CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER I & II

CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION

A structure is any load bearing construction; in other words it is an organized assembly of connected parts designed
to provide mechanical resistance and stability.

Assumptions made in structural design.

a) Structures are designed by appropriately qualified and experienced personnel.
b) Adequate supervision and quality control is provided in factories, plants and site.
c) Construction is carried out by personnel with appropriate skills and experience.
d) The construction materials and products are used as specified in euro code II or in the relevant materials or
product specifications.
e) The structure will be adequately maintained.

Structural design procedure

The architect determines arrangement of elements to meet the client’s requirements. This is availed to the structural
engineer as architectural plants. The structural engineer determines the best structural system to fit the architect’s
concept.
There are two structural systems are
- framed
- framed with shear walls
After completing the structure arrangement/ structure lay out, the design process consists of the following steps.
i) Idealization of the structure into load bearing frames and elements for analysis and design.
ii) Estimation of loads based on materials and use of structure.
iii) Analysis to determine the maximum moments, axial forces, shear and torsional forces, and deflection for
design.
iv) Design of concrete sections and reinforcement areas and layout for slabs, beams, columns, walls and
foundations.
v) Production of detailed drawings and bar bending schedules.

Historical Perspective
Uganda being a former British protectorate has followed the British system of design; to 1972, the British system
was designing structures; using the elastic design/ Modular ratio method of designing.

The Elastic Design.

It is based on the assumption that the stress-strain behavior of both steel and concrete remain elastic i.e. stress is
proportional to strain.
Force
Stress =
Area
change in length
Strain =
original length
Stress
Modulus of Elasticty =
Strain
⇒ Both the concrete and steel have a constant modulus of elasticity; E s = Ec , and therefore there is a fixed ratio
E
of moduli that n = s .
Ec
It further implies that the stresses are limited to permissible values.
The code of practice in use was CP 114.

CP 114
 Multiplies a factor of a third (1 / 3) by the cube stress to obtain the permissible stress of concrete under
bending/flexure.
 If divides the yield stress by factor of 1.8 to get the permissible stress in steel.
 The permissible stress of steel was limited to 230 N / mm 2 whatever the grade of steel. This limitation aimed at
controlling the crack width since at the permissible stress of steel in tension, the surrounding concrete has cracked.

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CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER I & II

⇒ Introduction to limit state design.

In 1972, a limit state design code CP110 was introduced but it was not until 1986 that Engineers in Uganda
switched to limit state design.
In 1985. CP110 was withdrawn.
A new limit state design code BS 8110 was introduced. This has undergone a series of amendment until it was
withdrawn in 2010.
Euro code II was introduced in 2000 and has been working hand in hand with BS8110.
Euro code II applies to normal weight concrete.
The design rules of Euro code II is based only on the f ck of cylinders at 28days. Cube strength is mentioned only as
an alternative to prove compliance.

Why change to Euro code II from BS8110

 Euro code II results in more economic structures.
 Euro code II is less restrictive than British standards.
 Euro code II is extensive and comprehensive.
 The new Euro codes are claimed to be the most technically advanced codes in the world.
 Europe, all public works most follow Euro codes for structural design, implying that KYU graduates would be
able to work in Europe and probably the whole of Africa.
 Euro codes are logical and organized to avoid repetition.

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CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER I & II

CHAPTER II. PROPERTIES OF REINFORCED CONCRETE

2.0 Introduction
Reinforced concrete consists of both concrete and steel.
Reinforced concrete is a strong durable building material that can be formed into many varied shapes and ranging
from a simple rectangular column, to a slender curved dome or shell, its utility and versatility are achieved by
combining the best features of concrete and steel.
Table 2-1: properties of steel and concrete
Property concrete steel
Strength in tension Poor Very good
Strength in compression Good Very good but slender bars will buckle
Strength in shear Fair Very good
Durability Good Poor, corrodes if unprotected
Fire resistance Good Poor-suffers rapid loss of strength at
high temperature

As seen from table 2-1, concrete is poor in tension, good in compression, and fair in shear. On the other hand, steel
is very good in tension, compression and shear. Thus, when they are combined, the steel is able to provide the
tensile strength and probably some of the shear strength while the concrete, strong in compression, protects the
steel to give durability and fire resistance.
i) In beams, slabs, and stair cases, where there is tension, the concrete must be reinforced by steel.
ii) In areas where the compression forces are very high such as columns, concrete must be reinforced by steel
and the steel must be tied and surrounded by concrete in order not to buckle.
Steel is poor in durability and fire resistance while concrete is good, therefore concrete must provide cover to
protect the steel.
2.1 Composite action
The tensile strength of concrete is only about 10 per cent of the compressive strength. Because of this , nearly all
reinforced concrete structures are designed on the assumption that the concrete does not resist any tensile forces.
Reinforcement is designed to carry these tensile forces, which are transferred from concrete to steel by bond which
is achieved by;
i) Using concrete with f ck ≥ 20 N / mm 2
ii) Well compacted concrete around reinforcement bars.
iii) Ribbed and twisted bars to give an extra mechanical grip
If this bond is not adequate, the reinforcing bars will just slip within the concrete and there will not be a composite
action. Composite action is achieved when there is perfect bond such that the strain in steel equals to that in the
adjacent concrete.
The coefficients of thermal expansion for steel and for concrete are nearly the same; therefore differential
expansion does not affect bond over normal temperature ranges.
Coefficients of Thermal Expansion, α
α for steel = 10 ×10 −6 per °C
α for concrete = (7 ~ 12) × 10 −6 per °C
Figure 2-1 illustrates the behavior of a simply supported beam subject to bending and shows the position of steel
reinforcement to resist the tensile forces, while the compression forces in the top of the beam are carried by the
concrete.
Load A

Compression

Tension Strain Section A-A

Distribution
Cracking
Reinforcement A
Fig.2-1 Composite action

Since concrete is poor in tension, the bottom concrete will crack.

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CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER I & II

However, this cracking does not detract from the safety of the structure provided there is good reinforcement
bonding to ensure that the cracks are restrained from opening so that the embedded steel continues to be protected
from corrosion.

2.2 Stress-strain relations

The loads on a structure cause distortion of its members with resulting stresses and strains in the concrete and the
steel reinforcement. To carry out the analysis and design of a member it is necessary to have a knowledge of the
relationship between these stresses and strains. This knowledge is particularly important when dealing with
reinforced concrete which is a composite material; for in this case the analysis of the stresses on a cross-section of a
member must consider the equilibrium of the forces in the concrete and steel.

• Stress- Strain relationship of concrete

Concrete is a very variable material, having a wide range of strengths and stress-strain curves. A typical curve for
concrete in compression is shown in figure 2.2. As the load is applied, the ratio between the stresses and strains is
approximately linear at first and the concrete behaves almost as an elastic material with virtually a full recovery of
displacement if the load is removed. Eventually, the curve is no longer linear and the concrete behaves more and
more as a plastic material . If the load were removed during the plastic range the recovery would no longer be
complete and a permanent deformation would remain. The ultimate strain for most structural concretes tends to be
a constant value of approximately 0.0035, irrespective of the strength of the concrete. The precise shape of the
curve is very dependent on the length of time the load is applied. Figure 2.2 is typical for a short-term loading.
The stress/strain diagram for concrete subject to uniaxial compression is shown in the figure below.

c <0
simplification
fc actual
cu fc peak stress

0.4f c cl strain at the peak stress fc

Ec cu ultimate stress
Ecm
c <0
cl cu
Fig.2-2 Stress-strain diagram for uniaxial compression
ε CL = 0.0022
ε CU = 0.0035
Ecm = mean value of the secant modulus

Strength classes of concrete

The design shall be based on the strength classes of concrete which correspond to characteristic strength values
given in table 3.1 of euro code II.
Table 3.1 gives the f ck of concrete and the corresponding tensile strength.
• The quality of concrete are described by characteristic cylinder strength/ characteristic cube strength, e.g.
C30/37.
• In the U.K and consequently in Uganda, compressive stress has been measured and expressed in terms of
150mm cube crushing strength at an age of 28days.
Most other countries use 150mm diameter cylinders which are 300mm long. For normal strength concrete, the
cylinder strength is equal to 0.8 of the cube strength.
• All design calculations to Euro code II are based on the characteristic cylinder strength f ck .

Modulus of Elasticity
The modulus of elasticity depends on;
i) Strength class of concrete
ii) Properties of aggregates used
iii) The mean value of the secant modulus Ecm for a particular class is obtained from table 3.2 of the code.
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CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER I & II

Table 2.2 Values of the secant modulus of elasticity E cm (in kN/mm 2 ) (based on table 3.2 EC II)
Strength class C C12/15 C16/20 C20/25 C25/30 C30/37 C35/45 C40/50 C45/55 C50/60
E cm 26 27.5 29 30.5 32 33.5 35 36 37
The values in table 3.2 are based on the equation.
Ecm = 9.5[ f ck + 8]
1/ 3

where Ecm is in KN / mm 2
f ck is in N / mm 2 , f ck is strength at 28days
Thus Ecm is also for 28days.
The modulus of elasticity is required.
a) When investigating deflection of a structure.
b) When investigating cracking of a structure.
c) When considering both short term and long term effects of creep and shrinkage.
Poisson’s Ratio
For design purpose; the Poisson’s ratio for elastic strain is 0.2

• Stress- Strain relationship of steel

Figure 2.3 shows typical stress-strain curves for (a) hot rolled yield steel, and (b) cold-worked high yield steel.
Mild steel behaves as an elastic material, with the strain proportional to the stress up to the yield, at which point
there is a sudden increase in strain with no change in stress. After the yield point, mild steel becomes a plastic
material and the strain increases rapidly up to the ultimate value. High yield steel, which is most commonly used
for reinforcement, may behave in a similar manner or may, on the other hand, not have such a definite yield point
but may show a more gradual change from an elastic to a plastic behaviour and reduced ductility depending on the
manufacturing process. All materials have a similar slope of the elastic region with elastic modulus
E = 200kN / mm 2 approximately.

0.2% proof
Yield stress
stress
stress

stress

Strain 0.002 Strain

(a) Hot rolled steel (b) Cold worked steel
Fig.2.3 Stress-strain curves for high yield reinforcing steel
The specified strength used in design is based on either the yield stress or a specified proof stress. A 0.2 per cent
proof stress is defined in figure 2.4 by the broken line drawn parallel to the linear part of the stress-strain curve.
Removal of the load within the plastic range would result in the stress-strain diagram following a line
approximately parallel to the loading portion - see line BC in figure 2.4. The steel will be left with a permanent
strain AC, which is known as ‘slip’. If the steel is again loaded, the stress-strain diagram will follow the unloading
curve until it almost reaches the original stress at B and then it will curve in the direction of the first loading. Thus,
the proportional limit for the second loading is higher than for the initial loading. This action is referred to as ‘strain
Hardening’ or ‘work hardening’.

B
stress

Fig.2.4 Strain hardening

A C
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CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER I & II

2.3 Shrinkage and thermal movement

This is the reduction in volume as concrete hardens.
This shrinkage is liable to cause cracking of the concrete, but it also has beneficial effect of strengthening the
bond between the concrete and the steel reinforcement. Shrinkage begins to take place as soon as the concrete is
mixed.
It is caused by;
a) Initial absorption of the water by the concrete and the aggregate.
b) Evaporation of the water which rises to the concrete surface.
c) During the hydration of cement, a great deal of heat is generated and as concrete cools, the thermal
contraction results in further shrinkage.
d) The hardened concrete continuous drying resulting in further shrinkage.

