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Module_2_L4_Reasoning_Methods

The document discusses various reasoning methods including inductive, deductive, and abductive reasoning, highlighting their logical structures and applications. It also addresses common sense reasoning in AI, its challenges, and the importance of probabilistic reasoning in handling uncertainty. Additionally, it includes examples and exercises to illustrate these concepts.

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priyankabhatt0022
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4 views39 pages

Module_2_L4_Reasoning_Methods

The document discusses various reasoning methods including inductive, deductive, and abductive reasoning, highlighting their logical structures and applications. It also addresses common sense reasoning in AI, its challenges, and the importance of probabilistic reasoning in handling uncertainty. Additionally, it includes examples and exercises to illustrate these concepts.

Uploaded by

priyankabhatt0022
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Reasoning Methods (Contd..

)
Mid Term Exam (AI)
– Second Week of
March

Quiz 2 (AI) – First


week of March
• Inductive Reasoning • Deductive Reasoning

SPECIFIC GENERAL GENERAL SPECIFIC


argument conclusion argument conclusion

Inductive reasoning is a logical approach where you Deductive reasoning is a logical approach where you
progress from specific ideas to general conclusion progress from general ideas to specific conclusion

• Logically True • Logically True


• May or may not be realistically TRUE • Realistically TRUE
Deductive Reasoning
• Logically True
• Realistically TRUE

Example:

Statement 1: All mangoes are fruits [General statement]

Statement 2: All fruits have seeds [General statement]

Conclusion: Mangoes have seeds [Specific Conclusion]


Deductive Reasoning Inductive Reasoning
• Logically True • Logically True
• Realistically TRUE • May or may not be realistically TRUE

Example: Example:

Statement 1: All mangoes are fruits [General statement] Statement 1: Mango is a Fruit [Specific statement]

Statement 2: All fruits have seeds [General statement] Statement 2: The box is full of Fruits [Specific statement]

Conclusion: All fruits have seeds [Specific Conclusion] Conclusion: The box is full of Mangoes [General Conclusion]
Inductive Reasoning
• Examples:
• S1 = Rajesh loves Reading [Specific]
• S2 = Rajesh is a good student [Specific]
• Conclusion = Good students love reading [General]
Few more examples for you to solve:
1. Rusty is a shelter dog. He is happy. All shelter dogs are happy.
2. Rusty is a shelter dog. All shelter dogs are happy. Therefore, he is happy
3. My father is Filipino. Everyone from Philippines has dark hair. Therefore
my father has a dark hair
4. All dogs have ears. Golden retrievers are dogs. Therefore, they have ears
5. All athletes work out in the gym. Bolt is an athlete. Therefore Bolt works
out in the gym
6. My father is Filipino. He has dark hair. Therefore, everyone from
Philippines have dark hair.

1. I 2. D 3. D 4. D 5. D 6. I
Inductive Reasoning
Observation: A student notices that their concentration
improves after a 10-minute meditation before studying.

Pattern: This improvement is consistent over a month of daily


observation.

Theory: After researching and finding similar experiences


reported by peers, the student theorizes that short meditation Hypothesis: The student hypothesizes that meditation
sessions lead to better concentration for studying positively affects their concentration levels.
Deductive Reasoning

Theory: A teacher explains the theory that students learn Hypothesis: A student hypothesizes that if they teach a math
better when teaching a concept to someone else. formula to a classmate, both will be able to solve equations
more accurately.

Confirmation: They find that both of their success rates improve, Observation: They observe their self and other classmate's
confirming the hypothesis and supporting the initial theory. accuracy rates before and after the teaching session
• Inductive Reasoning • Deductive Reasoning

SPECIFIC GENERAL GENERAL SPECIFIC


argument conclusion argument conclusion

Inductive reasoning is a logical approach where you Deductive reasoning is a logical approach where you
progress from specific ideas to general conclusion progress from general ideas to specific conclusion

• Logically True • Logically True


• May or may not be realistically TRUE • Realistically TRUE
Bottom - up approach top-down approach
Abductive Reasoning

OBSERVATION

OBSERVATION

BEST GUESS – SPECIFIC


CONCLUSION / PREDICTION
Abductive Reasoning
Saw them on a walk
Sam and Jack are together other day
close friends
Example: I know that Sam They got into big
and Jack are close friends, fight and weren’t
speaking
though I heard they got into
a big fight and weren’t
speaking. I saw them on a
walk together the other day.
I guess they must have made
up. BEST GUESS – SPECIFIC
CONCLUSION / PREDICTION =
They must be friends again
Abductive Reasoning

My partner gets
home from work at
Example: Usually, my around 6

partner gets home from It’s now 7 o’clock


work at around 6. It’s now
7 o’clock, so she must be
stuck in bad traffic..

