
struct Node* right;
};

// Function to create a new Node

struct Node* newNode(int data) {
struct Node* node = (struct Node*)malloc(sizeof(struct Node));
node->data = data;
node->left = NULL;
node->right = NULL;
return node;
}

// Function to insert a key into the BST

struct Node* insert(struct Node* root, int key) {
if (root == NULL)
return newNode(key);

if (key < root->data)

root->left = insert(root->left, key);
else if (key > root->data)
root->right = insert(root->right, key);

return root;
}

// Inorder traversal to verify the structure

void inorder(struct Node* root) {
if (root != NULL) {
inorder(root->left);
printf("%d ", root->data);
inorder(root->right);
}
}
int main() {
struct Node* root = NULL;

// Insert keys into BST

root = insert(root, 15);
root = insert(root, 10);
root = insert(root, 20);
root = insert(root, 8);
root = insert(root, 12);
root = insert(root, 17);
root = insert(root, 25);

printf("Inorder traversal of BST: ");

inorder(root);
return 0;
}

---

Output

Inorder traversal of BST: 8 10 12 15 17 20 25

Would you like a step-by-step insertion walkthrough or more visualizations?

Unit IV, Question 9: Explain the concept of threaded binary trees.

---

Key Terms

1. Threaded Binary Tree: A binary tree where null pointers are replaced with pointers to the in-
order predecessor or successor.

2. Null Pointer: A pointer that does not point to any node.

3. In-order Traversal: A tree traversal technique where nodes are visited in the order: left child,
root, right child.
4. Threads: Additional pointers used to make traversal faster.

---

Bullet Points

Definition

In a standard binary tree, many pointers are null (e.g., when a node has no left or right child).

In a threaded binary tree, these null pointers are replaced with threads pointing to the in-order
predecessor or successor.

This modification allows in-order traversal without using a stack or recursion.

Types

1. Single Threaded: Only one null pointer is replaced (either left or right).

2. Double Threaded: Both left and right null pointers are replaced with threads.

Advantages

Saves memory by utilizing null pointers.

In-order traversal becomes more efficient as no stack or recursion is needed.

Easy to implement compared to other binary tree traversal optimizations.

Applications

Used in environments where in-order traversal is frequent.

Suitable for systems with limited memory.

---

Humanized Explanation

Threaded binary trees null pointers ko waste nahi karte; unka use in-order traversal ke liye karte
hain. Agar kisi node ka left ya right child nahi ho, toh un pointers ko pichle ya agle node ki taraf
point kar dete hain, jisse traversal fast aur memory-efficient ho jata hai.

---

Summary

Threaded binary trees replace null pointers with threads pointing to in-order predecessors or
successors. This approach optimizes memory usage and simplifies traversal.

---

Example in C

#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>

// Structure for a threaded binary tree node

struct Node {
int data;
struct Node* left;
struct Node* right;
int isThreaded; // 1 if right pointer is a thread
};

// Function to create a new Node

struct Node* newNode(int data) {
struct Node* node = (struct Node*)malloc(sizeof(struct Node));
node->data = data;
node->left = NULL;
node->right = NULL;
node->isThreaded = 0;
return node;
}
// Leftmost node in a tree
struct Node* leftMost(struct Node* node) {
while (node && node->left != NULL)
node = node->left;
return node;
}

// In-order traversal of a threaded binary tree

void inOrder(struct Node* root) {
struct Node* cur = leftMost(root);

while (cur != NULL) {

printf("%d ", cur->data);

if (cur->isThreaded)
cur = cur->right;
else
cur = leftMost(cur->right);
}
}

// Main Function
int main() {
struct Node* root = newNode(10);
root->left = newNode(5);
root->right = newNode(15);
root->left->right = root;
root->left->isThreaded = 1;

printf("In-order Traversal: ");

inOrder(root);

return 0;
}

---

Output

For a sample threaded tree, the program will output:

In-order Traversal: 5 10 15
Would you like a detailed explanation of how threads are assigned or used?

Unit IV, Question 10: Discuss Applications of Binary Trees in Computing

---

Key Terms

1. Binary Tree: A tree structure with at most two children per node.

2. Hierarchical Data: Data represented in parent-child relationships.

3. Traversal: Visiting all the nodes in a binary tree in a specific order.

4. Data Structures: Logical arrangements of data for efficient operations.

---

Bullet Points

Applications of Binary Trees

1. Hierarchical Data Representation

Used to represent data with parent-child relationships, such as file systems, organizational
charts, and decision trees.

2. Binary Search Trees (BST)

Efficient for searching, inserting, and deleting elements in time (for balanced BSTs).

Used in databases and search engines.

3. Expression Trees

Represent mathematical expressions.

Nodes store operators and operands for evaluating or simplifying expressions.

4. Priority Queues and Heaps

Binary trees are the foundation for binary heaps used in priority queues.

Applications include scheduling algorithms and resource allocation.

5. Huffman Encoding

Binary trees are used in compression algorithms like Huffman coding to reduce storage size.

Each path from root to leaf represents a unique code.

6. Routing Algorithms

Binary trees are used in network routing for hierarchical addressing and efficient pathfinding.

7. Decision-Making Systems

Decision trees (a type of binary tree) are used in machine learning, AI, and game theory.

