|| Jai Sri Gurudev |

Sri AdichunchanagiriShikshana Trust (R)

SJB INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

Study Material

Subject Name: Machine Learning

Subject Code: BCS602

By
Faculty Name: Mrs. Pavithra
Designation: Assistant Professor
Semester: VI

Department of Information Science & Engineering

Aca. Year: Even Sem /2024-25
 Machine Learning BCS602

MODULE 4
BAYESIAN LEARNING

Bayesian reasoning provides a probabilistic approach to inference. It is based on the

assumption that the quantities of interest are governed by probability distributions and that
optimal decisions can be made by reasoning about these probabilities together with observed
data

INTRODUCTION

Bayesian learning methods are relevant to study of machine learning for two different reasons.
1. First, Bayesian learning algorithms that calculate explicit probabilities for hypotheses,
such as the naive Bayes classifier, are among the most practical approaches to certain
types of learningproblems
2. The second reason is that they provide a useful perspective for understanding many
learning algorithms that do not explicitly manipulateprobabilities.

Features of Bayesian Learning Methods

 Each observed training example can incrementally decrease or increase the estimated
probability that a hypothesis is correct. This provides a more flexible approach to
learning than algorithms that completely eliminate a hypothesis if it is found to be
inconsistent with any singleexample
 Prior knowledge can be combined with observed data to determine the finalprobability
of a hypothesis. In Bayesian learning, prior knowledge is provided by asserting (1) a
prior probability for each candidate hypothesis, and (2) a probability distribution over
observed data for each possiblehypothesis.
 Bayesian methods can accommodate hypotheses that make probabilisticpredictions
 New instances can be classified by combining the predictions of multiple hypotheses,
weighted by theirprobabilities.
 Even in cases where Bayesian methods prove computationally intractable, they can
provide a standard of optimal decision making against which other practical methods
can be measured.

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 Machine Learning BCS602

Practical difficulty in applying Bayesian methods

1. One practical difficulty in applying Bayesian methods is that they typically require
initial knowledge of many probabilities. When these probabilities are not known in
advancetheyareoftenestimatedbasedonbackgroundknowledge,previouslyavailable data,
and assumptions about the form of the underlyingdistributions.
2. A second practical difficulty is the significant computational cost required todetermine
the Bayes optimal hypothesis in the general case. In certain specialized situations, this
computational cost can be significantlyreduced.

BAYES THEOREM

Bayes theorem provides a way to calculate the probability of a hypothesis based on its prior
probability, the probabilities of observing various data given the hypothesis, and the observed
data itself.
Notations
 P(h) prior probability of h, reflects any background knowledge about the chance that h
iscorrect
 P(D) prior probability of D, probability that D will beobserved
 P(D|h) probability of observing D given a world in which hholds
 P(h|D) posterior probability of h, reflects confidence that h holds after D has been
observed

Bayes theorem is the cornerstone of Bayesian learning methods because it provides a way to
calculate the posterior probability P(h|D), from the prior probability P(h), together with P(D)
and P(D|h).

 P(h|D) increases with P(h) and with P(D|h) according to Bayestheorem.

 P(h|D) decreases as P(D) increases, because the more probable it is that D will be
observed independent of h, the less evidence D provides in support ofh.

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 Machine Learning BCS602

Maximum a Posteriori (MAP) Hypothesis

 In many learning scenarios, the learner considers some set of candidate hypotheses H
and is interested in finding the most probable hypothesis h ∈ H given the observeddata
D. Any such maximally probable hypothesis is called a maximum a posteriori (MAP)
hypothesis.
 Bayestheoremtocalculatetheposteriorprobabilityofeachcandidatehypothesisish MAP is a
MAP hypothesisprovided

 P(D) can be dropped, because it is a constant independent ofh

Maximum Likelihood (ML) Hypothesis

 In some cases, it is assumed that every hypothesis in H is equally probable apriori

(P(hi) = P(hj) for all h i and h j inH).
 InthiscasethebelowequationcanbesimplifiedandneedonlyconsiderthetermP(D|h) to find
the most probablehypothesis.

P(D|h) is often called the likelihood of the data D given h, and any hypothesis that maximizes
P(D|h) is called a maximum likelihood (ML)hypothesis

Example
 Consideramedicaldiagnosisprobleminwhichtherearetwoalternativehypotheses:
(1) that the patient has particular form of cancer, and (2) that the patient does not. The
available data is from a particular laboratory test with two possible outcomes: +
(positive) and - (negative).