How it can be controlled

Thermal shrinkage may be reduced by restricting temperature rise during hydration, which can be achieved by;
a) Use a mix design with a low cement content or suitable cement replacement.
b) Avoid rapid hardening and finely ground cement if possible.
c) Keep aggregate and mixing water cool.
d) Use steel shuttering and cool with a water spray.
e) Strike the shuttering early to allow the heat of hydration to dissipate.

A low water-cement ratio will help to reduce drying shrinkage by keeping to a minimum the volume of moisture
that can be lost.
If the change in volume of the concrete is allowed to take place freely and without restraint, there will be no stress
change within the concrete. Restraint of the shrinkage, on the other hand, will cause tensile strains and stresses. The
restraint may be caused externally by fixity with adjoining members or friction against an earth surface, and
internally by the action of the steel reinforcement. For a long wall or floor slab, the restraint from adjoining
concrete may be reduced by constructing successive bays instead of alternate bays. This allows the free end of
every bay to contract before the next bay is cast.

When tensile stresses caused by shrinkage or thermal movement exceed the strength of concrete, cracking will
occur. To control cracking, steel reinforcement must be provided close to the concrete surface.

Calculation of stresses induced by shrinkage

(a) Shrinkage restrained by the reinforcement
The shrinkage stresses caused by reinforcement in an otherwise unrestrained member may be calculated quite
simply. The member shown in figure 2.5 has a free shrinkage strain of ε cs if made of plain concrete, but this
overall movement is reduced by the inclusion of reinforcement, giving a compressive strain ε sc in the steel and
causing an effective tensile strain ε ct the concrete.
Original member -
as cast
cs
Plain concrete -
unrestrained
ct
Reinforced concrete -
unrestrained
sc
ct

Reinforced concrete -
fully restrained

Fig.2.5 Shrinkage strains

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The free shrinkage strain in concrete ε cs is given by;

ε cs = ε ct + ε sc
Where ε ct = tensile strain in concrete.
ε sc = Compressive strain in steel.
stress f
but we know, strain( ε ) = =
Young ' s Modulus E
f ct f
ε cs = ε ct + ε sc = + sc (1)
Ecm Es
where f ct is the tensile stress in concrete area Ac and f sc is the compressive stress in steel area As .
Equating forces in the concrete and steel for equilibrium gives
Ac f ct = As f sc (2)
As
therefore f ct = f sc
Ac
Substituting for f ct in equation (1)
A f f
ε cs = s sc + sc
Ac Ecm Es
 A 1
ε cs = f sc  s + 
 Ac Ecm Es 
Es
Thus if n =
Ecm
 nA 1
ε cs = f sc  s + 
 Ac Es Es 
f sc  nAs 
=  + 1
Es  Ac 
Therefore the steel stress
 ε cs E s 
f sc =   (3)
1 + nAs / Ac 

Example 2.1
Calculation of shrinkage stresses in concrete that is restrained by reinforcement only
A member contains 1.0 per cent reinforcement, and the free shrinkage strain ε cs of the concrete is 200 × 10 −6 . For
steel, Es = 200 KN / mm 2 and for concrete Ecm = 15KN / mm 2 .
Determine the stresses in steel and concrete given that the member is restrained by reinforcement only.
Solution.
As A
1% = × 100 ⇒ s = 0.01
Ac Ac
From equation (3)
ε cs E s
stress in reinforcement f sc =
1+ nAs / Ac
Es 200
where Ecs = 200 × 10 −6 , Ecm = 15 KN / mm 2 , Es = 200 KN / mm 2 and ⇒ n = =
Ecm 15
200 × 10 −6 × 200 × 103
∴ f sc =
1 + 200 / 15 × 0.01
f sc = 35.3 N / mm 2 ( compression)

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CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER I & II

As
stress in reinforcement f ct = f sc
Ac
= 0.01 × 35.3
= 0.35 N / mm 2 ( tension)
Note: The stresses produced in members free from external restraint are generally small as example 2.1, and can be
easily withstood both by the steel and the concrete.

(b) Shrinkage fully restrained

If the member is fully restrained, then the steel cannot be in compression since ε sc = 0 and hence f sc = 0 (figure
2.5). In this case the tensile strain induced in the concrete ε ct must be equal to the free shrinkage strain ε cs , and the
corresponding stress will probably be high enough to cause cracking in immature concrete.

Example 2.2
Calculation of fully restrained shrinkage stresses
If the member in example 2.1 above was fully restrained, determine the tensile stress in concrete.

Solution.
If the member in example 2.1 was fully restrained, the stress in the concrete would be given by
f ct = ε ct Ecm
where
ε ct = ε cs = 200 × 10 −6
then
f ct = 200 × 10 −6 × 15 × 103
= 3.0 N / mm 2

Shrinkage of concrete depends on;

a) Ambient humidity.
b) Dimensions of the elements.
c) Compressive of concrete.
Table 2-3 (Table 3.4 of euro code II) gives the final shrinkage strain of a normal weight concrete subject to a
compressive stress not exceeding 0.45 f ck at the time of first loading.
i) For values in table 3.4 variation in temperature between − 20°C and + 40°C are acceptable.
ii) Variations in humidity between relative humidity (RH 20% − 100%) are acceptable.
iii) Linear interpolation between the values in the table are acceptable.
Table 2.3- Final shrinkage strain ε cs of normal weight concrete (Table 3.4 of euro code II)
Relative humidity Notional size 2 Ac / u (mm)
Location of the member
(%) ≤ 150 600
Inside 50 -0.60 -0.50
Outside 80 -0.33 -0.28
where Ac cross-sectional area of concrete
u perimeter of that area

2.4 Creep φ
Creep is the continuous deformation of a member under sustained load. It is a phenomenon associated with many
materials, but it is particularly evident with concrete. It depends on;
i) The aggregates and the mix design (Composition of concrete).
ii) Ambient humidity
iii) Member cross-section.
iv) Age at first loading.
v) Duration of loading.
vi) Magnitude of loading.
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CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER I & II

The Characteristic of Creep are

• The final deformation of the member can be three to four times the short-term elastic deformation.
• The deformation is roughly proportional to the intensity of loading and to the inverse of the concrete
strength.
• If the load is removed, only the instantaneous elastic deformation will recover; the plastic deformation will
not.
• There is a redistribution of the load between the concrete and any steel present.
The redistribution of load is caused by the changes in compressive strains being transferred to the
reinforcing steel. Thus the compressive stresses in the steel are increased so that the steel takes a larger
proportion of the load.
The effects of creep are particularly important in beams, where the increased deflections may cause;
a) Opening of cracks.
b) Damage to finishes.
c) Non-alignment of mechanical equipment.
Redistribution of stress between concrete and steel occurs primarily in the uncracked compressive areas and has
little effect on the tension reinforcement other than reducing shrinkage stresses in some instances. The provision of
reinforcement in the compression zone of a flexural member, however, often helps to restrain the deflections due to
creep.

Values in table 2-4 (Table 3.3 of euro code II) can be considered as the final creep coefficient φ (∞, t o ) of a normal
weight concrete subjected to a compressive stress not exceeding 0.45 f ck .

Table 2.4- Final creep coefficient φ (∞, t o ) of normal weight concrete

Age at Notional size 2 Ac / u (in mm)

loading 50 150 600 50 150 600
to (days) Dry atmospheric conditions (inside) Humid atmospheric conditions (outside)
(RH=50%) (RH=80%)
1 5.5 4.6 3.7 3.6 3.2 2.9
7 3.9 3.1 2.6 2.6 2.3 2.0
28 3.0 2.5 2.0 1.9 1.7 1.5
90 2.4 2.0 1.6 1.5 1.4 1.2
365 1.8 1.5 1.2 1.1 1.0 1.0

Linear interpolation between the values in table is permitted.

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CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER III

CHAPTER III. LIMIT STATE DESIGN

3.0 Introduction
Limit state design of an engineering structure must ensure that
(1) under the worst loadings the structure is safe
(2) during normal working conditions the deformation of the members does not detract from the appearance,
durability or performance of the structure.
Three methods have been developed for design of structures.

a) The permissible stress method.

The ultimate strengths of the materials are divided by a factor of safety to provide permissible design stresses
which are usually within the elastic range (It can also be called Elastic design method or the modular ratio
method).
Limitation;
i) It is not really applicable to a semi-plastic material such as concrete since it is based on an elastic stress
distribution.
ii) It is not suitable when displacement are not proportional to the loads such as in slender columns.

b) The Load factor Method.

The working loads are multiplied by a factor of safety.
Limitations;
i) It does not apply a factor of safety to material stresses. Therefore it does not consider variability of
materials.
ii) It cannot be used to calculate the deflection and cracking at service loads.
(In the load factor method the ultimate strength of the materials should be used in the calculations. As this method
does not apply factors of safety to the material stresses, it cannot directly take account of the variability of the
materials, and also it cannot be used to calculate the deflections or cracking at working loads. Again, this is a
design method that has now been effectively superseded by modern limit state design methods.)

c) Limit State Method

(The limit state method of design, now widely adopted across Europe and many other parts of the world,
overcomes many of the disadvantages of the previous two methods.)
It multiplies the service loads by partial factor of safety and also divides the materials’ ultimate strengths by
further partial factors of safety.

3.1 Limit states

A limit state is a situation beyond which the structure becomes unfit for its intended use.
The purpose of design is to achieve acceptable probabilities that a structure will not become unfit for its intended
use – that is, that it will not reach a limit state. Thus, any way in which a structure may cease to be fit for use will
constitute a limit state and the design aim is to avoid any condition being reached during the expected life of the
structure.
There are two limit states.
i) The ultimate limit state.
ii) The serviceability limit state.

(a) The Ultimate Limit State.

(This requires that the structure must be able to withstand, with an adequate factor of safety against collapse, the
loads for which it is designed to ensure the safety of the building occupants and/or the safety of the structure itself.
The possibility of buckling or overturning must also be taken into account, as must the possibility of accidental
damage as caused, for example, by an internal explosion.)
The structure or its elements should not collapse, overturn or buckle, or become unfit for use due to accidental
damage.
The Ultimate Limit State considers;
i) Robustness.
ii) Stability.
iii) Strength.

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CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER III

i) Robustness
To be robust means that the layout of the structure should be such that damage to a small area or failure of a single
element will not lead to progressive collapse.
To achieve robustness;
i) The structure must be able to resist a minimum horizontal load.
ii) The elements of the structure must be provided with ties.