8. Compiler Design

Abstract Syntax Trees (ASTs), based on binary trees, represent the syntax of programming
languages.
---

Humanized Explanation

Binary trees kaafi jagah use hote hain jaha data ko hierarchical (parent-child) format mein
organize karna hota hai. Jaise file systems ya expression trees. Searching aur data
compression jaise tasks ko efficient banane ke liye bhi ye kaam aate hain. Machine learning ke
decision trees aur compilers ke abstract syntax trees bhi binary tree pe based hote hain.

---

Summary

Binary trees are versatile and used in areas like data representation, searching, compression,
and decision-making. They form the basis for advanced structures like heaps, BSTs, and
decision trees.

---

Examples

1. File System:

Root
/ \
Home System
/ \ \

User Docs Config

2. **Huffman Encoding**:
- Characters with higher frequencies are stored closer to the root to minimize encoding length.

3. **Expression Tree**:

+
/\
* 5
/\
2 3
---

Would you like examples with detailed code or diagrams to explore one of these applications?

Unit V, Question 1: Define a graph. Explain DFS and BFS with their applications.

---

Key Terms

1. Graph: A set of vertices (nodes) connected by edges (links).

2. DFS (Depth-First Search): A traversal algorithm that explores as far as possible along each
branch before backtracking.

3. BFS (Breadth-First Search): A traversal algorithm that explores all neighbors at the current
depth before moving deeper.

4. Adjacency Matrix: A 2D array representing connections between vertices.

5. Adjacency List: A list of vertices with their neighbors.

---

Bullet Points

Graph Definition

A graph consists of:

Vertices (V): Points or nodes.

Edges (E): Connections or links between vertices.

Types of Graphs:

Directed: Edges have directions (e.g., A → B).

Undirected: Edges are bidirectional (e.g., A ↔ B).

Weighted: Edges have weights or costs.

DFS (Depth-First Search)

Explores a node and all its neighbors recursively before moving to the next node.

Implemented using a stack (explicitly or through recursion).

Applications:

1. Detecting cycles in a graph.

2. Solving puzzles like mazes.

3. Finding connected components.

BFS (Breadth-First Search)

Explores all neighbors of a node at the current level before moving to the next level.

Implemented using a queue.

Applications:

1. Finding the shortest path in an unweighted graph.

2. Network broadcasting.

3. Solving problems like finding the shortest route in a maze.

---

Humanized Explanation

Graph ek tarah ka data structure hai jo nodes (vertices) aur unko connect karne wale links
(edges) ka combination hota hai. DFS deep explore karta hai, ek branch ko pura check karke
wapas aata hai. BFS level-wise explore karta hai, pehle saare nearby nodes ko visit karta hai
aur phir next level pe jaata hai.

---

Summary

Graphs are structures with vertices and edges. DFS explores paths deeply, while BFS explores
level by level. Both are useful for traversing graphs in various scenarios.

---

Example Graph

A -- B
| |
C -- D

DFS Traversal (Start from A)

A→B→D→C

BFS Traversal (Start from A)

A→B→C→D

---
C Code for DFS and BFS

#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
#include <stdbool.h>

#define MAX 10

// Graph Structure
int adj[MAX][MAX];
bool visited[MAX];

// DFS Function
void DFS(int vertex, int n) {
printf("%d ", vertex);
visited[vertex] = true;

for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {

if (adj[vertex][i] == 1 && !visited[i])
DFS(i, n);
}
}

// BFS Function
void BFS(int start, int n) {
int queue[MAX], front = -1, rear = -1;
bool visited[MAX] = {false};

queue[++rear] = start;
visited[start] = true;

while (front < rear) {

int vertex = queue[++front];
printf("%d ", vertex);

for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {

if (adj[vertex][i] == 1 && !visited[i]) {
queue[++rear] = i;
visited[i] = true;
}
}
}
}
int main() {
int n = 4;
// Adjacency Matrix
adj[0][1] = adj[1][0] = 1; // A -- B
adj[0][2] = adj[2][0] = 1; // A -- C
adj[1][3] = adj[3][1] = 1; // B -- D
adj[2][3] = adj[3][2] = 1; // C -- D

printf("DFS Traversal: ");

DFS(0, n);

printf("\nBFS Traversal: ");

BFS(0, n);

return 0;
}

---

Output

For the graph:

DFS Traversal: 0 1 3 2
BFS Traversal: 0 1 2 3

Would you like a deeper explanation of these algorithms or their use cases?

2.Question: Write the adjacency list and adjacency matrix representation of a graph.

---

Key Terms:

Graph: A collection of vertices (nodes) and edges (connections between nodes).

Adjacency List: A representation of a graph where each vertex has a list of adjacent vertices
(nodes directly connected to it).
Adjacency Matrix: A 2D matrix used to represent a graph, where rows and columns represent
vertices and the values indicate the presence or absence of edges.

Vertices (Nodes): Points in the graph.

Edges: Connections between the vertices.

Directed Graph (Digraph): A graph where edges have a direction (from one vertex to another).

Undirected Graph: A graph where edges have no direction, they simply connect two vertices.

---

Bullet Points:

Adjacency List Representation:

Each vertex has a linked list (or array) containing all its neighbors.

It's space-efficient for sparse graphs (graphs with fewer edges).