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 Machine Learning BCS602

 We have prior knowledge that over the entire population of people only .008 have this
disease. Furthermore, the lab test is only an imperfect indicator of thedisease.
 Thetestreturnsacorrectpositiveresultinonly98%ofthecasesinwhichthediseaseis actually
present and a correct negative result in only 97% of the cases in which the disease is
not present. In other cases, the test returns the oppositeresult.
 The above situation can be summarized by the followingprobabilities:

Suppose a new patient is observed for whom the lab test returns a positive (+) result.
Should we diagnose the patient as having cancer or not?

The exact posterior probabilities can also be determined by normalizing the above quantities
so that they sum to 1

Basic formulas for calculating probabilities are summarized in Table

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BAYES THEOREM AND CONCEPT LEARNING

What is the relationship between Bayes theorem and the problem of concept learning?

Since Bayes theorem provides a principled way to calculate the posterior probability of each
hypothesis given the training data, and can use it as the basis for a straightforward learning
algorithm that calculates the probability for each possible hypothesis, then outputs the most
probable.

Brute-Force Bayes Concept Learning

Consider the concept learning problem

 Assume the learner considers some finite hypothesis space H defined over the instance
space X, in which the task is to learn some target concept c : X →{0,1}.
 Learner is given some sequence of training examples ((x1, d1) . . . (xm, dm)) where xi is
some instance from X and where d i is the target value of xi (i.e., di =c(xi)).
 The sequence of target values are written as D = (d1 . . .dm).

Wecandesignastraightforwardconceptlearningalgorithmtooutputthemaximumaposteriori
hypothesis, based on Bayes theorem, asfollows:

BRUTE-FORCE MAP LEARNING algorithm:

1. For each hypothesis h in H, calculate the posteriorprobability

2. Output the hypothesis hMAP with the highest posteriorprobability

In order specify a learning problem for the BRUTE-FORCE MAP LEARNING algorithm we
must specify what values are to be used for P(h) and for P(D|h) ?

Let’s choose P(h) and for P(D|h) to be consistent with the following assumptions:
 The training data D is noise free (i.e., d i =c(xi))
 The target concept c is contained in the hypothesis spaceH
 Do not have a priori reason to believe that any hypothesis is more probable than any
other.

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What values should we specify for P(h)?

 Given no prior knowledge that one hypothesis is more likely than another, it is
reasonable to assign the same prior probability to every hypothesis h inH.
 Assume the target concept is contained in H and require that these prior probabilities
sum to1.

What choice shall we make for P(D|h)?

 P(D|h) is the probability of observing the target values D = (d1 . . .dm) for the fixed set
of instances (x1 . . . xm), given a world in which hypothesis hholds
 Since we assume noise-free training data, the probability of observing classification d i
given h is just 1 if di = h(xi) and 0 if di ≠ h(xi).Therefore,

GiventhesechoicesforP(h)andforP(D|h)wenowhaveafully-definedproblemfortheabove
BRUTE-FORCE MAP LEARNINGalgorithm.

Recalling Bayes theorem, we have

Consider the case where h is inconsistent with the training data D

The posterior probability of a hypothesis inconsistent with D is zero

Consider the case where h is consistent with D

Where, VSH,D is the subset of hypotheses from H that are consistent with D

To summarize, Bayes theorem implies that the posterior probability P(h|D) under our assumed
P(h) and P(D|h) is

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The Evolution of Probabilities Associated withHypotheses

 Figure (a) all hypotheses have the sameprobability.

 Figures (b) and (c), As training data accumulates, the posterior probability for
inconsistent hypotheses becomes zero while the total probability summing to 1 is
shared equally among the remaining consistenthypotheses.

MAP Hypotheses and Consistent Learners

 A learning algorithm is a consistent learner if it outputs a hypothesis that commits zero

errors over the trainingexamples.
 Every consistent learner outputs a MAP hypothesis, if we assume a uniform prior
probability distribution over H (P(h i) = P(hj) for all i, j), and deterministic, noise free
training data (P(D|h) =1 if D and h are consistent, and 0otherwise).

