Module-03

Lasers and Optical

fibers

Lasers: Characteristics of LASER, Interaction of radiation with matter, Expression for Energy
Density and its significance. Requisites of a Laser System. Conditions for Laser action. Principle,
Construction and Working of Carbon Dioxide Laser. Application of Lasers in Defense (Laser range
finder) and Laser Printing. Numerical, Problems.

Optical Fibers: Total Internal Reflection, Propagation mechanism, Angle of Acceptance,

Numerical Aperture, Fractional Index Change, Modes of Propagation, Number of Modes and V
Number, Types of Optical Fibers. Attenuation and Mention of Expression for Attenuation
coefficient, Attenuation Spectrum of an Optical Fiber with Optical Windows. Discussion of Block
Diagram of Point-to-Point Communication, Intensity based Fiber Optic Displacement Sensor,
Merits and Demerits, Numerical problems.

08 Hours

LASERS
​ LASER - is the acronym of Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation.
​ A laser is a device that emits light through a process of optical amplification based on
stimulated emission of electromagnetic radiation.
​ The first laser was built in 1960 by T. H. Maiman at Hughes research laboratory based
on the theoretical work by C H Townes and A L Schawlow.
​ A laser beam is highly parallel, coherent beam of light of very high intensity.
​ Production of a laser light is a particular consequence of interaction of radiation with
matter.
​ There are three possible ways through which interaction of radiation with matter can
take place and they are described as follows by considering an atom as quantum
system.
(i)​Induced Absorption
Induced absorption is the absorption of an incident photon by an atom. As a result of
which the system is elevated from a lower energy state to higher energy state, Where the
difference in energy of the two states is precisely equal to the energy of the photon.

Excited state​ E2

hν = ΔE = E2 – E1

Ground state​ E1
Atom in the ground state Atom in the excited state
Before the absorption of a photon After the absorption of a photon
Let E1 and E2 be two energy levels in energy level scheme of an atom in which E1 corresponds
to lower energy state or ground state and E2 represents higher energy state or excited state. Let a
photon of energy ΔE = E2 - E1 incident on atom. The atom absorbs it and made a transition to
the excited state. This process is called as induced absorption and is represented as
atom + photon → atom*
atom* indicates that atom is in excited state.
(ii)​Spontaneous emission
It is the emission of a photon when a system transits from a higher energy state to
lower energy state without the aid of any external agency.

Excited state​ E2
hν = ΔE = E2 – E1

Ground state​ E1
Atom emitting a photon
Atom in the excited state spontaneously by de-exciting to
before the emission of a photon ground state

Consider an atom in the excited state. When it is coming back to the lowest energy
state the atom voluntarily emits a photon of energy ΔE = E2 - E1. Since the atom emits photon
voluntarily without the aid of any external agent, it is called as spontaneous emission and this
process is represented as,
atom* → atom + photon
(iii)​Stimulated emission
It is the emission of a photon by an excited atom by the influence of another photon,
due to which the system transits from excited state to ground state. The photon thus emitted is
called as stimulated photon and it will have same phase, energy and direction of movement as
that of incident photon.
E2
Stimulating photon
hν = ΔE = E2 – E1
Stimulating photon
E1

Atom in the excited state and another Atom emitting a

photon coming near the excited atom for photon by the influence
stimulating the atom to emit a photon. of another photon.

Consider an atom in the excited state. Let a photon having an energy ΔE precisely equalto E2 -
E1, interact with the atom by passing in its vicinity. Under such stimulation, the atom emits a
photon and transits to the lower energy state. The two photons travel in exactly the same
direction and with exactly same energy. The electromagnetic waves associated with the two
photons will have identical phase and thus they are coherent. The process can berepresented as
 atom* + photon → atom + photon + photon
Einstein Coefficients
​ Einstein explored the basic mechanisms involved in the interaction between radiation
and matter.
​ Einstein coefficients are mathematical quantities which are a measure of the
probability of absorption or emission of a light by an atom or molecule.
​ The Einstein 'A' coefficient is related to the rate of spontaneous emission of light and
'B' coefficients are related to the absorption and stimulated emission of light.
Expression for energy density of radiation under equilibrium condition in terms of Einstein
coefficients
​ Consider two energy states E1 and E2 of a system of atoms such that (E2>E1).
​ N1 and N2 be the number of atoms with energy E1 and E2 per unit volume of the
system which are called as number density of atoms in the state 1 and 2 respectively.
​ Let the radiations with continuous spectrum of frequencies be incident upon the
system. Uν be the energy density of radiations of frequency 'ν'.
​ Then Uν dν will be the energy density of radiations whose frequencies lie in the range
ν and ν+dν.
Induced absorption
In this process an atom in the ground state can go to the higher energy state by
E2 − E1
absorbing a radiation of frequency 'ν' such that ν = ,
h