Minimum Horizontal Load

(Clause 2.5.1.3) and figure 3.1
The minimum horizontal load is given by
a) The design horizontal load assumed to act at any floor level should not be less than H min .
Horizontal loads are as a result of wind, earthquake and traffic where H min is given by
H min = Viνα n
where Vi = total design vertical load above the level considered.
ν = notational (assumed) out of plumbed angle in radians given by
1 1
ν= ≥
(100 L ) 200
where L is the overall height of the structure in meters.
α n is an allowance for causes where n vertically continuous elements act together.
1 + 1/ n
αn =
2
b) In a braced structure, the horizontal elements connecting the vertical elements to the bracing structure should be
designed to carry an additional horizontal load H fd
v
H fd = ( N ba + N bc )
2
where N ba = design vertical load in the vertical elements above the horizontal member considered.
N bc = design vertical load in the vertical elements below the horizontal member considered.
Details of N ba and N bc are given in figure 2.1 of the code.
Vc1 Vc2 Vcn Vc1 Vc2 Vcn
a) c b) c) c
Hc Hc
Vb1 Vbn Vb1 Vb2 Vbn
b Nbc lcol b
Hb H fd Hb
Va1 Van Va1 Va2 Van
l floor a l floor a
v Ha v/2 Nba lcol Ha
v v v

H fd = ( Nbc + Nba ) v/2 H j as in fig. a)

n
H j = Vji v
Fig.3.1 Application of the effective geometrical imperfections

Design of Ties
• Detailed design information for ties is not given in Euro code II.
• NAD-National Application Document recommends that the design method for BS8110 should be used.
• The design of ties is given in clause 3.12.3 of BS8110.

The general stability and robustness of a building structure can be increased by providing reinforcement acting as
ties. These ties should act both vertically between roof and foundations, and horizontally around and across each
floor (figure 3.2), and all external vertical load-bearing members should be anchored to the floors and beams.
The types of ties are;
 Vertical ties
 Horizontal ties

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Fig.3.2 Tie forces

Vertical ties
Vertical ties are not generally necessary in structures of less than five storeys but in higher buildings should be
provided by reinforcement, effectively continuous from roof to foundation by means of proper laps, running
through all vertical load-bearing members. This steel should be capable of resisting a tensile force equal to the
maximum design ultimate load carried by the column or wall from any one storey or the roof.

Horizontal ties
Horizontal ties should be provided for all buildings, irrespective of height, in three ways:
1. Peripheral ties.
2. Internal ties.
3. Column and Wall ties.

a) Peripheral ties.
• Peripheral tie must be provided by reinforcement at each floor or roof level.
• Peripheral tie must be continuous.
• This reinforcement must lie within 1.2m from the edge of building or within the perimeter wall.
• It should be capable of resisting a force of at least Ft .
Ft = (20 + 4no ) or 60 KN whichever is less.
no = number of storeys in structure.
b) Internal Ties
• Internal ties should be provided at each floor in two perpendicular directions.
• They should be continuous throughout their length.
• They should be anchored at each end, either to the peripheral tie or to the continuous column or wall ties.
• They may be located as follows;
a) Spread evenly in slabs
b) Grouped in beams
c) Grouped in walls. Where walls are used, the tie reinforcement must be within 0.5m of the top or bottom of
the floor slab.
Internal ties should be able to resist a tensile force T.
 F (G + Qk )  Lr
T > t k  or 1.0 Ft whichever is greater.
 7.5  5
where (Gk + Qk ) = the characteristic load per m 2 of the floor considered.
Lr = the greatest horizontal distance in the direction of the tie between the centres of vertical load-
bearing members.

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CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER III

If the ties are grouped in walls or beams, their maximum spacing should be limited to 1.5 Lr .
Spacing ≥ 1.5 Lr

c) Column and Wall Ties

• Column and Wall Ties must be able to resist a force of 3% of the total vertical ultimate load carried by columns
or walls.
 Ls 
• The resistance provided must not be less than the smaller of 2 Ft or   Ft kN where Ls is the floor to
 2.5 
ceiling height in members.
• Wall ties are assessed on the basis of the above forces acting per metre length of the wall.
• Column ties are concentrated within 1m of either side of the column center line.

Example 3.1 Stability ties

Calculate the stability ties required in an eight-storey building of plan area shown in figure 3.3:
Clear storey height under beams = 2.9m
Floor to ceiling height (l s ) = 3.4m
Characteristic permanent load ( g k ) = 6 KN / m 2
Characteristic variable load (q k ) = 3KN / m 2
Characteristic steel strength ( f yk ) = 500 N / mm 2

Precast floor slab Longitudinal beam

Transverse beams

7m
4 bays @ 6.5m=26m

Fig.3.3 Structure layout

Ft = (20 + 4 × number of storeys)
= 20 + 4 × 8 = 52 KN < 60 KN

(a) Peripheral ties

Force to be resisted = Ft = 52 KN
52 × 10 3
Bar area required = = 104mm 2
500
This could be provided by one H12 bar.

(b) Internal ties

Ft ( g k + q k ) l r
Force to be resisted = × kN per metre
7.5 5
(1) Transverse direction
52(6 + 3) 7
Force = × = 87.4 KN / m > Ft
7.5 5
Force per bay = 87.4 × 6.5 = 568.1KN
Therefore, bar area required in each transverse interior beam is
568.1 × 10 3
= 1136mm 2
500
This could be provided by 4 H20 bars.
Page 4 of 19
CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER III

(2) Longitudinal direction

52(6 + 3) 6.5
Force = × = 81.1KN / m > Ft
7.5 5
Therefore force along length of building = 81.1 × 7 = 567.7 KN , hence bar area required in each longitudinal
567.7 × 10 3
beam is = 567 mm 2
2 × 500
This could be provided by 2 H20 bars.

(3) Column ties

Force to be designed for is
 ls   3.4 
  Ft =  52 = 70.7 KN < 2 Ft
 2.5   2.5 
or 3 per cent of ultimate floor load on a column is
 3 7
8 (1.35 × 6 + 1.5 × 3) × 6.5 ×  = 69 KN at ground floor level
100 2
To allow for 3 per cent of column self-weight, take design force to be 72KN, say, at ground level.
72 × 10 3
Area of ties required = = 144mm 2
500
This would be provided by 1 H20 bar and incorporated with the internal ties. At higher floor levels a design force
of 70.7KN would be used giving a similar practical reinforcement requirement.

(c) Vertical ties

Assume quasi-permanent loading with Ψ2 = 0.6 .
Thus the ultimate design load = 1.0 × 6 + 0.6 × 3 = 7.8 KN / m 2 .
Maximum column load from one storey is approximately equal to
7.8 × 3.5 × 6.5 = 177.5 KN
Therefore bar area required throughout each column is equal to
177.5 × 10 3
= 355mm 2
500
This would be provided by 4 H12 bars.

ii) Stability
Building structures are classified into two types.
a) Braced, and
b) Unbraced
A braced structure is one that resists lateral loads by means of bracing. Lateral loads include;
• wind loads, and
• seismic loads (earthquake loads)
Bracing in RC structures include;
• Shear walls
• RC lift shafts
• RC stair wells
The bracing must be able to transmit the horizontal loads down to foundation.

* Unbraced structures don’t have bracing elements.

Lateral loads are resisted by action of rigidly connected columns, beams and slabs.

Structures can also be describes as sway or non sway structures.

Non sway structures are those where there is less than 10% increase in the normal design moment due to the
displacement of the structure.
Sway structures are those where the secondary moment due to displacement are greater than 10% of the normal
design moment.

Page 5 of 19
CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER III

iii) Strength
The structure should be adequately strong to carry all applied loads without collapse.
(b) Serviceability Limit State
Generally the most important serviceability limit states are:
i) Deflection- the appearance or efficiency of any part of the structure must not be adversely affected by
deflections nor should the comfort of the building users be adversely affected.
ii) Cracking- local damage due to cracking and spalling must not affect the appearance, efficiency or durability of
structure.
iii) Durability-This must be considered in terms of the proposed life of the structure and its conditions of exposure.
This is the resistance to wear, tear and environmental effects with time. Any reinforced concrete
structure must be designed to protect the embedded steel. Thus the durability of concrete is influenced
by;
a) Exposure conditions
b) Concrete quality and workmanship
c) Cover to reinforcement
d) Width of any crack
If durability is neglected, it will lead to increased expenditures on;
i) Inspection
ii) maintenance
iii) repair
Durability in R.C concerns the selection of the appropriate concrete grade and cover, for the conditions of;
a) Environmental exposure
b) Protection of reinforcement against a rapid rise in temperature and resultant loss of strength.
Exposure conditions are given in table 4.1 of the code and Minimum cover requirements for exposure conditions
are given in table 4.2.
Table 3-1 (Table 4.1 of Euro code II) Exposure classes related to environmental conditions
Exposure class Example of environmental conditions
1
dry environment interior of buildings for normal habitation or offices a
2 a - interior of buildings where humidity is high (e.g. laundries)
without - exterior components
humid frost - components in non-aggressive soil and/or water
environment b - exterior components exposed to frost
With frost - components in non-aggressive soil and/or water and exposed to frost
- interior components when the humidity is high and exposed to frost
3
humid environment with frost and Interior and exterior components to frost and de-icing agents
de-icing salts
4 a - components completely or partially submerged in seawater, or in the
without splash
frost - components in saturated salt air (coastal area)
seawater environment b - components partially submerged in seawater or in the splash zone and
With frost exposed to frost
- components in saturated salt air and exposed to frost
The following classes may occur alone or in combination with the above classes:
5 a - slightly aggressive chemical environment (gas, liquid or solid)
aggressive chemical - aggressive industrial atmosphere
environment b b moderately aggressive chemical environment (gas, liquid or solid)
c highly aggressive chemical environment (gas, liquid or solid)
a
This exposure class is valid only as long as during construction the structure or some of its components is not
exposed to more severe conditions over a prolonged period of time.
b
Chemically aggressive environments are classified in ISO/DP 9690. The following equivalent exposure
conditions may be assumed:
Exposure class 5a: ISO classification A1G,A1L,A1S
Exposure class 5b: ISO classification A2G,A2L,A2S
Exposure class 5c: ISO classification A3G,A3L,A3S
Page 6 of 19
CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER III

Table 3-2 (Table 4.2 of Euro code II) Minimum cover requirement for normal weight concrete 1)
Exposure class, according to Table 4.1
1 2a 2b 3 4a 4b 5a 5b 5c
2)
Reinforcement 15 20 25 40 40 40 25 30 40
Minimum cover (mm)
Prestressing steel 25 30 35 50 50 50 35 40 50
NOTES
1. In order to satisfy the provisions of 4.1.3.3 P(3), these minimum values for cover should be associated with
particular concrete qualities, to be determined from Table 3 in ENV 206.
2. For slab elements, a reduction of 5mm may be made for exposure classes 2-5.
3. A reduction of 5mm may be made where concrete of strength class C40/50 and above is used for reinforced
concrete in exposure classes 2a-5b, and for prestressed concrete in exposure classes 1-5b. However, the minimum
cover should be less than that for Exposure Class 1 in Table 4.2.
4. For exposure class 5c, the use of a protective barrier, to prevent direct contact with the aggressive media, should
be provided.

Concrete cover (clause 4.1.3.3)

The concrete cover is the distance between the outer surface of the reinforcement(including links and stirrups) and
the nearest concrete surface.
cover

cover

bundle

A minimum concrete cover shall be provided in order to ensure;

i) the safe transmission of bond forces;
ii) that spalling will not occur;
iii) an adequate fire resistance;
iv) the protection of the steel against corrosion;
The protection of reinforcement against corrosion depends upon the continuing presence of a surrounding alkaline
environment provided by an adequate thickness of good quality, well-cured concrete.
The thickness of cover required depends both upon;
 The exposure conditions as shown in table 4.2
 The concrete quality.

• Minimum Concrete Cover

φ + 5mm 
i) cover min ≤  if d g > 32mm
φn + 5mm
φ 
ii) cover min ≤  d ≤ 32mm
φn  g
where φ = the diameter of the bar
φn = the equivalent diameter for a bundle
d g = the largest nominal maximum aggregate size.
The minimum concrete cover to all reinforcement including links and stirrups should not be less than the
appropriate values of given in Table 4.2, for the relevant exposure class defined in Table 4.1.