Example:
 FIND-S outputs a consistent hypothesis, it will output a MAP hypothesis under the
probability distributions P(h) and P(D|h) definedabove.
 Are there other probability distributions for P(h) and P(D|h) under which FIND-S
outputs MAP hypotheses?Yes.
 Because FIND-S outputs a maximally specific hypothesis from the version space, its
outputhypothesiswillbeaMAPhypothesisrelativetoanypriorprobabilitydistribution that
favours more specifichypotheses.

Note
 Bayesian framework is a way to characterize the behaviour of learningalgorithms
 By identifying probability distributions P(h) and P(D|h) under which the output is a
optimal hypothesis, implicit assumptions of the algorithm can be characterized
(Inductive Bias)
 Inductive inference is modelled by an equivalent probabilistic reasoning system based
on Bayestheorem

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MAXIMUM LIKELIHOOD AND LEAST-SQUARED ERROR HYPOTHESES

Consider the problem of learning a continuous-valued target function such as neural network
learning, linear regression, and polynomial curve fitting

A straightforward Bayesian analysis will show that under certain assumptions any learning
algorithm that minimizes the squared error between the output hypothesis predictions and the
training data will output a maximum likelihood (ML) hypothesis

 Learner L considers an instance space X and a hypothesis space H consisting of some

class of real-valued functions defined over X, i.e., (∀ h ∈ H)[ h : X → R] and training
examples of the form<x i,di>
 The problem faced by L is to learn an unknown target function f : X →R
 A set of m training examples is provided, where the target value of each example is
corrupted by random noise drawn according to a Normal probability distribution with
zero mean (di = f(x i) +ei)
 Each training example is a pair of the form (xi ,d i ) where di = f (xi ) + ei.
– Heref(xi)isthenoise-freevalueofthetargetfunctionande iisarandomvariable
representing thenoise.
– It is assumed that the values of the ei are drawn independently and that they are
distributed according to a Normal distribution with zero mean.
 The task of the learner is to output a maximum likelihood hypothesis or aMAP
hypothesis assuming all hypotheses are equally probable apriori.

Using the definition of hML we have

Assuming training examples are mutually independent given h, we can write P(D|h) as the
product of the various (d i|h)

GiventhenoiseeiobeysaNormaldistributionwithzeromeanandunknownvarianceσ2,each di must
also obey a Normal distribution around the true targetvalue f(x i). Because we are writing the
expression for P(D|h), we assume h is the correct description off.
Hence, µ = f(xi) = h(xi)

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Maximize the less complicated logarithm, which is justified because of the monotonicity of
function p

The first term in this expression is a constant independent of h, and can therefore be
discarded, yielding

Maximizing this negative quantity is equivalent to minimizing the corresponding positive

quantity

Finally, discard constants that are independent of h.

Thus, above equation shows that the maximum likelihood hypothesis h ML is the one that
minimizes the sum of the squared errors between the observed training values d i and the
hypothesis predictions h(xi)

Note:
Why is it reasonable to choose the Normal distribution to characterize noise?
 Good approximation of many types of noise in physicalsystems
 Central Limit Theorem shows that the sum of a sufficiently large number of
independent,identicallydistributedrandomvariablesitselfobeysaNormaldistribution
Only noise in the target value is considered, not in the attributes describing the instances
themselves

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MAXIMUM LIKELIHOOD HYPOTHESES FOR PREDICTING PROBABILITIES

 Consider the setting in which we wish to learn a nondeterministic(probabilistic)

function f : X → {0, 1}, which has two discrete outputvalues.
 We want a function approximator whose output is the probability that f(x) = 1. Inother
words, learn the target function f ` : X → [0, 1] such that f ` (x) = P(f(x) = 1)

How can we learn f ` using a neural network?

 Use of brute force way would be to first collect the observed frequencies of 1's and 0's
for each possible value of x and to then train the neural network to output the target
frequency for eachx.