Example: For a graph with vertices 1, 2, and 3, and edges (1-2), (2-3), the adjacency list will
look like:

1 → [2]

2 → [1, 3]

3 → [2]

Adjacency Matrix Representation:

A square matrix used to represent the graph.

Each cell in the matrix represents an edge, with '1' indicating an edge and '0' indicating no edge.

Example: For the same graph (1-2), (2-3), the adjacency matrix will be:

[0 1 0]
[1 0 1]
[0 1 0]

The matrix size is always n x n (where n is the number of vertices).

---

Humanized Explanation:

Adjacency List: So, imagine you have a group of friends. Each person writes down the names of
all the people they know in a list. This list is the adjacency list. For example, if Person 1 knows
Person 2, Person 1 will write down Person 2 in their list.

Adjacency Matrix: Now, imagine you have a big table where each row and column represent a
person, and the table tells you who knows whom. If Person 1 knows Person 2, the cell for that
row and column will have a 1; otherwise, it will have a 0. This is how the adjacency matrix
works.

---

Summary:

An adjacency list is a more memory-efficient way of storing a graph by listing only the direct
neighbors of each vertex.

An adjacency matrix uses a 2D matrix to store information about which vertices are connected,
but it's less efficient for sparse graphs.

---

Examples:

1. Social Network Example: Think of a social media platform where users are connected to each
other. If you want to know who is friends with whom, you can use either an adjacency list (list of
friends for each user) or an adjacency matrix (table showing connections).
2. City Road Network: Consider cities as vertices and roads as edges. If you want to know
which cities are directly connected, you could either use an adjacency list (list of neighboring
cities for each city) or an adjacency matrix (table showing roads between cities).

---

C Code for Adjacency List and Matrix:

#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>

// Define the structure for adjacency list

struct Node {
int vertex;
struct Node* next;
};

struct Graph {
int vertices;
struct Node** adjList;
};

// Function to create a graph

struct Graph* createGraph(int vertices) {
struct Graph* graph = (struct Graph*)malloc(sizeof(struct Graph));
graph->vertices = vertices;
graph->adjList = (struct Node**)malloc(vertices * sizeof(struct Node*));

for (int i = 0; i < vertices; i++) {

graph->adjList[i] = NULL;
}
return graph;
}

// Function to add an edge to the graph (for adjacency list)

void addEdgeList(struct Graph* graph, int src, int dest) {
struct Node* newNode = (struct Node*)malloc(sizeof(struct Node));
newNode->vertex = dest;
newNode->next = graph->adjList[src];
graph->adjList[src] = newNode;
 // For undirected graph, also add the reverse edge
newNode = (struct Node*)malloc(sizeof(struct Node));
newNode->vertex = src;
newNode->next = graph->adjList[dest];
graph->adjList[dest] = newNode;
}

// Function to print adjacency list

void printAdjList(struct Graph* graph) {
for (int i = 0; i < graph->vertices; i++) {
struct Node* temp = graph->adjList[i];
printf("Vertex %d: ", i);
while (temp) {
printf("%d -> ", temp->vertex);
temp = temp->next;
}
printf("NULL\n");
}
}

// Function to print adjacency matrix

void printAdjMatrix(int adjMatrix[][3], int vertices) {
for (int i = 0; i < vertices; i++) {
for (int j = 0; j < vertices; j++) {
printf("%d ", adjMatrix[i][j]);
}
printf("\n");
}
}

int main() {
int vertices = 3;
struct Graph* graph = createGraph(vertices);

// Adding edges (1-2), (2-3)

addEdgeList(graph, 0, 1);
addEdgeList(graph, 1, 2);

// Print Adjacency List

printAdjList(graph);

// Adjacency Matrix representation

int adjMatrix[3][3] = { {0, 1, 0}, {1, 0, 1}, {0, 1, 0} };
 // Print Adjacency Matrix
printf("\nAdjacency Matrix:\n");
printAdjMatrix(adjMatrix, vertices);

return 0;
}

This code demonstrates how to represent a graph using both adjacency lists and an adjacency
matrix.

3.Question: Discuss applications of graphs in real life.

---

Key Terms:

Graph: A structure made up of vertices (nodes) and edges (connections).

Applications: Real-world uses where graphs are utilized to model relationships or structures.

Vertices (Nodes): Points representing entities.

Edges: Connections or relationships between the vertices.

---

Bullet Points:

Social Networks:

Application: Representing users and their relationships (friends, followers).

Explanation: Each person is a vertex, and a friendship is an edge. Graph algorithms can find the
shortest path between two users or recommend friends based on mutual connections.

Routing and Navigation (Maps):

Application: Maps (like Google Maps) use graphs to represent roads (edges) and cities
(vertices).
Explanation: Graphs are used in shortest path algorithms (like Dijkstra's Algorithm) to find the
quickest route between two places.

Web Page Linking:

Application: The World Wide Web can be viewed as a graph where web pages are vertices and
hyperlinks are edges.

Explanation: Search engines like Google use graph algorithms to rank web pages (like
PageRank) based on their link structure.

Computer Networks:

Application: Representation of network connections between computers, routers, or servers.

Explanation: Data transmission, routing, and network optimization are modeled using graphs to
determine the best path for data to travel.

Recommendation Systems:

Application: Used by e-commerce platforms like Amazon or Netflix for recommending products
or movies.