The number of such absorptions per unit volume is called "rate of absorption". The rate of
absorption depends upon the number density of lower energy state N1 and the energy density
Uν.
∴ Rate of absorption α N1Uν
Rate of absorption = B12N1Uν​

(1) where, B12 → Einstein coefficient of induced absorption

Spontaneous emission
In this process an atom in the higher energy state undergoes a transition to the lower
energy state voluntarily by emitting a photon.

Since it is a voluntary transition, it is independent of the energy density of any frequency in

the incident radiation. The number of such spontaneous emissions per unit time per unit
volume is called "rate of spontaneous emission" which is proportional to only the number
density in the higher energy state, i.e. N2.
∴ Rate of spontaneous emission α N2
Rate of spontaneous emission = A21N2​

(2) where, A21 → Einstein coefficient of spontaneous emission

Stimulated emission
E2 − E1
In this process the system requires an external photon of suitable frequency ν =

h
to stimulate the atom for the corresponding downward transition and thereby cause emission
of stimulated photon.

The number of stimulated emissions per unit time per unit volume is called rate of stimulated
emission.
∴ Rate of stimulated emission α N2Uν
Rate of stimulated emission = B21N2Uν​

(3) where, B21 → Einstein coefficient of stimulated emission.

At thermal equilibrium,
Rate of absorption = (Rate of spontaneous emission + Rate of stimulated emission)
B12N1Uν = A21N2 + B21N2Uν
Uν (B12N1 - B21N2) = A21N2
 Uν = ​ A21N2​
(B12N1−B21N2)

A21 ​ N2​
i.e. Uν= [ ]
B B12
21 ( N1−N2)
21

A21 ​ 1​ ​
Uν = [ → (4)

B B12𝙽1
21 ( ) −1
B21𝙽2

−(E2−E1)
By Boltzmann’s law, N2= N1e KT​ = N1 e-hν/KT

ν
i.e.,​ N1/N2 = eh /KT

⎡​ ⎤
⎢​ ⎥
→ (5)
Eqn. (4) becomes
U​ A21 ⎢​ 1
=
​ ⎥

⎥
υ​ B​ ⎢ ⎛ hυ ⎞​
⎞
⎛

⎜ kT ⎟
⎟⎥
⎢ B12 e −1
⎜
21

⎝​ ⎠
⎜ B​ ⎟

⎣⎝​ ⎠⎦
21​

⎡ ⎤ ⎥
⎛ hυ ⎞​

Uυ = ⎢ ⎥ ⎜ kT ⎟​
⎥
By Planck’s law, 8πhυ 3 ⎢ 1​ ⎥

​ ⎢
⎢
3
 → (6)

⎜​ ⎝​ ⎠ ⎟
−1 ⎥
Comparing equation (5) & (6) ⎝​ ⎠⎦
A21 B12 = B21
= 8πhν3/c3​ &​ =1​

i.e. B

B B
21​ 21
The probability of induced absorption is equal to the stimulated emission.
Therefore A12is written as A and B12, B21 written as B.