What criterion should we optimize in order to find a maximum likelihood hypothesis for f' in
this setting?
 First obtain an expression forP(D|h)
 Assume the training data D is of the form D = {(x1, d1) . . . (xm, dm)}, where di is the
observed 0 or 1 value for f(x i).
 Both xi and d i as random variables, and assuming that each training example is drawn
independently, we can write P(D|h)as

Applying the productrule

The probability P(di|h,xi)

Re-express it in a more mathematically manipulable form, as

Equation (4) to substitute for P(di |h, xi) in Equation (5) to obtain

We write an expression for the maximum likelihood hypothesis

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The last term is a constant independent of h, so it can be dropped

It easier to work with the log of the likelihood, yielding

Equation (7) describes the quantity that must be maximized in order to obtain the maximum
likelihood hypothesis in our current problem setting

Gradient Search to Maximize Likelihood in a Neural Net

 Deriveaweight-trainingruleforneuralnetworklearningthatseekstomaximizeG(h,D) using
gradientascent
 The gradient of G(h,D) is given by the vector of partial derivatives of G(h,D) with
respect to the various network weights that define the hypothesis h represented by the
learnednetwork
 In this case, the partial derivative of G(h, D) with respect to weight wjk from input k to
unit jis

 Suppose our neural network is constructed from a single layer of sigmoid units.Then,

where xijk is the kth input to unit j for the ith training example, and d(x) is the derivative
of the sigmoid squashing function.

 Finally,substitutingthisexpressionintoEquation(1),weobtainasimpleexpressionfor the
derivatives that constitute thegradient

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Because we seek to maximize rather than minimize P(D|h), we perform gradient ascent rather
than gradient descent search. On each iteration of the search the weight vector is adjusted in
the direction of the gradient, using the weight update rule

Where, η is a small positive constant that determines the step size of the i gradient ascent search

MINIMUM DESCRIPTION LENGTH PRINCIPLE

 A Bayesian perspective on Occam’srazor

 Motivated by interpreting the definition of hMAP in the light of basic concepts from
informationtheory.

which can be equivalently expressed in terms of maximizing the log 2

or alternatively, minimizing the negative of this quantity

This equation (1) can be interpreted as a statement that short hypotheses are preferred,
assuming a particular representation scheme for encoding hypotheses and data

 -log2P(h): the description length of h under the optimal encoding for the hypothesis
space H, LCH (h) = −log2P(h), where CH is the optimal code for hypothesis spaceH.
 -log2P(D|h):thedescriptionlengthofthetrainingdataDgivenhypothesish,underthe optimal
encoding from the hypothesis space H: LCH (D|h) = −log2P(D| h) , where C D|h is the
optimal code for describing data D assuming that both the sender and receiver know
the hypothesish.
 RewriteEquation(1)toshowthathMAPisthehypothesishthatminimizesthesumgiven by the
description length of the hypothesis plus the description length of the data given
thehypothesis.

Where, CH and CD|h are the optimal encodings for H and for D given h

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The Minimum Description Length (MDL) principle recommends choosing the hypothesis that
minimizes the sum of these two description lengths of equ.

Minimum Description Length principle:

Where, codes C1 and C2 to represent the hypothesis and the data given the hypothesis

The above analysis shows that if we choose C1 to be the optimal encoding of hypotheses CH,
and if we choose C2 to be the optimal encoding CD|h, then hMDL = hMAP

Application to Decision Tree Learning

Apply the MDL principle to the problem of learning decision trees from some training data.
What should we choose for the representations C1 and C2 of hypotheses and data?
 ForC1:C1mightbesomeobviousencoding,inwhichthedescriptionlengthgrowswith the
number of nodes and with the number ofedges
 For C2: Suppose that the sequence of instances (x1 . . .xm) is already known to both the
transmitter and receiver, so that we need only transmit the classifications (f (x1) . . . f
(xm)).
 Now if the training classifications (f (x1) . . .f(xm)) are identical to the predictions ofthe
hypothesis,thenthereisnoneedtotransmitanyinformationabouttheseexamples.The
description length of the classifications given the hypothesisZERO
 If examples are misclassified by h, then for each misclassification we need to transmit
a message that identifies which example is misclassified as well as its correct
classification
 The hypothesis hMDL under the encoding C1 and C2 is just the one that minimizes the
sum of these descriptionlengths.

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NAIVE BAYES CLASSIFIER

 The naive Bayes classifier applies to learning tasks where each instance x is described
by a conjunction of attribute values and where the target function f (x) can take on any
value from some finite setV.
 A set of training examples of the target function is provided, and a new instance is
presented, described by the tuple of attribute values (a l, a2...am).
 The learner is asked to predict the target value, or classification, for this newinstance.