Page 7 of 19
CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER III

• Nominal Cover
This is the cover used in design and specify on drawing and nominal cover is given by nominal cover which is
equal to minimum cover + ∆h .
where ∆h is Tolerance on cover to reinforcement and given by; 5mm ≤ ∆h ≤ 10mm .
∆h depends on;
i) Type and size of structural element/member.
ii) Type of construction.
iii) Standards of workmanship.
iv) Quality control
v) Detailing practice.

Other limit states that may be reached include:

iv) Excessive vibration- which may cause discomfort or alarm as well as damage.
v) Fatigue- must be considered if cyclic loading is likely.
vi) Fire resistance-this must be considered in terms of resistance to collapse, flame penetration and heat transfer.
Fire resistance depends on;
• amount of cover
• member thickness
• type and quality of materials
• workmanship
vii) Special circumstance-any special requirements of the structure which are not covered by any of the more
common limit states, such as earthquake resistance, must be taken into account.

3.2 Characteristic material strength

The strengths of materials upon which a design is based, normally, those strengths below which results are unlikely
to fall. These are called ‘characteristic’ strength. It is assumed that for a given material, the distribution of strength
will be approximately ‘normal’, so that a frequency distribution curve of a large number of sample results would be
of the form shown in figure 3-4. The characteristic strength is taken as that value below which it is unlikely that
more than 5 per cent of the results will fall.
This is given by
f k = f m − 1.64σ
where f k = characteristic strength

f m = mean strength, f m =
∑f
n
f =values of cube strength
n = number of cubes tested.
σ = standard deviation, σ is a measure of quality control
1/ 2
 ∑ ( f − fm )2 
σ = 
 n 
The relationship between characteristic and mean values accounts for variations in results of test specimens and
will, therefore, reflect the method and control of manufacture, quality of constructions, and nature of the material.
Mean strength ( fm )
Characteristic
strength ( f k )
number of
test specimens

1.64

strength
Fig.3-4 Normal frequency distribution of strengths
Page 8 of 19
CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER III

• Concrete (Cl. 3.1, EC 2)

Compressive strength of concrete
Unlike BS 8110, the design rules in EC 2 are based on the characteristic (5 per cent) compressive cylinder strength
of concrete at 28 days ( f ck ). Equivalent cube strengths ( f ck ,cube ) are included in EC 2 but they are only regarded as
an alternative method to prove compliance. Generally, the cylinder strength is approximately 0.8 × the cube
strength of concrete i.e. f ck ≈ 0.8 × f ck ,cube .
Tensile strength of concrete
The tensile strength of concrete is the maximum stress the concrete can withstand when subjected to uniaxial
tension ( tensile force applies in one axis).
The mean tensile strength f ct .k of concrete may be derived from equations 3.1,3.2 and 3.3.

f ctm = 0.3 × f ck( 2 / 3) Nmm −2 (3.1)

f ctk 0.05 = 0.7 × f ctm Nmm −2 (3.2)
f ctk 0.95 = 1.3 × f ctm Nmm −2 (3.3)

where f ck is the characteristic compressive strength.

f ctm is the mean tensile strength.
f ctk 0.05 is the lower characteristic compressive strength at 5% fractile.
f ctk 0.95 is the upper characteristic compressive strength where 95% fractile.

Table 3-3 shows the actual strength classes commonly used in reinforced concrete design.

Table 3-3 Concrete strength classes, characteristic compressive strength f ck (cylinders) , mean tensile strength
f ctm , and characteristic tensile strength f ctk of the concrete (in N / mm 2 ) (based Table 3.1,EC 2)
Strength Class of
C12/15 C16/20 C20/25 C25/30 C30/37 C35/45 C40/50 C45/55 C50/60
Concrete
f ck 12 16 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
f ck ,cube 15 20 25 30 37 45 50 55 60
f ctm 1.6 1.9 2.2 2.6 2.9 3.2 3.5 3.8 4.1
f ctk 0.05 1.1 1.3 1.5 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.5 2.7 2.9
f ctk 0.95 2.0 2.5 2.9 3.3 3.8 4.2 4.6 4.9 5.3

• Reinforcement of steel. (Cl. 3.2, EC 2)

(According to Annex C, the design rules in EC 2 are applicable to steel reinforcement with characteristic yield
strength in the range 400–600 N mm−2. Details of the actual yield strength of steel available in the UK for the
reinforcement of concrete can be found in BS 4449: 2005. This document indicates that steel reinforcement will
now be manufactured in three grades, all of 500 N mm−2 characteristic yield strength, but with differing ductility
(Table 8.3). Plain round bars of characteristic yield strength 250 N mm−2 are not covered in this standard, and this
will presumably cease to be produced in the UK. Present indication would suggest that ductility classes B and C
will be the most widely available and specified steel in the UK. Ductility class A, in sizes 12 mm and below, in coil
form is widely used by reinforcement fabricators for use on automatic link bending machines (see CARES
information sheet on ‘Design, manufacture and supply of reinforcement steel’).)

It is classified according to;

a) Grade, denoting the value of the specified characteristic yield stress f yk ( N / mm 2 ) .
b) Class, indicating the ductility characteristics.
c) Size.
d) Surface characteristics.
e) Weld ability.
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CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER III

BS 8110 recommends that design should be based on the characteristic strength of the reinforcement ( f y ) and
gives typical values for mild steel and high yield steel reinforcement, the two reinforcement types available in the
UK, of 250 Nmm −2 and 500 Nmm −2 respectively. High-yield reinforcement is mostly used in practice nowadays.
In Euro Code II, Grade 500 ( 500 N / mm 2 characteristic strength) has replaced Grade 250 and Grade 460
reinforcing steel throughout Europe.
Grade 250 bars are hot-rolled mild-steel bars which usually have a smooth surface so that the bond with concrete
is by adhesion only. This type of bar can be more readily bent, so they have in the past been used where small
radius bends are necessary, such as links in narrow beams or columns, but plain bars are not now recognized in the
European Union and they are no longer available for general use in the UK.
High-yield bars are manufactured with a ribbed surface or in the form of a twisted square surface. Square twisted
bars have inferior bond characteristics and have been used in the past, although they are now obsolete. Deformed
bars have a mechanical bond with the concrete. The bending of high-yield bars through a small radius is liable to
cause tension cracking of the steel, and to avoid this the radius of the bend should not be less than two times the
nominal bar size for small bars( ≤ 16mm ). Ribbed high yield bars may be classified as:
Class A- which is normally associated with small diameter( ≤ 12mm ) cold-worked bars used in mesh and fabric.
This is the lowest ductility category and will include limits on moment redistribution which can be
applied and higher quantities for fire resistance.
Class B- which is most commonly used for reinforcing bars.
Class C- high ductility which may be used in earthquake design or similar situation.

Table 3-4 Strength of reinforcement(Table 3.1, BS 8110)

Grade Reinforcement type Characteristic strength, f y ( Nmm −2 )
250 Hot rolled mild steel 250
460 High-yield steel (hot rolled or cold worked) 500

Table 3-5(Table 5,Eurocode II): Differences between current British Standards and EN10080
Property BS4449 and BS4483 EN10080
2
Grade 460 N / mm 500 N / mm 2
Specific characteristic yield strength
Grade 250 N / mm 2 Not included
Bond strength for;
i) Ribbed bars/wires Deformed type 2 High bond
ii) Twisted bars Deformed type 1 Not included
iii) Plain bars Round plain bars Not included

Table 3-6
CP110 BS8110 EC2
High yield 460 Ribbed –T
410  High bond 500
425  Y 460 Twisted Y

460 
485 
Mild steel 460-R 250-R N/A
However in the UK, they still design using EC 2 but use T and Y bars.

Table 3-7 Tensile and other properties of steel for the reinforcement of concrete
Ductility Class
Property
A B C
−2
Characteristic yield strength, f yk ( Nmm ) 500
Young’s modulus KNmm −2 200
Characteristic strain at ultimate force, ε uk (%) ≥ 2.5 ≥ 5.0 ≥ 7.5
Page 10 of 19
CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER III

3.3 Partial factors of safety

Other possible variations such as constructional tolerances are allowed for by partial factors of safety applied to the
strength of the materials and to the actions. It should theoretically be possible to derive values for these from a
mathematical assessment of the probability of reaching each state. Lack of adequate data, however, makes this
unrealistic and, in practice, the values adopted are based on experience and simplified calculation.
• Partial factors of safety for materials ( γ m )

characteriatic strength f
Design strength = = k
partial factor of safety γ m

Table 3-8 Partial factor of Safety applied to materials; γ m for concrete

Limit State EU 2 BS8110(1985-1995) BS8110(1995-today)
Flexure/Bend 1.5 1.5 1.5
Ultimate Limit State Shear 1.5 1.25 1.25
Bond 1.5 1.40 1.40
Serviceability Limit State 1.00 1.00 1.00

Table 3-9 Partial factor of Safety applied to materials; γ m for steel

Limit State EU 2 BS8110(1985-1995) BS8110(1995-today)
Flexure 1.15 1.15 1.05
Ultimate Limit State
Shear 1.15 1.15 1.05
Serviceability Limit State 1.00 1.00 1.00

The factors γ m accounts for;

i) difference between actual and specified strength
ii) uncertainties in the accuracy of the method used to predict behavior of the members
iii) variation in member sizes and building dimensions.

• Partial factors of safety for actions ( γ f )

Action is the Euro code terminology for load. EC 2 defines an action as a set of forces, deformations (e.g.
differential settlement and temperature effects) or accelerations acting on the structure.
Errors and inaccuracies may be due to a number of causes:
i) design assumptions and inaccuracy of calculation;
ii) possible unusual increases in the magnitude of the actions;
iii) unforeseen stress redistributions;
iv) constructional inaccuracies.
These cannot be ignored, and are taken into account by applying a partial factor of safety ( γ f ) on the characteristic
actions, so that
design value of action = characteristic action × partial factor of safety ( γ f )
Recommended values of partial factors of safety are given in tables 3-10 and 3-11 according to the different
categorizations of actions shown in the tables.
Actions may be ‘permanent’ ( Gk ), e.g. self-weight of structure, fittings and fixed equipment, or ‘variable’ ( Qk ),
e.g. weight of occupants, wind and snow loads.
• The characteristic permanent load Gk is computed from the self-weight of the structure, weight of finishes,
ceilings, services and partitions.
• The self-weight is estimated from assumed member sizes.
• The weight of materials is obtained from BS648 schedule of materials for building construction.
• The characteristic variable load Qk is caused by movable objects such as people, furniture and equipment.
These are given in BS6399 part 1.
• The characteristic wind load Wk depends on location, shape and dimensions of the building. The design of
buildings for wind loads can be based on any of the following;
Page 11 of 19
CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER III

i) CP3 chapter 5 part 2

ii) BS6399 part II
Variable actions are also categorized as leading (the predominant variable action on the structure such as an
imposed crowd load- Qk .1 ) and accompanying (secondary variable action such as the effect of wind loading,
Qk ,i ,where the subscript I indicates the i th action).
Table 3-10 Partial safety factors at the ultimate limit states
Permanent actions Leading variable action Accompanying variable
Persistent or transient Gk Qk .1 actions Qk .i
design situation
Unfavourable Favourable Unfavourable Favourable Unfavourable Favourable
(a) For checking the
static equilibrium of a 1.1 0.9 1.5 0 1.5 0
building structure
(b) For the design of
structural members
1.35 1.0 1.5 0 1.5 0
(excluding geotechnical
actions)
(c) As an alternative to
(a) and (b) above to
design for both situations 1.35 1.15 1.5 0 1.5 0
with one set of
calculations