Explanation: Products or movies are nodes, and edges represent user preferences, helping
algorithms suggest items based on similar users’ behaviors.

Project Management (Dependency Graphs):

Application: Representing tasks and dependencies in project management.

Explanation: Each task is a node, and edges show the dependency between tasks. Algorithms
like Topological Sorting are used to schedule tasks optimally.

Biological Networks:

Application: Modeling relationships in biological systems like protein interaction networks or food
chains.
Explanation: In biological graphs, vertices can represent proteins or species, and edges
represent interactions or predator-prey relationships.

Supply Chain Management:

Application: Modeling the flow of goods from suppliers to consumers.

Explanation: Vertices represent entities (e.g., factories, warehouses, retailers), and edges
represent the transportation or supply routes.

---

Humanized Explanation:

Social Networks: Imagine your social media account as a vertex, and every friend or follower is
connected to you with an edge. To find a new friend or recommend one, algorithms search
through these connections.

Maps: Think of a map as a city, where each location (like a school, mall, or home) is a vertex.
Roads connecting these places are edges. Graphs help find the fastest or shortest route when
traveling.

Web Pages: When you browse the internet, each web page is a vertex. Links on pages are
edges. Graphs help search engines figure out which web pages are the most important or
relevant.

Computer Networks: Consider your home’s Wi-Fi and the internet as a network of computers.
Graphs help find the quickest path for data to travel from one computer to another, ensuring
smooth communication.

---

Summary:

Graphs are widely used in real life to model and solve problems related to connectivity,
pathfinding, recommendations, and dependency management. Whether it’s social networks,
navigation, or the web, graphs help us make better, more informed decisions in a variety of
fields.
---

Examples:

1. Social Media: On platforms like Facebook, friends are vertices, and the connections between
them are edges. Graph algorithms help suggest people you may know or friends of friends.

2. Google Maps: When you need directions, Google Maps treats locations as vertices and roads
as edges. Graph algorithms find the shortest route based on the graph’s structure.

3. Netflix Recommendations: When Netflix recommends a movie, it uses a graph of users,

movies, and their ratings to suggest titles based on your preferences and the preferences of
similar users.

---

Graphs are incredibly versatile and can be applied to a variety of real-life problems, making
them essential tools in computing, navigation, and social systems

4.Question: What is hashing? Explain any one collision resolution technique.

---

Key Terms:

Hashing: A technique used to map data (like a key) to a fixed-size table using a hash function.

Hash Function: A function that converts input (key) into a fixed-size integer, which is used as the
index in a hash table.

Hash Table: A data structure that stores key-value pairs, using the hash function to determine
the index.

Collision: A situation where two keys map to the same index in the hash table.
Collision Resolution: Techniques used to handle collisions when two keys hash to the same
index.

Open Addressing: A collision resolution technique where, if a collision occurs, the algorithm
searches for the next available slot.

Chaining: A collision resolution technique where each slot in the hash table contains a linked list
of keys that hash to the same index.

---

Bullet Points:

What is Hashing?

Hashing is a technique to store data in an efficient way using a hash function.

The hash function takes an input (key) and maps it to an index in a hash table.

The main goal of hashing is to retrieve data in constant time (O(1)).

Collision in Hashing:

Collisions happen when two different keys hash to the same index.

Collisions can slow down data retrieval, so resolving them efficiently is key to effective hashing.

Collision Resolution Techniques:

Chaining:

In chaining, each index in the hash table points to a linked list of entries that hash to the same
index.

When a collision occurs, the new element is simply added to the linked list at that index.

Pros: Easy to implement, no need to probe for empty spaces.

Cons: Extra memory for linked lists, performance depends on the load factor (number of
elements in the hash table).
Open Addressing: (We'll focus on this technique)

In open addressing, when a collision occurs, the algorithm tries to find another empty slot in the
hash table using a probing method.

Linear Probing: Start at the index of the collision and check the next slot, and so on, until an
empty slot is found.

Quadratic Probing: Instead of checking the next slot linearly, it checks at increasing intervals
(like 1, 4, 9, etc.).

Double Hashing: A second hash function is used to calculate the next index in case of a
collision.

---

Humanized Explanation:

What is Hashing?
Think of hashing like a library where each book has a unique code (like an ISBN). Instead of
searching the entire library for a book, you go directly to the section (index) based on that code.
Hashing works the same way, mapping a key to a specific index to make data retrieval super
quick.

Collisions:
But, sometimes, two books might have the same code. In the library, if two books have the
same ISBN, the librarian needs to have a way to handle that. This is where collision resolution
comes in!

Chaining vs Open Addressing:

In chaining, it’s like having a shelf (linked list) where all books with the same code are stored
together.

In open addressing, if two books land on the same shelf, the librarian looks for another free
shelf nearby to store the book.
---

Summary:

Hashing is a technique used to map data to a fixed-size table, which speeds up data retrieval.
When two keys hash to the same index, a collision occurs. Open addressing is one way to
resolve collisions by finding the next available spot for the new data.

---

Examples:

1. Library System: Imagine a library where each book’s ISBN number is hashed to a specific
shelf. If two books happen to have the same ISBN, they need to be handled carefully (perhaps
by placing them in a linked list at that shelf). This ensures that the librarian can always find a
book quickly, even if there are collisions.