The Bayesian approach to classifying the new instance is to assign the most probable target
value, VMAP, given the attribute values (al, a2.. .am) that describe the instance

Use Bayes theorem to rewrite this expression as

 The naive Bayes classifier is based on the assumption that the attribute values are
conditionally independent given the target value. Means, the assumption is that given
thetargetvalueoftheinstance,theprobabilityofobservingtheconjunction(a l,a2...am), is just
the product of the probabilities for the individualattributes:

Substituting this into Equation (1),

Naive Bayes classifier:

Where, VNB denotes the target value output by the naive Bayes classifier

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An Illustrative Example
 Let us apply the naive Bayes classifier to a concept learning problem i.e., classifying
days according to whether someone will playtennis.
 Thebelowtableprovidesasetof14trainingexamplesofthetargetconceptPlayTennis, where
each day is described by the attributes Outlook, Temperature, Humidity, and Wind

Day Outlook Temperature Humidity Wind PlayTennis

D1 Sunny Hot High Weak No
D2 Sunny Hot High Strong No
D3 Overcast Hot High Weak Yes
D4 Rain Mild High Weak Yes
D5 Rain Cool Normal Weak Yes
D6 Rain Cool Normal Strong No
D7 Overcast Cool Normal Strong Yes
D8 Sunny Mild High Weak No
D9 Sunny Cool Normal Weak Yes
D10 Rain Mild Normal Weak Yes
D11 Sunny Mild Normal Strong Yes
D12 Overcast Mild High Strong Yes
D13 Overcast Hot Normal Weak Yes
D14 Rain Mild High Strong No

 Use the naive Bayes classifier and the training data from this table to classify the
following novelinstance:
< Outlook = sunny, Temperature = cool, Humidity = high, Wind = strong >

 Our task is to predict the target value (yes or no) of the target concept PlayTennisfor
this newinstance

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The probabilities of the different target values can easily be estimated based on their
frequencies over the 14 training examples
 P(P1ayTennis = yes) = 9/14 =0.64
 P(P1ayTennis = no) = 5/14 =0.36

Similarly, estimate the conditional probabilities. For example, those for Wind = strong
 P(Wind = strong | PlayTennis = yes) = 3/9 =0.33
 P(Wind = strong | PlayTennis = no) = 3/5 = 0.60

Calculate VNB according to Equation(1)

Thus, the naive Bayes classifier assigns the target value PlayTennis = no to this new
instance, based on the probability estimates learned from the training data.

By normalizing the above quantities to sum to one, calculate the conditional probability that
the target value is no, given the observed attribute values

Estimating Probabilities

 We have estimated probabilities by the fraction of times the event is observed to occur
over the total number ofopportunities.
 For example, in the above case we estimated P(Wind = strong | Play Tennis = no)
bythe fraction nc /n where, n = 5 is the total number of training examples for which
PlayTennis = no, and nc = 3 is the number of these for which Wind =strong.
 Whennc=0,thennc/nwillbezeroandthisprobabilitytermwilldominatethequantity
calculated in Equation (2) requires multiplying all the other probability terms by this
zerovalue
 ToavoidthisdifficultywecanadoptaBayesianapproachtoestimatingtheprobability, using
the m-estimate defined asfollows

m -estimate of probability:

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 p is our prior estimate of the probability we wish to determine, and m is a constant

called the equivalent sample size, which determines how heavily to weight p relative
to the observeddata
 Method for choosing p in the absence of other information is to assume uniform
priors; that is, if an attribute has k possible values we set p = 1/k.

BAYESIAN BELIEF NETWORKS

 ThenaiveBayesclassifiermakessignificantuseoftheassumptionthatthevaluesofthe
attributes a1 . . .an are conditionally independent given the target valuev.
 This assumption dramatically reduces the complexity of learning the targetfunction

A Bayesian belief network describes the probability distribution governing a set of variables
by specifying a set of conditional independence assumptions along with a set of conditional
probabilities
Bayesian belief networks allow stating conditional independence assumptions that apply to
subsets of the variables

Notation
 Consider an arbitrary set of random variables Y1 . . . Yn , where each variable Yi can
take on the set of possible valuesV(Y i).
 The joint space of the set of variables Y to be the cross product V(Y1) x V(Y2) x. . .
V(Yn).
 In other words, each item in the joint space corresponds to one of the possible
assignments of values to the tuple of variables (Y1 . . . Yn). The probability distribution
over this joint' space is called the joint probabilitydistribution.
 The joint probability distribution specifies the probability for each of the possible
variable bindings for the tuple (Y1 . . .Yn).
 A Bayesian belief network describes the joint probability distribution for a set of
variables.