Table 3-11 Partial safety factors at the serviceability limit states

Design situation Permanent actions variable actions
All 1.0 1.0

Example 3.2 Simple design of a cable at ultimate limit state

Determine the cross-sectional area of steel required for a cable which supports a total characteristic permanent
action of 3.0KN and a characteristic variable action of 2.0KN.
Solution ;
The characteristic yield stress of the steel is 500 N / mm 2 . Carry out the calculation using limit state design with
the following factors of safety:
γ G = 1.35 for the permanent action,
γ Q = 1.5 for the variable action,
γ m = 1.15 for the steel strength.
Design value = γ G × permanent action + γ Q × variable action
= 1.35 × 3.0 + 1.5 × 2.0
= 7.05 KN
characteristic yield sress
Design stress =
γm
500
=
1.15
= 434 N / mm 2
design value
Required cross-sectional area =
design stress
7.05 × 10 3
=
434
= 16.2 mm 2

Page 12 of 19
CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER III

Example 3.3 Design of a foundation to resist uplift

Figure 3-5 shows a beam supported on foundations at A and B. The loads supported by the beam are its own
uniformly distributed permanent weight of 20 KN / m and a 170KN variable load concentrated at end C.
Determine the weight of foundation required at A in order to resist uplift:
(a) by applying a factor of safety of 2.0 to the reaction calculated for the working loads.
(b) by using an ultimate limit state approach with partial factors of safety of γ G = 1.10 or 0.9 for the permanent
action and γ Q = 1.5 for the variable action.
Investigate the effect on these design of a 7 per cent increase in the variable action.
170KN variable load

beam
permanent load 20 KN/m
A B C

foundation
(a) 6m 2m

1.5 variable load

1.1 permanent
0.9 permanent load load
A B C

(b) Loading arrangement for uplift at A at the ultimate limit state

Fig.3-5 Uplift calculation example

(a) factor of safety on uplift = 2.0

Taking moment about B
(170 × 2 − 20 × 8 × 2)
Uplift R A = = 3.33 KN
6.0
Weight of foundation required = 3.33 × safety factor
= 3.33 × 2.0 = 6.7 KN
With a 7 per cent increase in the variable action
(1.07 × 170 × 2 − 20 × 8 × 2)
Uplift R A = = 7.3 KN
6.0
Thus with a slight increase in the variable action there is a significant increase in the uplift and the structure
becomes unsafe.

(b) Limit state method-ultimate load pattern

As this example includes a cantilever and involves the requirement for static equilibrium at A, partial factors of
safety of 1.10 and 0.9 were chosen for the permanent actions as given in the first row of variable in the table 3.10.
The arrangement of the loads for the maximum uplift at A is shown in figure 3-5b.
Design permanent action over BC = γ G × 20 × 2 = 1.10 × 20 × 2 = 44 KN
Design permanent action over AB = γ G × 20 × 6 = 0.9 × 20 × 6 = 108 KN
Design variable action = γ Q × 170 = 1.5 × 170 = 255 KN
Taking moment about B for the ultimate actions
(255 × 2 + 44 × 1 − 108 × 3)
Uplift R A = = 38 KN
6.0
Therefore weight of foundation required = 38 KN .
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CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER III

A 7 per cent increase in the variable action will not endanger the structure, since the actual uplift will only be 7.3
KN as calculated previously. In fact in this case it would require an increase of 61 per cent in the load before the
uplift would exceed the weight of a 38 KN foundation.
Parts (a) and (b) of example 3.3 illustrate how the limit state method of design can ensure a safer result when the
stability or strength of a structure is sensitive to a small numerical difference between the effects of two opposing
action of a similar magnitude.

3.4 Combination of actions

Action(Load) arrangements
For building structure, the UK NA to Eurocode 2, part 1-1 allows any of the following sets of load arrangements to
be used for both the ultimate limit state and serviceability limit state:
Qk Qk
Q Q
Load set 1. Alternate or adjacent spans loaded
The design values should be obtained from the more critical of:
GGk • All spans carrying the design variable and permanent loads
with other spans loaded with only the design permanent load
Qk
Q Qk
Q (see Figure 1). The value of γG should be the same throughout.
• Any two adjacent spans carrying the design variable and
GGk permanent loads with other spans loaded with only the design
permanent load(see Figure 2). The value of γG should be the
same throughout.
Figure 1 Alternate spans loaded Load set 2. All or alternate spans loaded
The design values should be obtained from the more critical of:
• All spans carrying the design variable and permanent loads
(see Figure 3).
QQk • All spans carrying the design variable and permanent loads
with other spans loaded with only the design permanent load
G Gk (see Figure 1). The value of γ G should be the same
throughout.
QQk Generally, load set 2 will be used for beams and slabs in the
UK as it requires three load arrangements to be considered,
G Gk while load set 1 will often require more than three
arrangements to be assessed. Alternatively, the UK NA makes
the following provision for slabs.
Qk
Q

Load set 3. Simplified arrangements for slabs

GG k The load arrangements can be simplified for slabs it is only
necessary to consider the all spans loaded arrangement (see
Figure 3), provided the following conditions are satisfied.
Figure 2 Adjacent spans loaded
• In a one way spanning slab the area of each bay exceeds
30m 2 ( a bay means a strip across the full width of a
Qk
Q
structure bounded on the other sides by lines of support).
• The ratio of the variable actions ( Qk ) to the permanent
Gk
actions ( Gk ) does not exceed 1.25.
G

• The magnitude of the variable actions excluding partitions

Figure 3 All spans loaded 5KN / m 2 .
does not exceed

Combination of actions(Loads)
In general, the design value of an action ( Fd ) is obtained by multiplying the representative value ( Frep ) by the
appropriate partial safety factor for actions ( γ f ):
Fd = γ f × Frep (3.1)

Page 14 of 19
CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER III

Tables 3.13 and 3.14 show the recommended values of partial safety factor for permanent, γ G , and variable
actions, γ Q , for the ultimate limit states of equilibrium (EQU) and strength (STR). It can be seen that the maximum
values of γ G and γ Q are 1.35 and 1.5 respectively. The comparable values in BS 8110 are 1.4 and 1.6. It can also
be seen that the partial safety factors for actions depend on a number of other aspects including the category of
limit state as well as the effect of the action on the design situation under consideration. For example, when
checking for the limit states of equilibrium and strength, the maximum values of γ G are 1.1 and 1.35, respectively.
However, when checking for equilibrium alone, γ G is taken to be 1.1 if the action increases the risk of instability
(unfavourable action) or 0.9 if the action reduces the risk of instability (favourable action). For a given limit state
several combinations of loading may have to be considered in order to arrive at the value of the design action on
the structure (see Table 3.13).
In equation 3.1, Frep may be the characteristic value of a permanent or leading variable action ( Fk ), or the
accompanying value (Ψ Fk ) of a variable action. In turn, the accompanying value of a variable action may be the
combination value ( Ψo Fk ), the frequent value ( Ψ1 Fk ) or the quasi-permanent value ( Ψ2 Fk ). The frequent
value and the quasi permanent values are used to determine values of accidental actions, e.g. impact and
explosions, and to check serviceability criteria (deflection and cracking). The combination value is given by
Combination value = Ψo Fk (3.2)
where Ψo is the combination factor obtained from Table 3.12 and is a function of the type of variable action. The
factor Ψo has been introduced to take account of the fact that where a structure is subject to, say, two independent
variable actions, it is unlikely that both will reach their maximum value simultaneously. Under these circumstances,
it is assumed that the ‘leading’ variable action (i.e. Qk .1 ) is at its maximum value and any ‘accompanying’ variable
actions will attain a reduced value, i.e. ΨoQk , i , where i > 1. Leading and accompanying variable actions are
assigned by trial and error as discussed below.

Table 3-12 Values of Ψ for different load combinations

Combination Frequent Quasi-permanent
Action
Ψ0 Ψ1 Ψ2
Imposed load in building, category
Category A: domestic, residential areas 0.7 0.5 0.3
Category B: office areas 0.7 0.5 0.3
Category C: congregation areas 0.7 0.7 0.6
Category D: shopping areas 0.7 0.7 0.6
Category E: storage areas 1.0 0.9 0.8
Category F: traffic area, vehicle weight < 30 KN 0.7 0.7 0.6
Category G: traffic area, 30 KN < vehicle weight < 160 KN 0.7 0.5 0.3
Category H: roofs 0.7 0 0

Snow loads on buildings

For sites located at altitude H > 1000m above sea level 0.7 0.5 0.2
For sites located at altitude H ≤ 1000m above sea level 0.5 0.2 0
Wind loads on buildings 0.5 0.2 0

Table 3-13 Load combinations and partial safety/combination factors for the ultimate limit state of strength
Load Type
Limit state Permanent, G k Variable, Qk Wind, Wk
Unfavourable Favourable Unfavourable Favourable Unfavourable
Equilibrium 1.10 0.9 1.5 0 1.5 Ψ0

Page 15 of 19
CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER III

Table 3-14 Load combinations and partial safety/combination factors for the ultimate limit state of strength
Load Type
Limit state/Load combination Permanent, G k Variable, Qk Wind,
Unfavourable Favourable Unfavourable Favourable Wk

Strength 1.35/1.35 ξ 1.0 1.5 0 -

1. Permanent and variable 1.0
2. Permanent and wind 1.35/1.35 ξ - - 1.5
3. Permanent, imposed and wind
(a) 1.5ψ 0,1 1.5ψ 0, 2
1.35 1.0
(b) 1.35/1.35 ξ 1.0 1.5 0 1.5ψ 0
(c) 1.5ψ 0 0
1.35/1.35 ξ 1.0 1.5
For continuous beams with cantilevers, the partial safety factor for the favourable effect of the permanent action
should be taken as 1.0 for the span adjacent to the cantilever.
The partial safety factor for earth pressures should be taken as 1.30 when unfaourable and 0.0 when faourable.

Table 3-15 Load Combinations and Partial Safety Factors γ f at Serviceability Limit State
Load Combination Permanent Load, Gk Variable Load, Qk Wind Load, Wk
Permanent + Variable 1.0 1.0 -
Permanent + Wind 1.0 - 1.0
Permanent + Variable + Wind 1.0 0.9 0.9

COMBINATION EXPRESSIONS
• The design value of action effects, E d , assuming the structure is subjected to both permanent and a single
variable action (e.g. dead load plus imposed load or dead load plus wind load) can be assessed using the following
expression
∑
E d = γ G , jGk , j + γ Q ,1Qk ,1
j ≥1
(3.3)

Using the partial safety factors given in Table 3.14, the design value of the action effect is given by
E d = 1.35Gk + 1.5Qk
(load combinations 1 and 2, Table 3.14)
• The design value of an action effect due to permanent and two (or more) variable actions, e.g. dead plus imposed
and wind load, is obtained from equation 3.4.
∑j ≥1
∑
E d = γ G , jGk , j + γ Q ,1Qk ,1 + γ Q ,iψ 0,i Qk ,i
i >1
(3.4)

Note that this expression yields two (or more) estimates of design actions and the most onerous should be selected
for design. For example, if a structure is subjected to permanent, office and wind loads of G k , Qk and Wk the
values of the design actions are:
E d = 1.35Gk , j + 1.5Qk + 1.5 × 0.5Wk
(load combinations 3(b), Table 3.14)
and
E d = 1.35Gk , j + 1.5 × 0.7Qk + 1.5Wk
(load combinations 3(c), Table 3.14)
Figure 3.6 illustrates how the factors in table 3-10 and 3-12 can be applied when considering the stability of the
office building shown for overturning about point B. Figure 3-6(a) treats the wind load ( Wk ) as the leading
variable action and the live load ( Qk ) on the roof as the accompanying variable action. Figure 3-6(b) considers the
live load as the leading variable action and the wind as the accompanying variable action.