BEST GUESS – SPECIFIC


CONCLUSION / PREDICTION =
She must be stuck in bad traffic
1. "If all mammals have a backbone and dolphins are
mammals, then dolphins must have a backbone.“
2. "The cake recipe says to bake for 25 minutes, but it's
already burnt at 20 minutes. Perhaps my oven runs hotter
than the recipe's intended oven.“
3. "Gravity makes things fall to the ground. If I drop my pencil,
it will fall to the ground.“
4. "The patient has symptoms of fever and a sore throat. The
most common illness with these symptoms is the flu.
Therefore, the patient might have the flu.“
5. "This fossil has characteristics of both an aquatic and a land
animal. This could suggest that it's from a species that was
transitioning from water to land living."
1.D 2. A 3. D 4. A 5. A
Common Sense Reasoning

Common sense reasoning is the ability to reason about


the world based on their understanding of everyday
concepts and experiences that they have gained
throughout their lives.
Why is Common Sense Reasoning Important in AI?
Challenges of Common Sense Reasoning in AI
• Machines do not gain common sense through lived experiences
• The vastness and continual evolution of common sense knowledge
pose significant challenges.
• AI needs continuous learning to integrate new and evolving common
sense knowledge into reasoning
• Common sense knowledge is often implicit, making it difficult to
define and teach to AI.
Approaches to Common Sense Reasoning

Rule – Based System Semantic Networks Machine Learning


The AI assistant is tasked with scheduling a meeting for a user but notices that the user already has a dentist appointment
at the proposed meeting time.

Common sense reasoning:


• Understanding Time Overlaps: Recognizing that two events cannot physically occur at the same time for the user.
• Priority Inference: Inferring which types of events might be more flexible or important.
• Alternative Suggestion: Based on common sense and learned user preferences, the AI suggests rescheduling the
meeting to a free slot.
Do you think it will Rain in Bangalore today evening?
If it is raining (A), then the ground is wet (B)
If number 1 is detected (A), then you win (B)
Statement: if A is true then B is true

Think of a situation: we are not sure about whether A is true or not

we cannot express this statement, this situation is called


UNCERTAINTY
Causes of uncertainty:
• Following are some leading causes of
uncertainty to occur in the real world.
1.Information occurred from unreliable sources.
2.Experimental Errors
3.Equipment fault
4.Temperature variation
5.Climate change.
PROBABILITY

the extent to which something is likely


to happen
PROBABILISTIC
REASONING
Probabilistic reasoning is a way of knowledge
representation where we apply the concept of
probability to indicate the uncertainty in knowledge
In probabilistic reasoning, we combine
probability theory with logic to handle
the uncertainty.
PROBABILITY
the extent to which something is likely
to happen

where P(ω) is the probability of an event ω


0 ≤ P(ω) ≤ 1 P(ω) = 0, indicates total uncertainty in an event ω.
P(ω) = 1, indicates total certainty in an event ω.
0 ≤ P(ω) ≤ 1
Imagine you have a fair, six-sided die, and you
want to calculate the probability of rolling a 4?

Number of desired outcomes (rolling a 4) = 1


Total number of outcomes = 6
P(4) = 1/6 = 0.166
What is the probability of getting heads
three times in a row when flipping a coin?
• Let’s look at the possible outcomes if we flipped a coin three
times.
• Let H=heads and T=tails.

The possible outcomes are: { HHH, THH, THT, HTT, HHT, HTH,
TTH, TTT }
Each of these outcomes has a probability of ⅛.

the probability of flipping a coin three times in a row and having it land on heads all three times is ⅛
What is the probability of getting heads two
times in a row when flipping a coin three
times?
• Let’s look at the possible outcomes if we flipped a coin three
times.
• Let H=heads and T=tails.

The possible outcomes are: { HHH, THH, THT, HTT, HHT, HTH,
TTH, TTT }
Each of these outcomes has a probability of ⅛.

the probability of flipping a coin three times in a row and having it land on heads two times in a row is 3/8
What is the probability of flipping a coin
three times and getting at least one head?
7/8
5 volunteers Please
Monty Hall Problem
Let’s Play!

https://montyhall.io/

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