Conditional Independence

Let X, Y, and Z be three discrete-valued random variables. X is conditionally independent of

Y given Z if the probability distribution governing X is independent of the value of Y given a
value for Z, that is, if

Where,

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The above expression is written in abbreviated form as

P(X | Y, Z) = P(X | Z)

Conditional independence can be extended to sets of variables. The set of variables X 1 . . . Xl

is conditionally independent of the set of variables Y1 . . . Ym given the set of variables Z1 . . .
Zn if

The naive Bayes classifier assumes that the instance attribute A1 is conditionally independent
of instance attribute A2 given the target value V. This allows the naive Bayes classifier to
calculate P(Al, A2 | V) as follows,

Representation

A Bayesian belief network represents the joint probability distribution for a set of variables.
Bayesian networks (BN) are represented by directed acyclic graphs.

The Bayesian network in above figure represents the joint probability distribution over the
boolean variables Storm, Lightning, Thunder, ForestFire, Campfire, and BusTourGroup

A Bayesian network (BN) represents the joint probability distribution by specifying a set of
conditional independence assumptions
 BN represented by a directed acyclic graph, together with sets of local conditional
probabilities
 Each variable in the joint space is represented by a node in the Bayesiannetwork
 The network arcs represent the assertion that the variable is conditionally independent
of its non-descendants in the network given its immediate predecessors in thenetwork.
 A conditional probability table (CPT) is given for each variable, describing the
probability distribution for that variable given the values of its immediatepredecessors

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The joint probability for any desired assignment of values (y1, . . . ,yn) to the tuple of network
variables (Y1 . . . Ym) can be computed by the formula

Where, Parents(Yi) denotes the set of immediate predecessors of Y i in the network.

Example:
ConsiderthenodeCampfire.ThenetworknodesandarcsrepresenttheassertionthatCampfire is
conditionally independent of its non-descendants Lightning and Thunder, given its
immediate parents Storm and BusTourGroup.

This means that once we know the value of the variables Storm and BusTourGroup, the
variables Lightning and Thunder provide no additional information about Campfire
The conditional probability table associated with the variable Campfire. The assertion is

P(Campfire = True | Storm = True, BusTourGroup = True) = 0.4

Inference

 UseaBayesiannetworktoinferthevalueofsometargetvariable(e.g.,ForestFire)given the
observed values of the othervariables.
 Inference can be straightforward if values for all of the other variables in the network
are knownexactly.
 A Bayesian network can be used to compute the probability distribution for any subset
of network variables given the values or distributions for any subset of the remaining
variables.
 An arbitrary Bayesian network is known to beNP-hard

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Learning Bayesian Belief Networks

Affective algorithms can be considered for learning Bayesian belief networks from training
data by considering several different settings for learning problem
 First,thenetworkstructuremightbegiveninadvance,oritmighthavetobeinferredfrom the
training data.
 Second, all the network variables might be directly observable in each training example,
or some might be unobservable.
 In the case where the network structure is given in advance and the variables are fully
observable in the training examples, learning the conditional probability tables is
straightforward and estimate the conditional probability tableentries
 In the case where the network structure is given but only some of the variable values
areobservableinthetrainingdata,thelearningproblemismoredifficult.Thelearning
problem can be compared to learning weights for anANN.

Gradient Ascent Training of Bayesian Network

The gradient ascent rule which maximizes P(D|h) by following the gradient of ln P(D|h) with
respecttotheparametersthatdefinetheconditionalprobabilitytablesoftheBayesiannetwork.

Let wijk denote a single entry in one of the conditional probability tables. In particular w ijk
denote the conditional probability that the network variable Y i will take on the value yi, given
that its immediate parents Ui take on the values given by uik.

The gradient of ln P(D|h) is given by the derivatives for each of the wijk.
As shown below, each of these derivatives can be calculatedas

Derive the gradient defined by the setofderivatives for all i, j, and k. Assuming the
training examples d in the data set D are drawn independently, we write this derivativeas

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We write the abbreviation Ph(D) to represent P(D|h).

