MODULE 2

MEIOSIS

1
INTRODUCTION

Two types of cell division occur in organisms, namely mitosis and meiosis. During mitosis
cells make exacts copies of themselves.

Meiosis usually takes place in the reproductive organs (in animals) to produce gametes.
During this cell division, the diploid chromosome number is halved. Meiosis takes place in
two phases. (Cell division takes place twice). The resulting cells will have chromosomes that
are hybrids because genetic recombination occurs during meiosis. Meiosis is important in
sexual reproduction as it involves the combination of genetic information from both
parents. This process allows cells to have half the number of chromosomes, so two of these
cells can come back together to form a new organism with the complete number of
chromosomes. It not only helps produce gametes, it also ensures genetic variation.

OVERVIEW

This module deals with Meiosis. The module starts with a terminology list associated with the topic
Meiosis. The process of Meiosis is explained using diagrams (which the examiners normally do to set
questions on this topic in the national papers). Notes, hand-on activities, karyographs and
micrographs supported by video clips are also included.

SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES

By the end of this session, participants will be able to:

 Teach the terms associated with meiosis

 Indicate where meiosis take place in animals and plants
 Discuss and interpret the process of meiosis
 Explain the process of non-disjunction and interpret it from karyographs and other diagrams
 Explain Down syndrome

CONTENT

You will study this module through the following units:

Unit 1: What is meiosis and where does it take place?

Unit 2: What is non-disjunction and what are the consequences of this?

2
 UNIT 1: What is meiosis and where does it take place?

TERMINOLOGY:

Autosomes: Chromosomes that are not sex chromosome. There are 22 pairs of autosomes
in a diploid cell.

Bivalent A pair of homologous chromosomes physically held together by at least

one DNA crossover.

Centriole: An organelle in the cytoplasm of the cell, which gives rise to spindle fibres
during meiosis and mitosis.

Centromere: Structure that holds two chromatids together to form a chromosome.

Chiasma: Point where crossing over takes place between chromatids of the
homologous chromosome during prophase 1.

Chromatid: It is a single thread of a double stranded chromosome. Two chromatids are

joined by a centromere to form a chromosome.

Chromosome: A structure made up of two chromatids joined by a centromere that

carries the hereditary characteristics within the DNA.

Diploid number (2n): Complete chromosomal number represented in pairs, which is

characteristic of an organism.

Gametes: Haploid cells (n) which contain half the chromosome number of the diploid
generation. Egg cells and sperm cells are the gametes necessary in sexual
reproduction where the fusion of the two gametes results in a new individual.

Gene: The unit of heredity transmitted in the chromosome, which controls the
development of the characteristics.

Gonosomes: Sex chromosomes. There is one pair of sex chromosomes in a diploid cell: the
XX chromosomes in females and XY chromosomes in males.

Haploid number (n): Half the number of chromosomes present in gametes after meiosis has
occurred.

Homologous Maternal and paternal chromosomes having the same shape and size which are
chromosomes: paired but differs in genetic material.

3
 Maternal: From the mother / female parent.

Meiosis: A process of cell division whereby the chromosomal number is halved for the
production of haploid gametes (sperm cells and egg cells).

Mitosis: A process of cell division where the resulting daughter cells have the same
diploid chromosomal number as the original parent cell.

Non-disjunction: The homologous chromosomes do not separate due to failure of the

centromere to divide during meiosis I & II. The resulting gametes will have
either an extra chromosome/copy or another gamete will have one less
chromosome.

Paternal: From the father / male parent.

Somatic cells: Normal diploid body cells.

Spindle fibres: Micro-tubules that form during cell division which radiate out from the
centrosomes and draw the chromosomes to the poles.

Variation: The morphological and physiological differences that can be seen between
members of the same species.

Zygote: The resulting diploid cell after fertilization has occurred

ACTIVITY 2.1

AIM: An alternative approach to terminology

Background: Learners struggle with terminology

Method: Find the words in the wordlist:

4
5
Where does meiosis take place in animals?

Meiosis usually takes place in the reproductive organs of animals. The following diagrams illustrate
where it takes place in males and females.

In men meiosis takes place in the testis and in women in the ovary as well as the fallopian tube.

6
Where does meiosis take place in plants?

In plants meiosis takes place during the production of spores. It usually takes place in the anther and
ovule in flowering plants. The following diagram shows where meiosis takes place in plants.

7
Structure of a chromosome

It is important to know what a chromosome is and what the difference between a replicated and
unreplicated chromosome. The diagram below illustrates the structure of chromosomes. It starts at
DNA level and shows how DNA is supercoiled to form a chromosome.