2. Online Store: In an e-commerce website, product IDs are hashed to find their location in the
database. If two products share the same hash value, collision resolution techniques like open
addressing or chaining ensure that both products can be stored and retrieved without any
issues.

3. Caching Systems: In caching systems, where data is stored temporarily to speed up access,
hashing is used to map the data to specific cache slots. If two pieces of data hash to the same
cache slot, collision resolution ensures that both can coexist without affecting performance.

---

By using hashing, data can be stored and accessed quickly, and collision resolution ensures
that even when two items clash, we can still find a way to store and retrieve them efficiently.

5.Question: Compare open hashing and closed hashing.

---
Key Terms:

Open Hashing (Chaining): A collision resolution technique where each index in the hash table
contains a linked list of keys that hash to the same index.

Closed Hashing (Open Addressing): A collision resolution technique where all elements are
stored directly in the hash table. When a collision occurs, the algorithm searches for the next
available slot within the hash table.

Collision: When two keys hash to the same index in the hash table.

Hash Table: A data structure that maps keys to values using a hash function to determine the
index.

Probing: The process of searching for an open slot in closed hashing when a collision occurs.

---

Bullet Points:

Open Hashing (Chaining):

Structure: Each index in the hash table points to a linked list of elements.

Handling Collisions: When a collision occurs, the new key is added to the linked list at that
index.

Pros:

Simple to implement.

The table size does not limit the number of elements.

Can handle high load factors without significant performance degradation.

Cons:

Requires extra memory for linked lists.

Performance depends on the number of elements in the linked list at each index.
Closed Hashing (Open Addressing):

Structure: All elements are stored directly in the hash table.

Handling Collisions: If a collision occurs, the algorithm searches for the next available slot within
the hash table using probing techniques (linear probing, quadratic probing, or double hashing).

Pros:

Does not require extra memory for linked lists.

All elements are stored directly in the table.

Can be more efficient when the table is not too full.

Cons:

Performance degrades as the table becomes full.

Searching for an open slot can be slow in case of a high load factor.

Resizing the table (rehashing) is more complicated and costly.

---

Humanized Explanation:

Open Hashing (Chaining):

Imagine a library with multiple books that might end up on the same shelf (index). In open
hashing, if two books have the same ISBN, they don’t share a single spot. Instead, they’re
placed on a list on that shelf. So, every time you need to check, you simply go to the shelf and
check the list for the book you want.

Closed Hashing (Open Addressing):

Now, think of a different library where each shelf only has one book (slot). If two books have the
same ISBN, one has to look for the next available shelf (slot) to place its book. This means that
the library doesn’t have multiple shelves for the same ISBN; it just keeps looking for the next
free spot in the whole library.

---

Summary:

Open Hashing (Chaining) stores colliding elements in a linked list at each index, while Closed
Hashing (Open Addressing) stores all elements directly in the hash table and looks for the next
free spot when a collision occurs. Open hashing is more flexible, while closed hashing is more
memory efficient but can become slower with high load factors.

---

Examples:

1. Open Hashing (Chaining):

In an online address book, if two people have the same first name, their information is stored in
a linked list at the same index in the hash table. This allows multiple people with the same first
name to share the same slot without losing data.

2. Closed Hashing (Open Addressing):

In a parking lot, every car is assigned a parking spot. If two cars are assigned the same spot
(collision), the system will check other nearby spots until it finds an empty one. This is similar to
closed hashing where the next available slot is searched using probing techniques.

3. Web Caching:

When storing web pages in a cache, open hashing might store multiple pages with the same
hash value in linked lists, while closed hashing would look for an alternative slot when a hash
conflict occurs.
---

In summary, open hashing uses linked lists to handle collisions and is flexible, while closed
hashing uses probing to find available slots in the table but can become inefficient with high load
factors.

6.Question: Explain Dijkstra’s algorithm with an example.

---

Key Terms:

Dijkstra’s Algorithm: A shortest path algorithm that finds the shortest path between a source
vertex and all other vertices in a weighted graph.

Weighted Graph: A graph where each edge has a numerical value (weight) representing the
cost of traversing that edge.

Source Vertex: The starting point of the algorithm from where the shortest paths to all other
vertices are calculated.

Shortest Path: The path with the smallest total weight or cost from the source to a destination
vertex.

Visited Set: A set of vertices that have been processed and their shortest path to the source is
finalized.

Unvisited Set: A set of vertices that still need to be processed.

---

Bullet Points:

Dijkstra’s Algorithm Overview:

Dijkstra’s algorithm is used to find the shortest path from a single source vertex to all other
vertices in a graph with non-negative edge weights.
The algorithm works by iteratively selecting the unvisited vertex with the smallest known
distance, updating the distances to its neighbors, and marking it as visited.

Steps of Dijkstra’s Algorithm:

1. Initialization: Set the distance to the source vertex as 0 and the distance to all other vertices
as infinity. Mark the source vertex as unvisited.

2. Select the Vertex: Choose the unvisited vertex with the smallest tentative distance.

3. Update Distances: For each neighboring vertex of the selected vertex, calculate the tentative
distance. If this distance is smaller than the current stored distance, update it.