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THE EM ALGORITHM

The EM algorithm can be used even for variables whose value is never directly observed,
provided the general form of the probability distribution governing these variables is known.

Estimating Means of k Gaussians

 Consider a problem in which the data D is a set of instances generated by a probability

distribution that is a mixture of k distinct Normaldistributions.

 This problem setting is illustrated in Figure for the case where k = 2 and where the
instances are the points shown along the xaxis.
 Each instance is generated using a two-stepprocess.
 First, one of the k Normal distributions is selected atrandom.
 Second, a single random instance x i is generated according to this selected
distribution.
 This process is repeated to generate a set of data points as shown in thefigure.

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 Machine Learning BCS602

 To simplify, consider the specialcase

 The selection of the single Normal distribution at each step is based onchoosing
each with uniformprobability
 Each of the k Normal distributions has the same variance σ2, knownvalue.
 The learning task is to output a hypothesis h = (μ1 , . . . ,μk) that describes the means of
each of the kdistributions.
 We would like to find a maximum likelihood hypothesis for these means; that is, a
hypothesis h that maximizes p(D|h).

In this case, the sum of squared errors is minimized by the sample mean

 Ourproblemhere,however,involvesamixtureofkdifferentNormaldistributions,and we
cannot observe which instances were generated by whichdistribution.
 Consider full description of each instance as the triple (x i, zi1,zi2),
 where xi is the observed value of the ith instanceand
 where zi1 and zi2 indicate which of the two Normal distributions was used to
generate the valuexi
 In particular, zij has the value 1 if x i was created by the jth Normal distribution and 0
otherwise.
 Here xi is the observed variable in the description of the instance, and zil and zi2 are
hiddenvariables.
 If the values of zil and zi2 were observed, we could use following Equation to solve for
the means p1 andp2
 Because they are not, we will instead use the EMalgorithm

EM algorithm

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 Machine Learning 15CS73

1 Pavithra, Dept. of ISE, SJBIT, Bengaluru

 Machine Learning 15CS73

ARTIFICIAL NEURAL NETWORKS

INTRODUCTION

Artificialneuralnetworks(ANNs)provideageneral,practicalmethodforlearningreal-valued,
discrete-valued, and vector-valued targetfunctions.

Biological Motivation

 Thestudyofartificialneuralnetworks(ANNs)hasbeeninspiredbytheobservationthat
biological learning systems are built of very complex webs of interconnectedNeurons
 Human information processing system consists of brain neuron: basic building block
cell that communicates information to and from various parts ofbody

Facts of Human Neurobiology

 Number of neurons ~ 1011

 Connection per neuron ~ 10 4 –5
 Neuron switching time ~ 0.001 second or 10-3
 Scene recognition time ~ 0.1second
 100 inference steps doesn’t seem likeenough
 Highly parallel computation based on distributedrepresentation

Properties of Neural Networks

 Many neuron-like threshold switchingunits

 Many weighted interconnections amongunits
 Highly parallel, distributedprocess
 Emphasis on tuning weightsautomatically
 Input is a high-dimensional discrete or real-valued (e.g, sensor input)

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 Machine Learning 15CS73

NEURAL NETWORK REPRESENTATIONS

 A prototypical example of ANN learning is provided by Pomerleau's systemALVINN,

which uses a learned ANN to steer an autonomous vehicle driving at normal speeds on
publichighways
 The input to the neural network is a 30x32 grid of pixel intensities obtained from a
forward-pointed camera mounted on thevehicle.
 The network output is the direction in which the vehicle issteered

Figure: Neural network learning to steer an autonomous vehicle.

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 Machine Learning 15CS73

 Figure illustrates the neural networkrepresentation.

 Thenetworkisshownontheleftsideofthefigure,withtheinputcameraimagedepicted
belowit.
 Each node (i.e., circle) in the network diagram corresponds to the output of a single
network unit, and the lines entering the node from below are itsinputs.
 There are four units that receive inputs directly from all of the 30 x 32 pixels in the
image. These are called "hidden" units because their output is available only within the
network and is not available as part of the global network output. Each of these four
hidden units computes a single real-valued output based on a weighted combination of
its 960inputs
 Thesehiddenunitoutputsarethenusedasinputstoasecondlayerof30"output"units.
 Each output unit corresponds to a particular steering direction, and the output values of
these units determine which steering direction is recommended moststrongly.
 The diagrams on the right side of the figure depict the learned weight valuesassociated
with one of the four hidden units in thisANN.
 The large matrix of black and white boxes on the lower right depicts the weights from
the 30 x 32 pixel inputs into the hidden unit. Here, a white box indicates a positive
weight, a black box a negative weight, and the size of the box indicates the weight
magnitude.
 Thesmallerrectangulardiagramdirectlyabovethelargematrixshowstheweightsfrom this
hidden unit to each of the 30 outputunits.