Page 16 of 19
CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER III

0.7 1.5Qk 1.5 Qk

1.5 Wk 0.5 1.5Wk

0.9 Gk 1.1 Gk 0.9 Gk 1.1 Gk

B B

(a) (b)

Figure 3.6 Wind and imposed load acting on an office building-stability check

Equations 3.3 and 3.4 are based on expression 6.10 in EN 1990. This document also includes two alternative
expressions, namely 6.10a and 6.10b (reproduced as equations 3.5 and 3.6 respectively) for calculating the design
values of actions, use of which may improve structural efficiency, particularly for heavier structural materials such
as concrete.
∑j ≥1
∑
E d = γ G , jGk , j + γ Q ,1ψ 0,1Qk ,1 + γ Q ,iψ 0,i Qk ,i
i >1
(3.5)

E d = ∑ ξ jγ G , jGk , j + γ Q ,1Qk ,1 + ∑ γ Q ,iψ 0,i Qk ,i (3.6)

j ≥1 i >1
where
ξ is a reduction factor for unfavourable permanent actions. The value of ξ recommended in the National Annex to
EC 2 is 0.925.
Note that equation 3.5 yields only one estimate of E d (i.e. load combination 3(a) in Table 3.14) whereas equation
3.6 yields two (i.e. load combinations 3(b) and 3(c) in Table 3.14). For UK building structures, designers may use
the output from either equation 3.3 or 3.4 (depending on the number of variable actions present) or the more
onerous output from equations 3.5 and 3.6.
Use of actions determined via equations 3.3 / 3.4 should lead to designs with comparable levels of safety to that
currently achieved using BS 8110. However, use of equations 3.5 and 3.6 may improve structural efficiency, as
illustrated in example 3.3.

Wind Loads
The following factors are considered;
i) The basic wind speed, V which depends on the location in the country.
ii) The design wind speed Vs = VS1 S 2 S 3
S1 = topography factor normally taken as in UK.
S 2 = depends on ground roughness, building size and height above the ground.
S 3 = statistical factor normally taken as 1.
• Ground roughness is given in four categories e.g. category 3 is the location in the suburbs of the city.
• The building size is in three classes e.g. a, b and c .
• The height refers to the height of the building.
• The wind load increases with height.
iii) The Dynamic pressure q = 0.613Vs2 N / mm 2 is the pressure on the surface normal to the wind. It is
modified by the dimensions of the building and openings in the building.
iv) Pressure coefficient
The pressure coefficients are given as;
• external pressure coefficients denoted by C pe . This depends on the dimensions and roof angle.
• Internal pressure coefficients which accounts for suctions inside the building, C pi .

Page 17 of 19
CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER III

v) The wind force on the surface F is given as follow;

F = (C pe − C pi )qA , where A=area
⇒ Wk = (C pe − C pi )q

Example 3.4 Design actions for simply supported beam (EN 1990)
A simply supported beam for an office building has a span of 6 m. Calculate the values of the design bending
moments, M E ,d , assuming
(a) the beam supports uniformly distributed permanent and variable actions of 5 kNm −1 and 6 kNm −1 respectively
(b) in addition to the actions described in (a) the beam also supports an independent variable concentrated load of
20 kN at mid-span.

LOAD CASE A
g k =5KN/m ; q k =6KN/m

L=6m

Since the beam is subjected to only one variable action use equation 3.3 to determine E d where
E d = ∑ γ G , jGk , j + γ Q ,1Qk ,1
j ≥1

⇒ FE ,d = 1.35 × (5 × 6) + 1.5 × (6×) = 94.5 KN

FE ,d L
94.5 × 6
Hence, M E ,d = = = 70.9 KNm
8 8
An alternative estimate of M E ,d can be obtained using equations 3.5 and 3.6, respectively
E d = ∑ γ G , jGk , j + γ Q ,1ψ 0,1Qk ,1 + ∑ γ Q ,iψ 0,i Qk ,i
j ≥1 i >1

⇒ FE ,d = 1.35 × (5 × 6) + 1.5 × 0.7 × (6 × 6) + 0 = 78.3 KN

E d = ∑ ξ jγ G , jGk , j + γ Q ,1Qk ,1 + ∑ γ Q ,iψ 0,i Qk ,i
j ≥1 i >1

⇒ FE ,d = 0.925 × 1.35 × (5 × 6) + 1.5 × (6 × 6) + 0 = 91.5 KN (critical)

FE ,d L 91.5 × 6
Hence FE ,d is 91.5 KN and M E ,d = = = 68.6 KNm.
8 8
LOAD CASE B

Qk =20KN
g k =5KN/m ; q k =6KN/m

L=6m

The extra complication here is that it is not clear if q k or Qk is the leading variable action. This can only be
determined by trial and error. This time use equation 3.4 to evaluate E d , since there are two independent variable
actions are present.
Assuming q k is the leading variable action gives
E d = ∑ γ G , jGk , j + γ Q ,1Qk ,1 + ∑ γ Q ,iψ 0,i Qk ,i
j ≥1 i >1

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CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER III

FE ,d = [1.35 × (5 × 6) + 1.5 × (6 × 6)] + 1.5 × 0.7 × 20

= 94.5( FE ,d 1 ) + 21( FE ,d 2 ) = 115.5 KN
FE ,d 1 L FE ,d 2 L 94.5 × 6 21 × 6
and M E ,d = + = + = 102.4 KNm
8 4 8 4

Assuming Qk is the leading variable action gives

FE ,d = 1.35 × (5 × 6) + 1.5 × 20 + 1.5 × 0.7 × (6 × 6)
= 40.5( FE ,d 1 ) + 30( FE ,d 2 ) + 37.8( FE ,d 3 ) = 108.3 KN
( FE ,d 1 + FE ,d 3 ) L FE ,d 2 L
(40.5 + 37.8) × 6 30 × 6
and M E ,d = + + == 103.7 KNm (maximum moments)
8 4 8 4
Alternatively use equations 3.5 and 3.6 to estimate FE ,d . Assuming q k is the leading variable action and
substituting into 3.5 gives
E d = ∑ γ G , jGk , j + γ Q ,1ψ 0,1Qk ,1 + ∑ γ Q ,iψ 0,i Qk ,i
j ≥1 i >1

FE ,d = 1.35 × (5 × 6) + 1.5 × 0.7 × (6 × 6) + 1.5 × 0.7 × 20 = 99.3 KN

FE ,d is unchanged if Qk is taken as the leading variable action and in both cases M E ,d = 90.2 KNm .
Repeating this procedure using equation 3.6 and assuming, first, that q k is the leading variable action and Qk is
the accompanying variable action and, second, Qk is the leading variable action and q k is the accompanying
variable action gives, respectively
E d = ∑ ξ jγ G , jGk , j + γ Q ,1Qk ,1 + ∑ γ Q ,iψ 0,i Qk ,i
j ≥1 i >1

FE ,d = [0.925 × 1.35 × (5 × 6) + 1.5 × (6 × 6)] + [1.5 × 0.7 × 20]

= 91.5 + 21 = 112.5 KN
FE ,d 1 L FE ,d 2 L 91.5 × 6 21 × 6
and M E ,d = + = + = 100.1 KNm
8 4 8 4
FE ,d = 0.925 × 1.35 × (5 × 6) + 1.5 × 20 + 1.5 × 0.7 × (6 × 6)
= 37.5 + 30 + 37.8 = 105.3 KN
( FE ,d 1 + FE ,d 3 ) L FE ,d 2 L (37.5 + 37.8) × 6 30 × 6
and M E ,d = + = + = 101.5 KNm (maximum moment)
8 4 8 4
Again, the most structurally economical solution is found via equation 3.6, which will normally be the case for
concrete structures provided that permanent actions are not greater than 4.5 times variable actions except for
storage loads. However, this saving has to be weighed against the additional design effort required. Moreover, the
output from equations 3.5 and 3.6 should not be used to perform stability calculations and the reader is referred to
EN1990 for further information on this aspect. Note that the value of 1.35 for γ G is conservative and used
throughout.

Page 19 of 19
CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER IV

CHAPTER IV. ANALYSIS OF THE STRUCTURE AT THE ULTIMATE LIMIT STATE

4.0 Introduction
A reinforced concrete structure is a combination of beams, columns, slabs and walls, rigidly connected together to
form a monolithic frame. Each individual member must be capable of resisting the forces acting on it, so that the
determination of these forces is an essential part of the design process. The full analysis of a rigid concrete frame is
rarely simple; but simplified calculations of adequate precision can often be made if the basic action of the structure
is understood.
There are several methods, of structural analysis, but the common ones are;
i) Moment distribution for manual methods
ii) Computer plain frame programs based on the matrix stiffness method of analysis
iii) Moment coefficients
Since the design of a reinforced concrete member is generally based on the ultimate limit state, the analysis is
usually performed for loadings corresponding to that state.

4.1 Actions
The actions (loads) on a structure are divided into two types: permanent actions, and variable (or imposed) actions.
Permanent action are those which are normally constant during the structure’s life. Variable actions, on the other
hand, are transient and not constant in magnitude, as for example those due to wind or to human occupants.
Permanent actions
Permanent actions include the weight of the structure itself and all architectural components such as exterior
cladding, partitions and ceilings. Equipment and static machinery, when permanent fixtures, are also often
considered as part of the permanent actions.
For most reinforced concretes, a typical value for the self-weight is 25KN per cubic metre, but a higher density
should be taken for heavily reinforced or dense concrete. In the case of a building, the weights of any permanent
partitions should be calculated from the architects’ drawings. A minimum partition loading equivalent to 1.0KN per
square metre is often specified as a variable action, but this is only adequate for lightweight partitions.
Variable actions
Variable actions are more difficult to determine accurately. For many of them, it is only possible to make
conservative estimates based on standard codes of practice or past experience. Examples of variable actions are: the
weights of its occupants, furniture, or machinery; the pressures of wind, the weight of snow, and of retained earth
or water; and the forces caused by thermal expansion or shrinkage of the concrete.
Although the wind load is a variable action, it is kept in a separate category when its partial factors of safety are
specified, and when the load combinations on the structure are being considered.

4.2 Load combinations and patterns

Load combinations and patterns for the ultimate limit state
Various combinations of the characteristic values of permanent G k , variable actions Qk , wind actions Wk , and
their partial factors of safety must be considered for the loading of the structure. The partial factors of safety
specified in the code are discussed in chapter 3, and the ultimate limit state the following loading combinations
from tables 3-10, 3-12 and 3-14 are commonly used.
1. Permanent and variable actions
1.35Gk + 1.5Qk
2. Permanent and wind actions
1.35Gk + 1.5Wk
The variable load can usually cover all or any part of the structure and, therefore, should be arranged to cause the
most severe stresses. So, for a three-span continuous beam, load combination 1 would have the loading
arrangement shown in figure 4-1, in order to cause the maximum sagging moment in the outer spans and the
minimum possible hogging moment in the centre span.