8
DNA replication

Replication takes place during interphase where two copies of the chromosome is made. Each copy
is now called a chromatid which is joined by a centromere. This is illustrated by the diagram below:

Single chromosome before Double chromosome with two chromatids

replication in interphase after DNA replication

9
Chromosome number

• Every species has a specific number of chromosomes in the nucleus.

• Somatic cells (body cells) have the diploid number (2n) (equal amount of
chromosomes).
• There are two chromosomes of each kind, one from the mother and one from the
father.
• Sex cells (gametes) contain only half the number of chromosomes (n).
• When a female (n) gamete and a male gamete (n) fuse the resultant zygote is diploid
(2n).
• Human somatic cells have 46 chromosomes in the nuclei and gametes have 23
chromosomes.

The process of meiosis

Stages of meiosis

Meiosis 1

Prophase 1

1. Chromosomes shorten and become visible as two chromatids joined by a

centromere.
2. Homologous pairs of chromosomes are now visible.
3. The nuclear membrane and nucleolus disappear.
4. The spindle starts to form.
5. Chromatids from each homologous pair touch. The point where they touch
is called a chiasma.
6. DNA is crossed over (swopped) at the chiasma.

10
__________________________________________________________________

1. The spindle extends across the whole cell.

2. The homologous chromosomes line up along the equator of the
spindle in their homologous pairs.
3. One chromosome of each pair lies on either side of the equator.
Random arrangement takes place.
4. The centromere of each chromosome attaches to the spindle fibres.

___________________________________________________________________

Anaphase 1

1. Chromosomes- move to opposite sides of the cell, spindle fibers shorten.

2. Cell begins to split: a furrow forms in animal cells; a cell plate forms in
plant cells. Telophase 1

Telophase 1
1 .The nuclear membrane re-forms around the chromosomes.
2. The nucleolus reforms.
3. Each pole has half the number of chromosomes present in the
original cell.
4. The cell membrane constricts and divides the cytoplasm in half to
form two cells.

MEIOSIS II

Prophase 2

1. Centrioles move to opposite sides in an animal cell.

2. Nuclear membrane and nucleolus disintegrate.
3. Chromosomes formed with 2 chromatids.
4. At the very end of prophase, the spindle forms.

11
________________________________________________________________

Metaphase 2

1. Centromeres, which hold the chromatids together,

attach to spindle fibers.
2. Chromatids line up across the equator of the cell.

_______________________________________________________________

Anaphase 2

1. Centromeres split and chromatids move to opposite

sides of the cell
2. Cell begins to split: a furrow forms in animal cells; a cell
plate forms in plant cells.

________________________________________________________________

Telophase 2

1. The nuclear membrane re-forms around the single

stranded chromosomes.
2. The nucleolus reforms.
3. The cell splits into four haploid sister cells.

___________________________________________________________________

The difference between meiosis and mitosis:

MITOSIS MEIOSIS

Site where it occurs Somatic cells Ovaries and testis (Animals)

Ovules & anthers (Plants)

Purpose of process Growth Formation of haploid gametes

No. of daughter cells Two identical cells 4 haploid cells genetically different

12
produced

No. of divisions One nuclear division Two nuclear divisions

Activity 2.2

AIM: Creative activity to enhance the teaching of meiosis.

Background: Meiosis is an abstract process and learners need to be exposed to different methods
of learning it.

Method: follow the instructions below.

13
QUESTION 1: Puzzle Activity Materials required:

1. 2 x sheets with puzzle pieces

2. Pair of scissors
3. Glue or cello- tape
4. Pen, pencil, ruler, eraser

1.1. Cut out each puzzle piece. Build the puzzle so that each piece fits in the correct position. Stick
these pieces onto a blank folio page provided.
(1)

1.2 Provide a caption for your puzzle. (1)

1.3 Label all the phases on the puzzle. (2)

1.4.Fill in the following labels of structures/processes found in your puzzle:

 Centriole
 Spindle fibres
 Centrosome
 Homologous chromosomes
 Chiasma
 Crossing over
 Chromatid
 Daughter chromosomes
(4)

1.5. At which phase do the cells formed become haploid? (1)

1.6. Give one reason for your answer to QUESTION 1.5 (1)

1.7. From the puzzle, state how many chromosomes occur in one cell in…
(1)
1. The first stage of meiosis
(1)
2. The last stage of meiosis

14
2. The graph below shows varying amounts of DNA in the nucleus of a cell during the cell
cycle.