4. Mark as Visited: Once all neighbors are processed, mark the selected vertex as visited.

5. Repeat: Repeat the process for the next unvisited vertex with the smallest distance, until all
vertices are visited.

Key Points:

Greedy Approach: Dijkstra’s algorithm follows a greedy approach, always picking the vertex with
the smallest known distance.

Non-Negative Weights: The algorithm assumes that all edge weights are non-negative, as
negative weights can cause incorrect results.

Termination: The algorithm terminates when all vertices are visited, and the shortest path for
each vertex is determined.

---

Humanized Explanation:
Imagine you are in a city (graph) and need to travel to all the other places (vertices) starting
from your home (source vertex). You want to find the quickest routes to all destinations.

Dijkstra’s algorithm is like a smart GPS system. It starts at your home and looks at all nearby
places (neighbors). It calculates the shortest distance to each place and keeps track of which
one has the smallest distance. Then, it moves on to the next nearest place and updates the
distances until it has visited all the places in the city.

---

Summary:

Dijkstra’s algorithm is used to find the shortest path from a source vertex to all other vertices in
a weighted graph. It works by iteratively choosing the vertex with the smallest tentative distance,
updating its neighbors’ distances, and marking it as visited until all vertices are processed.

---

Example:

Consider the following graph with 5 vertices (A, B, C, D, E) and weighted edges:

A
/\
10 5
/ \
B-------C
\ /\
1 2 4
\/ \
D-------E
3

1. Initialization:

Set the distance to A as 0 (source vertex).

Set the distance to all other vertices (B, C, D, E) as infinity.

2. Step 1:

The unvisited vertex with the smallest distance is A (distance 0).

From A, the neighbors are B (10) and C (5). Update their distances:

Distance to B = 10 (A to B)

Distance to C = 5 (A to C)

3. Step 2:

The unvisited vertex with the smallest distance is C (distance 5).

From C, the neighbors are A (already visited), B (new distance 7 = 5 + 2), and E (new distance
9 = 5 + 4). Update distances:

Distance to B = 7

Distance to E = 9

4. Step 3:

The unvisited vertex with the smallest distance is B (distance 7).

From B, the neighbors are A (already visited) and D (new distance 8 = 7 + 1). Update distance:

Distance to D = 8

5. Step 4:

The unvisited vertex with the smallest distance is D (distance 8).

From D, the neighbors are B (already visited) and E (new distance 11 = 8 + 3). No update
needed for E because the current distance is smaller (9).
6. Step 5:

The unvisited vertex with the smallest distance is E (distance 9).

All neighbors are already visited, so the algorithm terminates.

Final Distances from A:

A: 0

B: 7

C: 5

D: 8

E: 9

---

Conclusion:

Dijkstra’s algorithm efficiently finds the shortest path in a weighted graph with non-negative
edge weights by continuously selecting the vertex with the smallest known distance and
updating the distances to its neighbors.

7.Question: What is a spanning tree? Differentiate between Prim's and Kruskal's algorithms.

---

Key Terms:

Spanning Tree: A subgraph of a connected graph that includes all the vertices of the graph and
is a tree (i.e., no cycles) with the minimum number of edges.
Minimum Spanning Tree (MST): A spanning tree where the sum of the edge weights is
minimized.

Prim's Algorithm: A greedy algorithm used to find the MST, which grows the MST from an
arbitrary starting vertex.

Kruskal's Algorithm: A greedy algorithm used to find the MST by selecting the edges with the
smallest weights and adding them without forming cycles.

---

Bullet Points:

What is a Spanning Tree?

A spanning tree of a graph is a subgraph that connects all the vertices with the minimum
number of edges. A spanning tree of a graph has:

All vertices of the original graph.

No cycles (must be a tree).

Exactly V-1 edges where V is the number of vertices in the graph.

Minimum Spanning Tree (MST): A spanning tree where the sum of the edge weights is
minimized.

Prim’s Algorithm:

Approach: Starts with an arbitrary vertex and grows the MST by adding the smallest edge that
connects a vertex inside the MST to a vertex outside the MST.

Steps:

1. Choose an arbitrary vertex to start.

2. Add the smallest edge from the chosen vertex to the MST.
3. Repeat by adding the smallest edge that connects a new vertex to the MST, ensuring no
cycles are formed.

Time Complexity: O(V^2) with an adjacency matrix, but can be improved to O(E log V) using a
priority queue.

Pros: Works well for dense graphs where most vertices are connected.

Cons: Requires maintaining a priority queue or edge list, which can be inefficient for sparse
graphs.

Kruskal’s Algorithm:

Approach: Sorts all the edges in the graph by their weights and adds the smallest edges to the
MST, ensuring no cycles are formed.

Steps:

1. Sort all edges by weight.

2. Add edges one by one to the MST from the sorted list.

3. Use a union-find data structure to check if adding an edge forms a cycle.

Time Complexity: O(E log E) due to edge sorting, but can be improved to O(E log V) with a
good union-find algorithm.

Pros: Works well for sparse graphs with fewer edges.

Cons: Sorting the edges can be computationally expensive, especially in dense graphs.

---
Humanized Explanation:

Spanning Tree:
Think of a spanning tree as a "shortcut map" that connects all the locations (vertices) in a city
(graph), but without unnecessary roads (edges). It’s like creating a route that connects all places
but doesn’t form any loops.