Equation (5) becomes

This is the expression for energy density of radiation in terms of Einstein coefficients.
Requisites of a Laser System

There are three important requisites of a laser system and they are as follows,
(i)​Laser cavity
A laser cavity is a closed cavity which is filled with an active medium along with two mirrors.
It provides the feedback necessary to tap certain amount of laser energy from the
activemedium. The feedback action is achieved through the mirrors attached to the cavity. The
photons under goes multiple reflections from the mirrors and during this time the photons
stimulates more and more atoms to emit photons with identical nature.
In order to avoid destructive interference of the photon of the laser beam, the distance
‘L’ between the mirrors should be such that the cavity should support an integral number of
half wave length i.e., L = n (λ/2).
(ii)​Active medium
An active medium is one which consists of atoms or molecules which are having
metastable states and there by supports for population inversion, which is necessary for laser
emission. Stimulated emission from the atoms of the active medium gives the laser light.
(iii)​Excitation source
The excitation source provides the appropriate amount of energy for pumping the
atoms of a active medium to the higher energy levels. The input energy may be in the form of
light energy. which is known as optical pumping and is made use in the construction of ruby
laser. The pumping may be achieved by electrical energy input in which is electrical
pumping. In He- Ne laser the pumping is achieved by electrical discharge.

Condition for laser action

Population inversion and metastable state
​ Population inversion is the state of a system at which the population of a particular
higher energy state is more than that of the specified lower energy state.
​ In real physical system, the population inversion conditions do not exist under normal
conditions. However, it is possible to achieve the population inversion condition in
certain systems which possess a special kind of excited states called "metastable
states".
​ If an atom is made to excite for a higher energy state, the atom returns into the ground
state within a short time not more than 10-8 second.
 ​ If the excited state is a metastable state then the atom stays for an unusually long time,
which is of the order of 10-3-10-2 second.
​ Therefore we can have more number of atoms in the excited state than the ground
state. Thus we can achieve population inversion.

Vibrational modes of CO2 molecule:

A carbn dioxide molecule has two oxygen atoms between which there is a carbon atom. It has 3
different modes of vibration.
1.​ Symmetric stretching mode : In this mode, carbon atom is stationary and the oxygen
atoms oscillate to and fro along the molecular axis. This state is referred as (100)
state.

2.​ Asymmetric stretching mode: In this mode, both the oxygen atoms moves in one
direction while the carbon atom moves in opposite direction along the molecular axis. This
state is referred as (001) state.
 3.​ Bending mode: In this mode, the carbon atom and oxygen atoms moves perpendicular to
molecular axis in the opposite direction. This state is referred to as (010)state.

CO2 LASER:
It was devised by C.K.N Patel in 1924. CO2 laser is molecular gas laser which operates in the IR
region involving a set of vibrational – rotational transitions. It is a four level laser producing
both continuous and pulsed laser.

Construction:

​ It consists of discharge tube (quartz) of diameter 2.5cm and length of 5m.

​ The tube is filled with a mixture of CO2, N2 and He gas in the ratio 1:2:3.

​ Sometimes water vapour is added because during discharge CO2 molecule breaks up into
CO and O. The water vapour additives help in deoxidizing CO to CO2.
​ Brewster window made up of flat quartz are sealed to the tube at both of its ends to give
polarized light.
​ The tube has got two parallel mirrors. One is partially silvered and the other is fully silvered
to function as laser cavity
Working:

CO2 laser Energy level diagram

​ When An electric field is applied electrons rendered free from atoms, collide with N2 &
CO2 molecules in their path towards positive electrodes due to which N2 atoms are excited
to the higher energy level v1 .
​ Likewise it happens to the CO2 molecule. This is collision of first kind

▪​ e1 + N2 🡪 e2 + N2*

▪​ e1 + CO2 🡪 e2 + Co2*

​ Where, e1 and e2 are the energies of electrons before and after collisions.

​ Let the ground state, (010) state, (020) state,(100) state and (001) are represented as
E1,E2,E3,E4 and E5 levels respectively
​ Because of matching energy levels, v = 1 state of N2 is equal to (001) state of CO2 , N2
molecule in the metastable state collide with the CO2 in the ground state and transfer of
energy takes place from N2 to CO2 . As a result of which CO2 molecule moved to (001) state
where as the N2 molecule moved to ground state. This is the collision of second kind.

▪​ N2* + CO2 🡪 N2 + CO2*

Where, CO2 and CO2* are the energies of CO2 in ground state and excited states.

