COMPUTER: (Common Operating Machine Purposely Used for Technological and Educational

Research.)

Computer is an electronic device that processes, stores, and retrieves data

according to a set of instructions. It takes input, processes it, and provides
output to perform tasks like calculations, data storage, and information
management. Essentially, it's a programmable machine that follows
predefined algorithms to solve problems or complete activities.
 Input:
Computers receive information through input devices like keyboards, mice,
or sensors.
 Processing:
The central processing unit (CPU) executes instructions and performs
calculations on the input data.
 Storage:
Computers store data in memory (RAM) for quick access and in storage
devices (hard drives, SSDs) for long-term retention.
 Output:
Computers display results on monitors, print documents, or transmit data
through other output devices.
 Programmability:
Computers can be programmed to perform a wide range of tasks, from
simple calculations to complex operations.

COMPUTER COMPONENTS:
 HARDWARE:

Hardware refers to the physical components of a computer or other electronic

device that can be seen and touched.

Examples of Hardware:
 Input Devices: Keyboard, mouse, scanner, microphone, webcam.
 Output Devices: Monitor, printer, speakers.
 Internal Components: CPU (Central Processing Unit), RAM (Random Access
Memory), motherboard, hard drive, graphics card.
 Storage Devices: Hard drive, SSD (Solid State Drive), CD/DVD drive.

SOFTWARE:

Software refers to the set of instructions, data, or programs that enable a computer to perform
specific tasks.

Software essentially tells the computer what to do and how to do it.

Software is the brain of the computer, and it's what makes the hardware
useful and functional.
Examples:
o Operating System: Windows, macOS, Linux.
o Applications: Word processors, web browsers, games.
o System Software: Drivers, utilities.
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE

 Hardware and software are interdependent.

 Software needs hardware to run, and hardware needs software to be
useful.
 For instance, you need a keyboard (hardware) to type text into a word
processor (software), and you need an operating system (software) to
manage the keyboard and the word processor.

GENERATION OF COMPUTER:

The generation of computers refers to the major technological advancements and changes in
computer hardware and software over time. There are five main generations of computers, each
marked by significant innovation.

1. First Generation (1940–1956) – Vacuum Tube Technology

 Technology: Vacuum tubes

 Programming Language: Machine language (binary)
 Main Memory: Magnetic drums
 Size: Very large (room-sized), high electricity use
 Speed: Slow (milliseconds)
  Examples: ENIAC, UNIVAC
 Pros: First digital computers
 Cons: Very expensive, produced a lot of heat, prone to failure

ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer - 1945)

 What it was: The very first general-purpose electronic computer. It was
initially built for military calculations. Imagine a machine with around
17,000 vacuum tubes that filled an entire room!
 Why it was important: ENIAC showed the world the potential of
programmable digital computers. It was a huge leap forward.

Limitations

 Produced a lot of heat, leading to frequent breakdowns.

 Large and bulky, making early computers room-sized.
 Consumed a lot of power
2. Second Generation (1956–1963) – Transistor Technology

 Technology: Transistors replaced vacuum tubes

 Programming Language: Assembly language, early high-level languages (COBOL,
FORTRAN)
 Main Memory: Magnetic core memory
 Size: Smaller than first gen
 Speed: Faster (microseconds)
 Examples: IBM 1401, CDC 1604
 Pros: More reliable and energy-efficient than first gen
 Cons: Still large and expensive

Advantages Over Vacuum Tubes

Feature Vacuum Tubes Transistors

Size Large Very small
Power consumption High Low
Heat generation A lot Much less
Reliability Prone to failure Much more reliable
Speed Slower Faster
Cost Expensive Cheaper to produce

Drawbacks of Transistors (Second Generation Computers)

1. Still got hot

– Less heat than vacuum tubes, but lots of transistors still made computers warm.
2. Big in large numbers
– One transistor is small, but using thousands still made the computer large.
 3. Easily damaged
– Transistors could break if handled roughly or exposed to too much electricity.
4. Slow compared to modern tech
– Faster than vacuum tubes, but slower than later computers with microchips.
5. Hard to build
– Transistors had to be connected by hand, which took time and could cause mistakes.

3. Third Generation (1964–1971) – Integrated Circuit (IC)

 Technology: Integrated Circuits (ICs)

 Programming Language: High-level languages improved
 Main Memory: Semiconductor memory
 Size: Much smaller, more powerful
 Speed: Even faster (nanoseconds)
 Examples: IBM 360 series
 Pros: More compact, efficient, and affordable
 Cons: Still required specialized environments

A chip (also called a

microchip or integrated circuit) is a tiny piece of silicon that contains millions or even billions of
electronic components like transistors

ICs are used in almost every electronic device today – from computers and smartphones to microwaves
and TVs.

Before ICs:

 Computers used many separate parts, connected by wires.

 They were big, slow, and used a lot of power.

With ICs:

 All those parts were put into a single chip.

 Computers became smaller, faster, and more reliable.

Advantages of ICs
  Small in size
 Low cost
 High speed
 Low power consumption
 Reliable

Drawbacks of Third Generation (IC) Computers – Simple

1. Still expensive
– Cheaper than before, but still costly for many people.
2. Hard to fix
– If a chip (IC) broke, it was not easy to repair.
3. Some heat
– Less heat than before, but still needed cooling.
4. Needed trained people
– Only skilled people could use and maintain them.
5. Not super powerful
– Couldn’t do advanced things like today’s computers.