APPROPRIATE PROBLEMS FOR NEURAL NETWORK LEARNING

ANN learning is well-suited to problems in which the training data corresponds to noisy,
complex sensor data, such as inputs from cameras and microphones.

ANN is appropriate for problems with the following characteristics:

1. Instances are represented by many attribute-valuepairs.

2. The target function output may be discrete-valued, real-valued, or a vector of several
real- or discrete-valuedattributes.
3. The training examples may containerrors.
4. Long training times areacceptable.
5. Fast evaluation of the learned target function may berequired
6. The ability of humans to understand the learned target function is notimportant

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 Machine Learning 15CS73

PERCEPTRON

 One type of ANN system is based on a unit called a perceptron. Perceptron is a single
layer neural network.

Figure: A perceptron

 A perceptron takes a vector of real-valued inputs, calculates a linear combination of

theseinputs,thenoutputsa1iftheresultisgreaterthansomethresholdand-1otherwise.
 Given inputs x through x, the output O(x1, . . . , xn) computed by the perceptronis 

 Where, each w iis a real-valued constant, or weight, that determines the contribution of
input x ito the perceptronoutput. 
 -w0isathresholdthattheweightedcombinationofinputsw1x1+...+wnxnmustsurpass in order
for the perceptron to output a1.

Sometimes, the perceptron function is written as,

Learning a perceptron involves choosing values for the weights w 0 , . . . , wn . Therefore, the
space H of candidate hypotheses considered in perceptron learning is the set of all possible
real-valued weight vectors

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 Machine Learning 15CS73

Representational Power of Perceptrons

 The perceptron can be viewed as representing a hyperplane decision surface in the n-

dimensional space of instances (i.e., points)
 Theperceptronoutputsa1forinstanceslyingononesideofthehyperplaneandoutputs a -1 for
instances lying on the other side, as illustrated in belowfigure

Perceptrons can represent all of the primitive Boolean functions AND, OR, NAND (~ AND),
and NOR (~OR)
Some Boolean functions cannot be represented by a single perceptron, such as the XOR
function whose value is 1 if and only if x1 ≠ x2

Example: Representation of AND functions

If A=0 & B=0 → 0*0.6 + 0*0.6 = 0.

This is not greater than the threshold of 1, so the output = 0.
If A=0 & B=1 → 0*0.6 + 1*0.6 = 0.6.
This is not greater than the threshold, so the output = 0.
If A=1 & B=0 → 1*0.6 + 0*0.6 = 0.6.
This is not greater than the threshold, so the output = 0.
If A=1 & B=1 → 1*0.6 + 1*0.6 = 1.2.
This exceeds the threshold, so the output = 1.

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 Machine Learning 15CS73

Drawback of perceptron
 The perceptron rule finds a successful weight vector when the training examples are
linearly separable, it can fail to converge if the examples are not linearlyseparable

The Perceptron Training Rule

The learning problem is to determine a weight vector that causes the perceptron to produce the
correct + 1 or - 1 output for each of the given training examples.

To learn an acceptable weight vector

 Begin with random weights, then iteratively apply the perceptron to each training
example, modifying the perceptron weights whenever it misclassifies anexample.
 This process is repeated, iterating through the training examples as many times as
needed until the perceptron classifies all training examplescorrectly.
 Weights are modified at each step according to the perceptron training rule, which
revises the weight wiassociated with input xi according to therule. 

 The role of the learning rate is to moderate the degree to which weights are changed at
eachstep.Itisusuallysettosomesmallvalue(e.g.,0.1)andissometimesmadetodecay as the
number of weight-tuning iterationsincreases

Drawback:
The perceptron rule finds a successful weight vector when the training examples are linearly
separable, it can fail to converge if the examples are not linearly separable.

7 Pavithra, Dept. of ISE, SJBIT, Bengaluru