​ Because of the resonant transfer of energy, the population inversion is achieved in

(001) state with respect to (100) and (020)
​ The transition from E5 to E4 levels gives wavelength of 10.6μm (in far IR region)

​ The transitions from E5 to E3 level gives wavelength of 9.6 μm (in far IR region)
​ Following these transitions the CO2 molecules in E4 and E3 collide with the ground state
CO2 molecules (because of the matching energy levels) and arrive at E2 state.
​ The molecules in the E2 state collide with He and water vapour molecules, so that
come down to the ground state.
​ The cycle of operation gives both continuous and pulsed laser.
Application of lasers

1.​ Laser in defense (Laser Range Finder)

​ A high-power pulsed laser (Nd-YAG) beam is directed towards the enemy target from the
transmitter. The beam bounces back from the surface of the target as a reflection. A part of
the reflected beam is received as a signal by the receiver. The unwanted noise signal will be
filtered by the optical filter and pure signal is amplified by the photomultiplier in the
receiver. The range finders high speed clock measures the exact time of incident and
reflection of the pulse and then convert it in to distance.
​ This will acquire only position of enemy without personal details. The laser
range-finders are best hand-held equipment for modern infantry in defence sector.
​ In recent years all military battle tankers are equipped with laser range-finder interface with
computer for exact information of enemy in a digital readout form.
​ The distance obtained from this range-finder will have less than 1% error as compare
to actual distance of enemy. This can also be used for continuous tracking and ranging
of missiles as well as aircrafts from ground or air.

2.​ Laser Printing

Laser printers were invented at XEROX in 1969 by researcher Gary Starkweather. Laser
Printers are digital printing devices that are used to create high quality text and graphics on
plain printer. A diode laser is used in the process of printing in LASER Printer.
Construction
Working:

1.​A laser beam projects an image of the page to be printed onto an electrically charged
rotating photosensitive drum coated with selenium.
2.​Photo conductivity allows charge to leak away from the areas which are exposed to light
and the area gets positively charged.
3.​Toner particles are then electrostatically picked up by the drum’s charged areas, which
have been exposed to light.
4.​The drum then prints the image onto paper by direct contact and heat, which fuses the
link to the paper.
Advantages

1.​Laser printers are generally quiet and fast.

2.​Laser printers can produce high quality output on ordinary papers.
3.​The cost per page toner cartridges is lower than other printers.
Disadvantages
1.​The initial cost of laser printers can be high.
2.​Laser printers are more expensive than dot-matrix printers and ink-jet printers.
 Optical Fibers

An optical fibre is a cylindrical wave guide made of transparent dielectric material

(glass or plastic) which guides light waves along its length by total internal reflection.

Principle

The propagation of light in an optical fibre from one end to the other end is based on
the principle of Total internal reflection (TIR). They are used in optical communication.

When a light enters one end of the fibre, it undergoes successive total internal
reflections from side walls and travels down the length of the fiber along zigzag path.
Construction
​ A practical optical fibre is cylindrical in shape and has three regions.
​ The innermost cylindrical region is the light guiding region called as core which is
usually made up of glass or plastic.
​ The outer part which is a concentric cylinder surrounding the core is called as
cladding and is also made up of similar material but of lesser refractive index.
​ The outermost region is called a Sheath or Protective buffer coating, nothing but the
plastic coating providing a physical and environmental protection for the fibre.
Number of such fibers is grouped to form a cable.

Total Internal Reflection

​ When a ray of light travels from denser to rarer medium it bends away from the normal.
​ As the angle of incidence increases in the denser medium, the angle of refraction also
increases. For a particular angle of incidence called the “critical angle” (θc), the
refracted ray grazes the surface separating the media or the angle of refraction is equal
to 90°.
​ If the angle of incidence is further increased beyond the critical angle, the light ray is
reflected back to the same medium. This is called “Total Internal Reflection”.
​ In total internal reflection, there is no loss of energy. The entire incident ray is
reflected back.
 ​ The incidence and angle of re2fract1ion, θ > θ . For the racy BO, θ is the critical angle.
OBl is the refracted ray which grazes the interface. The ray CO incident with an angle
greater than θc is totally reflected back along OCl.

From Snell's law,

n1sinθ1 = n2sinθ2
For total internal reflection,​ θ1=θc​ and θ2=90°

n1sinθc = n2​ (because sin90°=1)

In total internal reflection there is no loss or absorption of light energy. The entire energy is
returned along the reflected light. Thus is called Total internal reflection.
Propagation mechanism

​ The cladding in an optical fibre always has a lower refractive index than that of the core.