Prim’s Algorithm:
Imagine you're building a road network starting from one place. You always choose the
cheapest road (smallest edge) to add, expanding the network bit by bit until you've connected
all the places without any extra loops.

Kruskal’s Algorithm:
Instead of expanding from one place, Kruskal’s algorithm is like first looking at all the roads
(edges) in the city and sorting them by cost. Then, you pick the cheapest roads one by one,
making sure no loops are formed, until all places are connected.

---

Summary:

A spanning tree is a subgraph that connects all vertices of a graph with no cycles and exactly V-
1 edges. Prim's algorithm builds the MST by expanding from a starting vertex, while Kruskal's
algorithm adds the smallest edges in order, checking for cycles as it builds the MST.

---

Differences Between Prim’s and Kruskal’s Algorithms:

---

Example of Both Algorithms:

Consider the following weighted graph:

A --2-- B
| /
1 3
| /
 C --4-- D

Prim’s Algorithm (starting from A):

1. Start with vertex A. Add edge A-B (weight 2).

2. From A-B, the smallest edge is B-D (weight 3). Add edge B-D.

3. From A-B-D, the smallest edge is D-C (weight 4). Add edge D-C.

4. All vertices are connected with edges: A-B, B-D, D-C (total weight = 9).

Kruskal’s Algorithm:

1. Sort the edges by weight: (A-C, 1), (A-B, 2), (B-D, 3), (C-D, 4).

2. Add A-C (weight 1), A-B (weight 2), and B-D (weight 3) to the MST.

3. Adding C-D forms a cycle, so it is skipped.

4. The MST is formed with edges A-C, A-B, B-D (total weight = 6).

---

Conclusion:

Both Prim’s and Kruskal’s algorithms are greedy methods to find the Minimum Spanning Tree,
but they approach the problem in different ways: Prim’s grows the tree from a starting vertex,
while Kruskal’s adds edges based on weight, ensuring no cycles form. Prim’s is often more
suitable for dense graphs, while Kruskal’s works better for sparse ones.
8.Question: Describe the concept of transitive closure in graphs.

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Key Terms:

Transitive Closure: A concept in graph theory where a graph is transformed into a new graph
such that if there is a path from vertex A to vertex B, then there is a direct edge from A to B.

Path: A sequence of edges that connects a sequence of vertices in a graph.

Adjacency Matrix: A matrix used to represent a graph, where an element at position [i][j]
indicates if there is an edge from vertex i to vertex j.

Directed Graph (Digraph): A graph where the edges have a direction, meaning they go from one
vertex to another.

Reachability: The concept that one vertex can be reached from another vertex, either directly or
through other vertices.

---

Bullet Points:

What is Transitive Closure?

The transitive closure of a directed graph represents all possible paths between vertices. It
transforms the graph by adding a direct edge between two vertices if there exists a path (of any
length) between them.

In simple terms, it ensures that if vertex A can reach vertex B, even through multiple
intermediate vertices, there is a direct edge from A to B.

Purpose of Transitive Closure:

The transitive closure is useful to determine the reachability between any two vertices in a
graph. If there is any possible path between two vertices, the transitive closure will add a direct
edge between them.
It is used in applications like network analysis, social network connections, and database
querying (for finding indirect relationships).

How is Transitive Closure Computed?

Floyd-Warshall Algorithm is commonly used to compute the transitive closure of a graph. It

iteratively updates the adjacency matrix to reflect all indirect paths as direct edges.

Initially, the adjacency matrix indicates direct edges. The algorithm then updates the matrix by
checking if a vertex can be reached from another vertex via an intermediate vertex.

Adjacency Matrix Representation:

The transitive closure of a graph can be represented using the adjacency matrix, where:

If there is a path from vertex i to vertex j, then A[i][j] = 1 (direct or indirect).

If no path exists, then A[i][j] = 0.

---

Humanized Explanation:

Imagine you're trying to find out how all the places in a city are connected. You know some
roads directly connect the places, but there might also be indirect routes through other places.
The transitive closure helps you visualize these indirect connections by adding direct routes for
every possible indirect route. For example, if you can get from A to B, and from B to C, the
transitive closure will add a direct route from A to C.

It's like a shortcut map that shows every possible route (direct or indirect) between two places. If
you can get from A to B through several steps, the transitive closure adds a direct connection
between A and B in the new map.

---

Summary:
Transitive closure of a directed graph is a way to represent the reachability of vertices. It adds
direct edges for all pairs of vertices that are connected by a path, either directly or indirectly.
The Floyd-Warshall algorithm is commonly used to compute the transitive closure.

---

Example:

Consider the following directed graph:

A→B→C
↑ ↓
D ←───── E

Adjacency Matrix (Initial):

Here, an element 1 indicates the presence of an edge from the row vertex to the column vertex.

Transitive Closure Matrix: Using the Floyd-Warshall algorithm, the transitive closure would
update the matrix to show all reachabilities:

In the transitive closure, we now have direct connections between all pairs of vertices that were
previously reachable through a path, either directly or indirectly.

---

Conclusion:

The transitive closure of a graph is a way of adding direct edges for all possible indirect paths,
making it easier to check the reachability between any two vertices. It plays a crucial role in
various applications like network analysis, database querying, and pathfinding.

9.Question: Explain Warshall's algorithm for finding the transitive closure of a graph.