4. Fourth Generation (1971–Present) – Microprocessor

 Technology: Microprocessors (VLSI – Very Large Scale Integration)

 Programming Language: High-level, GUI-based systems
 Memory: Semiconductor memory (RAM/ROM)
 Size: Personal computers (PCs), laptops
 Speed: Faster (picoseconds)
 Examples: Intel 4004, modern PCs
 Pros: Affordable, portable, widely accessible
 Cons: Rapid obsolescence
A microprocessor is a tiny chip that acts as the brain of a computer. It does all the calculating, thinking,
and controlling inside a computer. Intel 4004 – the first microprocessor (1971)

 Processes data and instructions

 Controls all parts of the computer

 Performs arithmetic and logic tasks

Advantages (Simple)

1. Very small – Fits on a tiny chip

2. Fast – Can process millions of tasks quickly
3. Low cost – Cheap to produce
4. Low power use – Saves electricity
5. Used in many devices – Not just computers

Where Is It Used?

 Computers
 Laptops
 Smartphones
 Washing machines
 Cars

Drawbacks

1. Can overheat – Needs cooling

2. Has limits – Can only do what it’s programmed to do
3. Easily outdated – Newer, faster chips come quickly
5. Fifth Generation (Present and Beyond) – Artificial Intelligence (AI)

 Technology: AI, machine learning, quantum computing (emerging)

 Programming Language: Natural language processing, neural networks
 Memory: Advanced storage technologies (SSD, cloud)
 Size: Compact, wearable, cloud-based systems
 Speed: Extremely fast
 Examples: AI assistants (ChatGPT, Siri), self-learning systems
 Pros: Intelligent behavior, decision-making, automation
 Cons: Ethical concerns, high development cost

Artifical Intelligence:

Artificial Intelligence (AI) is a field of computer science that focuses on creating machines and
software that can do tasks that normally require human intelligence.

In simple words:

AI is when computers can "think" and make decisions like people do.

Key Abilities of AI:

AI systems can be designed to:

 Understand language (like Siri or ChatGPT)

 Recognize images (like identifying a face in a photo)
  Learn from experience (like how YouTube recommends better videos)
 Make decisions (like self-driving cars choosing when to stop or go)

Real-Life Examples of AI:

Example What AI Does

Voice assistants Understand and respond to your voice
Google Maps Finds the fastest route
Netflix Recommends movies you might like
Face ID Unlocks your phone with your face
Spam filters Keeps unwanted emails out

Everyday Examples of AI

You’re already using AI every day—even if you don’t realize it:

App/Device How AI Helps

Google Search Shows better search results

Netflix or YouTube Recommends videos for you

Siri / Alexa Answers questions, sets alarms

Face ID on phones Recognizes your face

Email Filters out spam

Google Maps Suggests faster routes

How AI "Thinks"

AI doesn’t "think" like a human with emotions. It works by:

1. Learning from Data – It studies examples (like thousands of photos or sentences).

2. Finding Patterns – It looks for what’s common or different.
3. Making Predictions or Decisions – Like guessing what’s in a picture or what word
comes next in a sentence.
Think of AI as a smart recipe:

1. Data – Like ingredients (pictures, words, numbers)

2. Algorithm – Like the cooking instructions (a step-by-step process)
3. Learning – The more it "cooks," the better it gets

For example:

 Show a computer 1,000 photos of cats.

 It learns what a cat usually looks like.
 Show it a new photo, and it can say, “That’s a cat!”

Types of AI (Simple)

Type Description Example

Narrow AI Good at ONE task Chatbots, Face filters

General AI Thinks like a human (future goal) Doesn't exist yet

Super AI Smarter than humans (sci-fi level) Still theory

Supervised vs. Unsupervised Learning:

Feature Supervised Learning Unsupervised Learning

Labeled data Yes (input + correct answer) No (just input)

Goal Predict or classify Find patterns or groups

Example Email → Spam or Not Spam Emails → Grouped by topic

INTERNET
 The Internet is a global network of interconnected computers and devices
that allows users to access and share information and devices, allowing

them to communicate and exchange data

NETWORK TYPE
 Local Area Network (LAN):
Connects devices within a relatively small area, such as a home, office, or school.
 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN):
Covers a larger area than a LAN, such as a city or a large campus. It can connect
multiple LANs together.
 Wide Area Network (WAN):
Spans a very large geographical area, potentially across countries or continents. The
internet is the most prominent example of a WAN

Uses of the Internet

E-Commerce & Online Shopping:
Amazon, Flipkart
Digital Payments & Cashless Transactions
Paytm, Google Pay
Remote Education & Online Learning:
Khan Academy, YouTube
Social Connectivity
Facebook, Instagram and LinkedIn
Streaming & Entertainment
Netflix, Spotify and YouTube
Telemedicine & Health Services:
Online consultations, fitness apps
Online Banking & Financial Services:
Internet banking enables users to transfer funds, pay bills and manage
finances without visiting a bank

World Wide Web (WWW)

The world wide web is a collection of all the web pages and web documents
that you can see on the Internet by searching their URLs (Uniform Resource
Locator) on the Internet.

For example, www.geeksforgeeks.org is the URL of the geeksforgeeks

website

Website
A website is a collection of many web pages, and web pages are digital files
that are written using HTML(HyperText Markup Language)

Types of Website
Static Website
Web pages are returned by the server with no change therefore, static
Websites are fast
Dynamic Website
Web pages are returned by the server which is processed during runtime
means they are not prebuilt web pages, but they are built during runtime
according to the user’s demand