​ The light signal which enters into the core and strikes the interface of the core and
cladding with an angle greater than the critical angle will undergo total internal
reflection.
 ​ Thus the light signal undergoes multiple reflections within the core and propagates
through the fibre.

​ Since each reflection is a total internal reflection, there is no absorption of light energyat
the reflecting surface.

​ Therefore the signal sustains its strength and also confines itself completely within the
core during the propagation.

​ After series of such total internal reflection, it emerges out of the core. Thus the optical
fiber works as a waveguide. Care must be taken to avoid very sharp bends in the fiber
because at sharp bends, the light ray fails to undergo total internal reflection.

Acceptance angle and numerical aperture

n0
Consider a light ray entering into the core of an optical fiber with an angle of
incidence(θ0), such that after entering, the ray incidents on the core-cladding interface with an
angle of incidence equal to the critical angle.

​ From figure it is clear that any ray which enters into the core with an angle more than
θ0, will have to be incident at an angle less than the critical angle at the core-cladding
interface.
​ Therefore the ray does not undergo total internal reflection and the ray will be lost.
Thus for any ray to propagate through the fiber it must enter with an angle less than
θ0. This maximum angle is called as ‘Acceptance angle’ and the conical surface
described by the ray when rotated about the axis of the fiber is called ‘Acceptance
cone’.
​ Thus acceptance angle is defined as “The maximum angle that a light ray can take
relative to the axis of the fiber to propagate through the fiber ”.
​ Sine of the acceptance angle of an optical fiber is called as “Numerical aperture”.
Expression for Numerical aperture and condition for propagation

n0
 Consider a light ray entering into the core of an optical fiber with an angle of
incidence(θ0), such that after entering, the ray incidents on the core-cladding interface with an
angle of incidence equal to the critical angle. Let n0, n1 and n2 are the refractive indices of the
surrounding medium, core and cladding respectively. Now, applying Snell’s law at the point
of entry of the ray i.e., at A,

sinθ0 n1
=
sinθ1​ n0

sinθ n1
= sinθ​ (1)
0

1
0

Applying Snell’s law at B,

sin (90° −θ1 ) n2

=
sin 90°​ n1
n2 .​ (2)
⇒ cosθ1 =

n1

From expression (1)​ sinθ0 =

n 1

Substituting for cos θ1 from (2)

If n0 =1 i.e., surrounding medium if it is air

sinθ0

sinθ0

sinθ0
 n0
=
n
1
​ 1​ 2
n =
0 n

n
1
=

sinθ0 =

i.e., N.A.

Condition for propagation:

If θi is the angle of incidence of the incident ray, then the ray will be able to
propagate, if θi <θ0
 sinθi <sinθ0
⇒ if

or sinθi <

i.e., sinθi < N.A.

Fractional index change(Δ)

The ratio of the difference in refractive index of core and cladding to the refractive
i.e., Δ= n1 − n2
index of core of an optical fiber.​
n1

Relation between N.A. and Δ

N.A.= n1

Increase in the value of Δ enhances the light gathering capacity of the fiber. Δ value cannot
be increased very much because it leads to intermodal dispersion intern signal distortion.
V-​ number
The number of modes supported for propagation in the fiber is determined by a parameter
called V-number.
If the surrounding medium is air, then V-number =

Where,​ d is the core diameter

n1 and n2 are refractive indices of core and cladding respectively, λ

is the wavelength of light propagating in the fiber.

or​ V=

If the fiber is surrounded by a medium of refractive index n0, then,

V=
For V ≫1, the number of modes supported by the fiber is given by, number of modes ≅ 𝑉2
2
 Types of optical fibers
Based on the refractive index profile and mode of propagation, There are three types of
optical fibers,

1.​ Single mode fiber

2.​ Step index multimode fiber
3.​ Graded index multimode fiber
(i)​Single mode fiber