DNA content per nucleus

Time

2.1 Which type of cell division is illustrated in the graph above? (1)

2.2 Which phase occurs between points 1 and 2? (1)

2.3 Describe the decrease in DNA content per nucleus…

1. between points 2 and 3. (2)

2. between points 3 and 4.
(2)

3
PRACTICAL WORKSHEET 2

Practical: Observe micrographs in selected stages of meiotic cell division

Procedures:

Examine the micrographs which show the various stages of meiosis. Note the
micrographs are not in the correct sequence in which they occur when the process of
meiosis takes place.

15
 Micrograph A Micrograph B

Micrograph D Micrograph C

Observations:

1.Write down the numbers 1.1 to 1.8 and next to each, the answer that will best complete
the table below:

Micrograph Name of Phase Reason for

Identification

A 1.1 1.2

B 1.3 1.4

C 1.5 1.6

D 1.7 1.8

16
 2. Arrange the letters of the diagrams in the order that they occur during the
process of meiosis :

___________________

3. Make a fully labelled drawing of the cell shown in micrograph A

4.

State TWO places where the process will take place in:

(A) plants

____________________________________________________

(B) animals

___________________________________________________

5. How many daughter cells can be observed at the end of the process?

_______________

6. What do the cells in diagram D form?

_________________________________________________

7. What is the importance of meiosis?

________________________________________________________________________

17
 ________________________________________________________________________

Reflection on activity:

What preparation will be needed for the puzzle activity? What other methods would you
use to teach meiosis.

UNIT 2: What is non-disjunction and what are the consequences of this?

The homologous chromosomes do not separate due to failure of the centromere to divide during
meiosis I & II. This usually happens during anaphase 1 or 2. The resulting gametes will have either an
extra chromosome/copy on chromosome pair or another gamete will have one less chromosome.

The following diagram illustrates how non-disjunction takes place.

Down syndrome

The condition is named after Dr Down who described it the first time in 1866. People with Down
syndrome have 47 chromosomes instead of 46 because the 21 st set of chromosomes did not divide
properly during anaphase 1 in oogenesis. Both chromosomes of the homologous pair then end up in
one ovum (which now has 24 chromosomes). If fertilisation takes place, the resulting zygote will
have 47 instead of 46 chromosomes. This condition is called trisomy 21, because there are three
(tri) chromosomes on the 21st pair of chromosomes.

18
Karyotype is the number and visual appearance of the chromosomes in the cell nuclei of an
organism or species. It is an individual's collection of chromosomes. This is sometimes used by
examiners to ask questions about Down syndrome. The following images illustrate the differences
between normal karyotypes and the karyotype of a woman with Down syndrome.

The first 22 pairs of chromosomes are non-sex chromosomes and are called autosomes. The 23 rd pair
of chromosomes is sex chromosomes, also known as gonosomes. They are composed of one large X
and one small Y chromosome in the case of males or two large X chromosomes in the case of
females.

In the Down syndrome karyotype one can clearly see that there are three chromosomes at
position 21 instead of only two as the karyotypes of the normal male and female above
indicate.

19
 Activity 2.3

AIM: To answer exam based questions on non-disjunction

Background: Non-disjunction is asked using different kind of diagrams expecting learners to

apply their knowledge.

Method: Answer the question below:

Sometimes an error occurs in oogenesis resulting in an ovum which carries an extra

chromosome. Part of such a process is shown in the diagram below.

1.1 Name stage 1 in this diagram. (1)

1.2 Identify the error that resulted in ovum R. (1)

1.3 How many gonosomes are there in the diploid cell? (1)

20
 1.4 If ovum S is fertilised by a normal sperm:

(a) What will be the number of chromosomes in the zygote? (1)

(b) What genetic disorder will result? (1)

2. Study the diagram below and answer the questions that follow:

2.1. What is this type of diagram called?

2.2. What is represented in this diagram?

2.3. Name the syndrome that the individual is suffering from.

2.4. What error gave rise to this syndrome?

2.5. Describe how this syndrome is caused.

Reflection on activity
Which method would you use to teach non-disjunction and Down syndrome?

RESOURCE

https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology

https://www.yourgenome.org/facts/what-is-meiosis

https://www.thoughtco.com/differences-between-mitosis-and-meiosis-373390

21
MODULE SUMMARY

This topic is assessed in both Life Sciences papers and therefor it is important to note the following
subtopics:

 The differences between mitosis and meiosis are important.

 The difference between unreplicated and replicated chromosomes.
 The process of meiosis (phase 1 and 2) and the differences.
 Non-disjunction and its consequences.
 Diagrams play a very important role in this topic.

REFERENCES

 DBE Exam guidelines for learners

 GDE ATP
 2015-2019 NSC past papers
 2014-2018 national diagnostic report on learner performance
 Approved grade 12 national textbooks
 ‘Mind the Gap’

22