---

Key Terms:
Warshall’s Algorithm: An algorithm used to compute the transitive closure of a directed graph by
updating the adjacency matrix to reflect all indirect paths.

Transitive Closure: A graph where all indirect paths are converted into direct edges.

Adjacency Matrix: A matrix representation of a graph where each element A[i][j] indicates
whether there is an edge from vertex i to vertex j.

Reachability: The ability to reach one vertex from another, either directly or indirectly.

---

Bullet Points:

What is Warshall’s Algorithm?

Warshall’s algorithm is used to compute the transitive closure of a directed graph.

It works by iteratively updating the adjacency matrix to mark all vertices that can be reached
from each other, even if the path is indirect.

The algorithm runs in O(V^3) time, where V is the number of vertices in the graph.

Steps of Warshall’s Algorithm:

1. Initialization: Start with the adjacency matrix of the graph where each element A[i][j] = 1 if
there is a direct edge from vertex i to vertex j, and A[i][j] = 0 otherwise.

2. Iterative Process: For each vertex k, update the matrix by checking if vertex i can reach
vertex j through vertex k (i.e., A[i][k] and A[k][j] both are 1). If this is true, set A[i][j] = 1.

3. Repeat for All Vertices: Repeat the process for all vertices as possible intermediate nodes
(i.e., for each k from 1 to V, and for each pair of vertices i and j).

Key Idea:
If there is a path from i to j that goes through k, we update A[i][j] = 1 to indicate that there is a
path between i and j.

---

Humanized Explanation:

Imagine you’re trying to find out if you can travel from one city to another, either directly or
through other cities. Warshall’s algorithm helps you update a list of travel routes between cities,
making sure that if you can reach a city indirectly, you add a direct route for that pair in the list.

It's like checking a city-to-city route map and adding new shortcuts whenever you find that two
cities can be connected via an intermediate city.

---

Summary:

Warshall’s algorithm is used to compute the transitive closure of a graph by iteratively updating
the adjacency matrix to reflect all possible direct or indirect paths between vertices. It helps in
determining reachability between vertices in a graph.

---

Example:

Consider the following graph:

A→B→C
↑ ↓
D ←───── E

Adjacency Matrix (Initial):

After applying Warshall’s algorithm, the transitive closure matrix would look like this:

Now, there are direct paths between all pairs of vertices that were reachable via indirect paths.
This matrix shows the complete reachability of the graph.
---

Conclusion:

Warshall’s algorithm helps compute the transitive closure of a graph by marking all reachable
pairs of vertices, either directly or indirectly. It’s a simple yet efficient algorithm for determining
all possible connections between vertices in a graph.

---

10.Question: Discuss the shortest path problem in weighted graphs.

---

Key Terms:

Shortest Path Problem: The problem of finding the shortest path (minimum weight) between two
vertices in a graph.

Weighted Graph: A graph where edges have weights (or costs) associated with them.

Dijkstra's Algorithm: A well-known algorithm to solve the shortest path problem for graphs with
non-negative edge weights.

Bellman-Ford Algorithm: Another algorithm that can handle graphs with negative weights, but it
is slower than Dijkstra's.

Edge Weights: The numerical values associated with edges representing costs or distances.

---

Bullet Points:

What is the Shortest Path Problem?

The shortest path problem involves finding the path between two vertices (source and
destination) in a weighted graph such that the sum of the edge weights along the path is
minimized.

It can be generalized to finding the shortest paths from a single source to all other vertices
(Single-Source Shortest Path Problem) or from one vertex to another (Point-to-Point Shortest
Path).

Applications:

Navigation Systems: Finding the shortest route between two locations on a map.

Network Routing: Determining the least-cost path for data transmission between devices in a
network.

Logistics: Finding the shortest or most efficient delivery route in transportation systems.

Algorithms to Solve the Shortest Path Problem:

1. Dijkstra’s Algorithm:

Used for graphs with non-negative edge weights.

Starts from the source vertex and iteratively selects the vertex with the smallest tentative
distance, updating its neighbors’ distances.

Time complexity: O(V^2) with an adjacency matrix or O(E log V) with a priority queue.

2. Bellman-Ford Algorithm:

Can handle graphs with negative edge weights.

Iterates through all edges and updates the distances to vertices.

Time complexity: O(VE), which is slower than Dijkstra’s for graphs with many edges.

3. Floyd-Warshall Algorithm:
Finds the shortest paths between all pairs of vertices.

Time complexity: O(V^3), which makes it less efficient for large graphs.

---

Humanized Explanation:

Think of the shortest path problem like navigating through a city with streets that have different
tolls (edge weights). You want to find the least expensive route to your destination, whether
you're driving, walking, or even taking public transport.

Algorithms like Dijkstra’s help you figure out the fastest way from your starting point to anywhere
in the city (graph), and if you have negative tolls or roads that reduce your cost, Bellman-Ford
can handle that!

---

Summary:

The shortest path problem involves finding the path between two vertices in a weighted graph
such that the total edge weights are minimized. It can be solved using algorithms like Dijkstra’s
for non-negative weights, and Bellman-Ford for negative weights. These algorithms are
essential for applications like navigation and network routing.

---

Example:

Consider the following graph:

A --1-- B --2-- C
| |
4 3
| |
D --1--