​ Single mode fibers have a core material of uniform refractive index value.
​ Cladding material also has a uniform refractive index but of lesser value than that of
core.
​ Thus its refractive index profile takes a shape of a step. The diameter of the core is
about 8-10 µm and the diameter of the cladding is about 60-70 µm.
​ Because of its narrow core, it can guide just a single mode as shown in above figure.
​ Single mode fibers are the extensively used ones ant they are less expensive. They
need LASERs as the source of light.
(ii)​Step index multimode fiber

o​ A step index multimode fiber is very much similar to the single mode fiber
except thatits core is of large diameter. A typical fiber has a core diameter 50 to
200 µm and a cladding about 100 to 250µm outer diameter.
o​ Its refractive index profile is also similar to that of a single mode fiber but with a
largerplane region for the core.
 o​ Due to the large core diameter it can transmit a number of modes of
wave propagation.
o​ The step index multimode fiber can accept either a LASER or an LED as
source oflight.
o​ It is the least expensive of all and its typical application is in data links which
has lowerbandwidth requirements.
(iii)​Graded index multimode fiber

​ It is also called GRIN..

​ The refractive index of core decreases in the radially outward direction from the axis
of the fibre and becomes equal to that of cladding at the interface but the refractive
index of the cladding remains uniform.
​ Laser or LED is used as a source of light.
​ It is the expensive of all. It is used in telephone trunk between central offices.
Signal attenuation in optical fibers
​ Attenuation is the loss of optical power suffered by the optical signal as it
propagates through a fiber also called as the fibre loss.
​ There are three mechanisms through which attenuation takes
place. Attenuation can be caused by three mechanisms.
(i)​Absorption losses

​ Absorption of photons by impurities like metal ions such as iron, chromium, cobalt
and copper in the silica glass of which the fiber is made of.
​ During signal propagation photons interact with electrons of impurity atoms and
the electrons are excited to higher energy levels.
​ Then the electrons give up their absorbed energy either in the form of heat or light
energy.
​ The re-emission of light energy will usually be in a different wavelength, hence it
is referred as loss of energy.
 ​ ​ The other impurity such as hydroxyl (OH) ions which enters into the fiber at the
time of fabrication causes significant absorption loss.
​ The absorption of photons by fiber itself assuming that there are no impurities andin-
homogeneities in it is called as intrinsic absorption.
(ii)​Scattering losses
​ Scattering of light waves occurs whenever a light wave travels through a medium
having a scattering objects whose dimensions are smaller than the wavelength of
light.
​ Similarly when a light signal travels in the fibre, the photons may be scattered due to
the sharp changes in refractive index values inside the core over distances and alsodue
to the structural impurities present in the fibre material.
​ This type of scattering is called as Rayleigh scattering. Scattering of photons also
takes place due to trapped gas bubbles which are not dissolved at the time of
manufacturing.
​ A scattered photon moves in random direction and leaves the fibre.
(iii)​Radiation losses
Radiation losses occur due to macroscopic bends and microscopic bends.
●​ Macroscopic bending: All optical fibers are having critical radius of curvature
provided by the manufacturer. If the fiber is bent below that specification of radius
of curvature, the light ray incident on the core cladding interface will not satisfy
the condition of total internal reflection. This causes loss of optical power.
●​ Microscopic bending: Microscopic bends are repetitive small scale fluctuations in
the linearity of the fibre axis. They occur due to non-uniformities in the
manufacturing and also lateral pressure built up on the fiber. They cause irregular
reflections and some of them leak through the fibre. The defect due to non
uniformity (micro-bending) can be overcome by introducing optical fiber inside a
good strengthen polyurethane jacket.
Attenuation co-efficient
​ The attenuation of a fiber optic cable is expressed in decibels.
​ The main reasons for the loss in light intensity over the length of the cable is due to
light absorption , scattering and due to bending losses.

𝑃​ 𝑑𝐵
𝑖𝑒, 𝛼 = − 10 𝑙𝑜𝑔 [​ ]

𝐿​ 𝑃𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑚
Attenuation Spectrum of an Optical Fiber with Optical Windows:

Attenuation of light signal as it propagates along a fiber is an important consideration in the design
of an optical communication system, since it plays a major role in determining the maximum
transmission distance between a transmitter and a receiver or in-line amplifier.
The longer the fiber is and the farther the light has to travel, the more the optical signal is
attenuated. Consequently, attenuation is measured and reported in decibels per kilometer (dB/Km)
also known as attenuation rate or attenuation coefficient.
Attenuation varies depending upon the fiber type and the operating wavelength.