1.35Gk + 1.5Q k 1.35Gk + 1.5Q k

1.35Gk

A C

Fig.4-1 Loading arrangement for maximum sagging moment at A and C

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CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER IV

Load combination 2, permanent + wind load is used to check the stability of a structure. A load combination of
permanent + variable + wind load could have the arrangement shown in figure 3.6.
Figure 4-2 shows the patterns of vertical loading on a multi-span continuous beam to cause (i) maximum design
moments in alternate spans and maximum possible hogging moments in adjacent spans, (ii) maximum design
hogging moments at support A, and (iii) the design hogging moment at support A as specified by the EC2 code for
simplicity.

1.35G k + 1.5Q k 1.35G k + 1.5Q k 1.35G k + 1.5Q k 1.35G k + 1.5Q k

1.35G k 1.35G k 1.35G k

(i) Loading arrangements for maximum moments in the spans

1.35G k + 1.5Q k 1.35G k + 1.5Q k 1.35G k + 1.5Q k

1.35G k 1.35G k
A

(ii) Loading arrangements for maximum support moment at A

1.35G k + 1.5Q k
1.35G k 1.35G k
A

(iii) Loading for design moments at the supports according to Ec2

Figure 4-2 Multi-span beam loading patterns

4.3 Analysis of beams

To design a structure it is necessary to know the bending moments, torsional moments, shearing forces and axial
forces in each member. An elastic analysis is generally used to determine the distribution of these forces within the
structure. The properties of the materials, such as Young’s modulus, which are used in the structural analysis
should be those associated with their characteristic strengths. The stiffnesses of the members can be calculated on
the basis of any one of the following:
i) The gross concrete cross-section( ignoring the reinforcement);
ii) The concrete cross-section including the transformed area of reinforcement based on the modular ratio;
iii) The compression area only of the concrete cross-section, plus the transformed area of reinforcement based
on the modular ratio
A structure should be analysed for each of the critical loading conditions which produce the maximum stresses at
any particular section. This procedure will be illustrated in the examples for a continuous beam and a building
frame. For these structures it is conventional to draw the bending-moment diagram on the tension side of the
members.
Sign Conventions
i) For the moment-distribution analysis anti-clockwise support moments are positive as, for example, in table 4.1
for the fixed end moments (FEM).
ii) For subsequently calculating the moments along the span of a member, moments causing sagging are positive,
while moments causing hogging are negative, as illustrated in figure 4-4.

Non-continuous beams
One-span, simply supported beams or slabs are statically determinate and the analysis for bending moments and
shearing forces is readily performed manually. For the ultimate limit state we need only consider the maximum
load of 1.35G k + 1.5Qk on the span.

Example 4.1 Analysis of a non-continuous beam

The one-span simply supported beam shown in figure 4-3a carries a distributed permanent action including self-
weight of 25KN/m. a permanent concentrated action of 40KN at mid-span, and a distributed variable action of
10KN/m.

Page 2 of 17
CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER IV

1.35 40=54 KN

(1.35 25+1.5 10)4=195 KN

4.0 m

(a) Ultimate load

124.5 KN 27

27
124.5 KN
(b) Shearing Force Diagram

151.5 KNm

(c) Bending Moment Diagram

Fig.4-3 Analysis of one-span beam

Figure 4-3 shows the values of ultimate load required in the calculation of the shearing forces and bending
moments.
54 195
Maximum shear force = + = 124.5 KN
2 2
54 × 4 195 × 4
Maximum bending moment = + = 151.5 KNm
4 8
The analysis is completed by drawing the shearing-force and bending-moment diagrams which would later be used
in the design and detailing of the shear and bending reinforcement.
Continuous beams
The method of analysis for continuous beams may also be applied to continuous slabs which span in one direction.
A continuous beam should be analysed for the loading arrangements which give the maximum stresses at each
section. The analysis to calculate the bending moments can be carried out manually by moment distribution or
equivalent methods, but tabulated shear and moment coefficient may be adequate for continuous beams having
approximately equal spans and uniformly distributed loads.
Continuous beams – the general case
Having determined the moments at the supports by, say, moment distribution, it is necessary to calculate the
moments in the spans and also the shear forces on the beam.
For a uniformly distributed load, the equations for the shears and the maximum span moments can be derived from
the following analysis.
Load = w/metre
A B

VAB S.F.D
VBA

MAB M BA
--
-- B.M.D
+ M max a2
a1

a3

Fig.4-4 Shears and moments in a beam

Page 3 of 17
CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER IV

Using the sign convention of figure 4-4 and taking moments about support B;
wL2
V AB L − + M AB − M BA = 0
2
therefore
wL ( M AB − M BA )
V AB = − (4.1)
2 L
and
VBA = wL − V AB (4.2)
Maximum span moment M max occurs at zero shear, and distance to zero shear
V AB
a3 = (4.3)
w
therefore
2
V AB
M max = + M AB (4.4)
2w
The points of contraflexure occur at M = 0 , that is
wx 2
V AB x − + M AB = 0
2
where x the distance from support A. Taking the roots of this equation gives
2
V AB ± (V AB + 2 wM AB )
x=
w
so that
2
V AB − (V AB + 2 wM AB )
a1 = (4.5)
w
and
2
V AB + (V AB + 2 wM AB )
a2 = L − (4.6)
w
Example 4.2 Analysis of a continuous beam
The continuous beam shown in figure 4-5 has a constant cross-section and supports a uniformly distributed
permanent action including its self-weight of G k = 25 KN / m and a variable action Qk = 10 KN / m .
The critical loading patterns for the ultimate limit state are shown in figure 4-5 where the ‘stars’ indicate the region
of maximum moments, sagging or possible hogging.

G k = 25 KN/m Q k = 10 KN/m

A B C D
6m 4m 6m

(1.35 25 + 1.5 10) 6

(1.35 25 4)
(1) = 292.5 KN = 135 KN 292.5 KN

(1.35 25 + 1.5 10) 4

(1.35 25 6)
(2) = 202.5 KN = 195 KN 202.5 KN

(3) 292.5 KN 195 KN 202.5 KN

(4) 195 KN 292.5 KN Fig.4-5 Continuous beam loading

202.5 KN
patterns

Page 4 of 17
CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER IV

Table 4.1 is the moment distribution carried out for the first loading arrangement: simpler calculations would be
3I
required for each of the remaining load cases. It should be noted that the reduced stiffness of has been used for
4L
the end spans.
Table 4-1 Moment distribution for the first loading case

A B C D
Stiffness (k) 3 I I 3 I
4 L L 4 L
= 3 1 = 0.125 = 1 = 0.125 = 3 1 = 0.125
4 6 4 4 6
Distr. factors 0.125
0.125+0.25
= 1/3 2/3 2/3 1/3
Load (kN) 292 135 292
-292 6 + 135 4 292 6
F.E.M. 0 -- 12 + 0
8 8
0 -219.4 + 45.0 - 45.0 + 219.4 0
Balance +58.1 + 116.3 - 116.3 -58.1

Carry over -58.1 +58.1

Balance +19.4 + 38.7 - 38.7 -19.4

Carry over -19.4 +19.4
Balance +6.5 + 12.9 - 12.9 -6.5
Carry over -6.5 +6.5
Balance +2.2 + 4.3 - 4.3 -2.2
Carry over -2.2 +2.2
Balance +0.7 + 1.5 - 1.5 -0.7
M (KNm) 0 -132.5 + 132.5 - 132.5 + 132.5 0

The shearing forces, the maximum span bending moments, and their positions along the beam, can be calculated
using the formulae previously derived. Thus for the first loading arrangement and span AB, using the sign
convention of figure 4-4:
Load ( M AB − M BA )
Shear V AB = −
2 L
292.5 132.5
= − = 124.2 KN
2 6.0
VBA = Load − V AB
= 292.5 − 124.2 = 168.3 KN
2
V AB
Maximum moment, span AB = + M AB
2w
where w = 292.5 / 6.0 = 48.75 KN / m. Therefore:
124.2 2
M max = + 0 = 158.2 KNm
2 × 48.75
V
Distance from A, a3 = AB
w
124.2
= = 2.55 m
48.75
The bending-moment diagrams for each of the loading arrangements are shown in figure 4-6, and the
corresponding shearing-force diagrams are shown in figure 4-7. the individual bending-moment diagrams are
Page 5 of 17
CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER IV

combined in figure 4-8a to give the bending-moment design envelope. Similarly, figure 4-8b is the shearing-force
design envelope. Such envelope diagrams are used in the detailed design of the beams.
In this example, simple supports with no fixity have been assumed for the end supports at A and D. Even so, the
sections at A and D should be designed for a hogging moment due to a partial fixity equal to 25 per cent of the
maximum moment in the span, that is 158 / 4 = 39.5 KNm .

133 133

(1) 65

158 158
108 108
11
(2)

103 103
151
100
(3)

151 109
151
100

(4)

109
151
Fig.4-6 Bending-moment diagrams (KNm)

124 168
67.5

(1)
67.5
124
168

83 97.5 119

(2)

119 97.5 83

121 110 118

(3)
85 85
171
171
85
85
(4)

118 110 121

Fig.4-7 Shearing-force diagrams (KN)

Page 6 of 17
CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER IV

151 151
65
KNm
11

158 158
124 110 171

110 124 KN
171

Fig.4-8 Bending-moment and shearing-force envelops

Continuous beams with approximately equal spans and uniform loading

The ultimate bending moments and shearing forces in continuous beams of three or more approximately equal
spans without cantilevers can be obtained using relevant coefficients provided that the spans differ by no more than
15 per cent of the longest span, that the loading is uniform, and that the characteristic variable action does not
exceed the characteristic permanent action. The values of these coefficients are shown in diagrammatic form in
figure 4-9 for beams.
End span Interior span

0.11 FL 0.10 FL 0.10 FL

(a)
Bending Moments
0.09 FL 0.07 FL

0.45 F 0.55 F
(b)
Shearing Forces
0.60 F 0.55 F

F = Total ultimate load on span = (1.35Gk + 1.5Qk ) KN

L = Effective span
Fig.4-9 Bending-Moment and Shearing-Force coefficients for beams
The possibility of hogging moments in any of the spans should not be ignored, even if it is not indicated by these
coefficients. For example, a beam of three equal spans may have a hogging moment in the centre span if Qk
exceeds 0.45G k .

4.4 Analysis of frames

In situ reinforced concrete structures behave as rigid frames, and should be analysed as such. They can be analysed
as a complete space frame or be divided into a series of plane frames.
The general procedure for a building is to analyse the slabs as continuous members supported by the beams or
structural walls. The slabs can be either one-way spanning or two-way spanning. The columns and main beams are
considered as a series of rigid plane frames which can be divided into two types:
(1) Braced frames supporting vertical loads only
(2) Frames supporting vertical and lateral loads.
Type one frames are in buildings where none of the lateral loads such as wind are transmitted to the columns and
beams but are resisted by much more stiffer elements such as shear walls, lift shafts or stairwells.
Type two frames are designed to resist the lateral loads, which cause bending, shearing and axial loads in the beams
and columns. For both types frames the axial forces in the columns can be generally be calculated as if the beams
and slabs were simply supported.