​ Figure below shows three optical windows which offer minimum signal attenuation
and also relationship between attenuation and wavelength.

​ The first optical window is defined from 800-900nm, where the minimum signal loss
is 4dB/km. In early 1970’s this window was used for operation of optical sources and
detectors.

​ By reducing the concentration of hydroxyl ions and metallic impurities in the fiber
material, in 1980’s manufacturers were able to fabricate optical fibers with very low loss in
the 1100- 1600nm region. This spectral band is called long wavelength region.

​ The second optical window is centered at 1310nm also called O-band, which
offers 0.5dB/km.

​ The third optical window is centered at 1550nm also called C-band, which gives the loss of
0.2dB/km.

​ Hence while designing optical systems for long distance applications the 1550nm
wavelength is preferred because loss offered at this wavelength is minimum than any
other wavelength.
 Fiber optic communication:
Optical fiber communication can be used over longer-distance for data transfer at high speed.
An example for an optical fiber communication system is point to point communication
system.
Point to point optical fibre communication System

Analog​
Information​ Binary

Binary
Information​ Analog​

​ The system involves three major steps both at the transmitter end and at the receiving
end.
​ At the transmitting end the information such as voice, picture or any digital data is fedto
an electrical transmitter which converts the data into analog electrical signals.

​ These analog signals are supplied to a coder unit which converts the signals into binary
electrical signals or digital signals.
​ An optical transmitter converts this digital data into optical signals (light signals) and
supplies to an optical fiber.
​ The optical fiber carries the signal and transmits to the receiving end. At the
receivingend the light signals are converted back into binary electrical signals by an
optical receiver or photo detector.
​ This binary information is fed to a decoder to convert back into analog signals and form
analog signals we can receive the information with the help of an electrical receiver.

Optical Fiber Sensors:

Optical Fiber sensors are meant for measuring and sensing the rate of data transmission, change
in phase, intensity and wavelength and in the case of incentive conditions as noise, unstable
environment conditions, high vibration and extreme heat etc.
On the basis of operating principle, Optical Fiber sensors are classified into
1.​Intensity based Displacement Sensor.
2.​Temperature Sensor based on Phase Modulation.
 1.​ Intensity based Displacement Sensor:

Principle:
Light is sent through a transmitting fiber and is made to fall on a moving target. The reflected
light from the target is sensed by a detector. With respect to intensity of the reflected light
from the target, displacement of the target is measured.

Description:
It consists of a bundle of transmitting fibers coupled to the laser source and a bundle of
receiving fibers coupled to the detector as shown in the figure.
The axis of the transmitting fiber and the receiving fiber with respect to the moving target can be
adjusted to increase the sensitivity of the sensor.

Working:
Light from the source is transmitted through the transmitting fiber and is made to fall on the
moving target. The light reflected from the target is made to pass through the receiving fiber and
the same is detected by the detector.

Other applications
The optical fibers have some medical applications, such as in endoscopic surgery. The
endoscopic instruments like gastro scope, bronchoscope etc., are developed based on fiber optic
technology. Gastro scope is an instrument used to examine the stomach and bronchoscope is used
to study the lungs.
Advantages of optical fibers

​ Optical fibers are cheaper, small in size, light weight, mechanically strong and signal
carrying capacity is high.
​ They are immune to electromagnetic and RF interferences.

​ The optical fibers have wider bandwidth so capable of carry more channels of information
than electrical cables.
​ It is compatible with electronic systems and tapping of signal is not possible.

​ They have low loss per unit length (~2 dB/Km).

​ It does not get affected by nuclear radiations, corrosion and moisture.

​ No sparks are generated because the signal is optical signal

Limitations
​ Optical fibers undergo expansion and contraction with temperature which upset little
alignments that lead to loss in signal power.
​ Because of some accidents or when fiber bent to circles of smaller radius, signal loss takes
place or the fiber may break.
​ Joining of two strands of a fiber (i.e. splicing) needs skill full work.

​ High end maintenance is required.