Page 7 of 17
CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER IV

Braced frames supporting vertical loads only

A building frame can be analysed as a complete frame, or it can be simplified into a series of substitute frames for
the vertical loading analysis.
The frame shown in figure 4.10, for example, can be divided into any of the subframes shown in figure 4.11.

H2
(1)
H1

Half stiffness Half stiffness

H2
(2)
H1

Half stiffness Half stiffness

H2
(3)
H1

H1, H2 =Storey Heights

Fig 4.10 Building frame Fig 4.11 Substitute frames

The substitute frame 1 in figure 4.11 consists of one complete floor beam with its connecting columns (which are
assumed rigidly fixed at their remote ends). An analysis of this frame wil1 give the bending moments and shearing
forces in the beams and columns for the floor level considered.
Substitute frame 2 is a single span combined with its connecting columns and two adjacent spans, all fixed at their
remote ends. This frame may be used to determine the bending moments and shearing forces in the central beam.
Provided that the central span is greater than the two adjacent spans, the bending moments in the columns can also
be found with this frame.
Substitute frame 3 can be used to find the moments in the columns only. It consists of a single junction, with the
remote ends of the members fixed. This type of subframe would be used when the beams have been analysed as
continuous over simple supports.
In frames 2 and 3, the assumption of fixed ends to the outer beams over-estimates their stiffnesses. These values are,
therefore , halved to allow for the flexibility resulting from continuity.
The various critical loading arrangements to produce maximum stresses have to be considered. In general these
loading arrangements for the ultimate limit state as specified by the code are:
(1) Alternate spans loaded with total ultimate load ( 1.35Gk + 1.5Qk ) and all other spans loaded with minimum
dead load ( 1.35Gk ); this loading will give maximum span moments and maximum column moments.
(2) All spans loaded with the total ultimate load ( 1.35Gk + 1.5Qk ) to provide the design moment at the supports.
When considering the critical loading arrangements for a column, it is sometimes necessary to include the case of
maximum moment and minimum possible axial load, in order to investigate the possibility of tension failure caused
by the bending.

Example 4.3 Analysis of a substitute frame

The substitute frame shown in figure 4.12 is part of t he complete frame in figure 4.10. The characteristic actions
carried by the beams are permanent actions (including self-weight) Gk = 25 KN / m , and variable action,
Qk = 10 KN / m , uniformly distributed along the beam. The analysis of the beam will be carried out by moment
distribution: thus the member stiffnesses and their relevant distribution factors are first required.

Page 8 of 17
CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER IV

J K L M

3.5m
A B C D

4.0m
Beam
600 300
E F G H

6.0m 4.0m 6.0m

350
300
Typical column section
Fig 4.12 Substitute frame

• Stiffnesses, k

Beam Columns
3
0.3 × 0.6 0.3 × 0.353
I= = 5.4 × 10 −3 m 4 I= = 1.07 × 10 −3 m 4
12 12
Spans AB and CD Upper
−3
5.4 × 10 1.07 × 10 −3
k AB = k CD = = 0.9 × 10 −3 kU = = 0.31× 10 −3
6.0 3.5
Span BC Lower
−3
5.4 × 10 1.07 × 10 −3
k BC = = 1.35 × 10 −3 kL = = 0.27 × 10 −3
4.0 4.0
kU + k L = (0.31 + 0.27)10 −3 = 0.58 × 10 −3

• Distribution factors

Joints A and D
∑ k = 0.9 + 0.58 = 1.48
0.9
D.F. AB = D.F .DC = = 0.61
1.48
0.58
D.F. cols = = 0.39
1.48

Joints B and C
∑ k = 0.9 + 1.35 + 0.58 = 2.83
0.9
D.F. BA = D.F .CD = = 0.32
2.83
1.35
D.F. BC = D.F .CB = = 0.48
2.83
0.58
D.F. cols = = 0.20
2.83

The critical loading arrangements for the ultimate limit state are identical to those for the continuous beam in
example 4.2, and they are illustrated in figure 4.5. The moment distribution for the first loading arrangement is
shown in table 4.2. In the table, the distribution for each upper and lower column have been combined, since this
simplifies the layout for the calculations.

Page 9 of 17
CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER IV

Table 4.2 Moment distribution for the first loading case

A B C D
Cols. AB BA Cols. BC CB Cols. CD DC Cols.
( M) ( M) ( M) ( M)
D.F.s 0.39 0.61 0.32 0.20 0.48 0.48 0.20 0.32 0.61 0.39
Load kN 292 135 292

F.E.M. 146 146 45.0 45.0 146 146

Bal. 56.9 89.1 32.3 20.2 48.5 48.5 20.2 32.3 89.1 56.9

C.O. 16.2 44.6 24.2 24.2 44.6 16.2

Bal. 6.3 9.9 22.0 13.8 33.0 33.0 13.5 22.0 9.9 6.3

C.O. 11.0 5.0 16.5 16.5 5.0 11.0

Bal. 4.3 6.7 6.9 4.3 10.3 10.3 4.3 6.9 6.7 4.3

C.O. 3.4 3.4 5.2 5.2 3.4 3.4

Bal. 1.3 2.1 2.8 1.7 4.1 4.1 1.7 2.8 2.1 1.3

M (kN m) 68.8 68.8 135.0 40.0 95.0 95.0 40.0 135.0 68.8 68.8

The shearing forces and the maximum span moments can be calculated from the formulae of section Continuous
beams (page 3). For the first loading arrangement and span AB:
load ( M AB − M BA )
Shear V AB = −
2 L
292.5 (−68.8 + 135.0)
= − = 135KN
2 6.0
VBA = load − V AB
= 292.5 − 135 = 157 KN
2
V AB
Maximum moments, span AB = + M AB
2w
135 2
= − 68.8 = 118KNm
2 × 48.75
V 135
Distance from A, a3 = AB = = 2.8m
w 48.75
Figure 4.13 shows the bending moments in the beams for each loading arrangement; figure 4.14 shows the shearing
forces. These diagrams have been combined in figure 4.15 to give the design envelopes for bending moments and
shearing forces.
The moment in each column is given by
k col
M col = ∑ M col ×
∑ k col
Thus, for the first loading arrangement and taking ∑M col from table 4.2 gives
0.31
Column moment M AJ = 68.8 × = 37 kNm
0.58
0.27
M AE = 68.8 × = 32 kNm
0.58

Page 10 of 17
CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER IV

0.31
M BK = 40 × = 21 kNm
0.58
0.27
M BF = 40 × = 19 kNm
0.58

This loading arrangement gives the maximum column moments, as plotted in figure 4.16.
135 157
135 135
69 95 95 69
67.5
28
(1) (1)

67.5

118 118 135

157
107 107 91 111
88 88 97.5
45 45

(2) (2)
10
97.5 91
77 77
147 133 111
115 102 111
106
67 80
46

(3) (3)
1

79 89 92
114
160 160
147
102 115
80 67 92 89
46

(4) (4)
1

79 106
114 111
133

Fig 4.13 Beam bending moment diagrams (kNm) Fig.4.14 Beam shearing-force diagrams (kN)

147 147
69 115 115 69
28
kN m
10

118 118

37 21 21 37
160 32 32
135 19 19

106

kN

106
135
160

Fig 4.15 Bending-moment and shearing-force Fig.4.16 Column bending moments (kNm)
envelopes

Page 11 of 17
CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER IV

Example 4.4 Analysis of a substitute frame for a column

The substitute frame for this example, shown in figure 4.17, is taken from the building frame in figure 4.10. The
loading to cause maximum column moments is shown in the figure for Gk = 25 KN / m and Qk = 10 KN / m .
The stiffnesses of these members are identical to those calculated in
example 4.3, except that for this type of frame the beam stiffnesses are

3.5m
1.35G k + 1.5 Q k halved. Thus
1.35G k
= 292.5kN = 135kN 1
A B C k AB = × 0.9 × 10 −3 = 0.45 × 10 −3
2

4.0m
1
k BC = × 1.35 × 10 −3 = 0.675 × 10 −3
2
−3
Upper column kU = 0.31 × 10
6.0m 4.0m
Lower column k L = 0.27 × 10 −3
Fig 4.17 Substitute frame ∑ k = (0.45 + 0.675 + 0.31 + 0.27) ×10 −3
= 1.705 × 10 −3

6
Fixed-end moment M BA = 292.5 × = 146 kNm
25
4
Fixed-end moment M BC = 135 × = 45 kNm
25 18
Column moments are 16 kNm
0.31
Upper column M U = (146 − 45) × = 18 kNm
1.705
0.27
Lower column M L = (146 − 45) × = 16 kNm
1.705
Fig 4.18 Column moments
The column moments are illustrated in figure 4.18. They should be compared with the corresponding moments for
the internal column in figure 4.16.

Lateral loads on frames

Lateral loads on a structure may be caused by wind pressures, by retained earth, or by seismic forces.
The vertical-loading analysis can be carried out by the method described previously. The analysis for the lateral
loads should be kept separate. The forces may be calculated by an elastic computer analysis or by a simplified
approximate method.
A suitable approximate analysis is the cantilever method. It assumes that:
1. points of contraflexure are located at the mid-points of all columns and beams; and
2. the direct axial loads in the columns are in proportional to their distances from the centre of gravity of the frame.
It is also usual to assume that all the columns in a storey are equal cross-sectional area.

Example 4.5 Simplified analysis for lateral loads-cantilever method

Figure 4.19 shows a building frame subjected to a characteristic wind action of 3.0kN per metre height of the
frame. This action is assumed to be transferred to the frame as a concentrated load at each floor level as indicated in
the figure.
By inspection , there is tension in the two columns to the left and compression in the columns to the right; and by
assumption 2 the axial forces in columns are proportional to their distances from the centre line of the frame.

Page 12 of 17
CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER IV

5.25kN

3.5
10.5kN 4 th

3.5
10.5kN

lateral load= 3.0kN/m

3 rd

3.5
11.25kN 2 nd

4.0
12.0kN 1 st

4.0
6.0kN

6.0 4.0 6.0

Fig 4.19 Frame with lateral load

CL

F1= 0.54 F2= 0.675 F3= 0.54

5.25

1.75
s
H1= 0.93 H2= 1.70 H3= 1.70 H4= 0.93
N1= 4.0P N2= 1.0P N3= 1.0P N4= 4.0P
= 0.54 = 0.135 = 0.135 = 0.54
(a) Roof

0.54 0.135 0.135 0.54

0.93 1.70 1.70 0.93
2.16 2.705 2.16
1.75 1.75

10.5

t t'
2.78 5.1 5.1 2.78
2.70 0.68 0.68 2.70
(b) 4th floor
Fig 4.20 Subframes at the roof and 4th floor
Thus
Axial force in exterior column: axial force in interior column = 4.0 P : 1.0 P
The analysis of the frame continues by considering a section through the top-storey columns: the removal of the
frame below this section gives the remainder shown in figure 4.20a. The forces in this subframe are calculated as
follows.
(a) Axial Forces in the Columns
Taking moments about point s, ∑
M s = 0 , therefore
5.25 × 1.75 + P × 6.0 − P × 10.0 − 4 P × 16.0 = 0
and therefore
P = 0.135 kN
Page 13 of 17
CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER IV

thus
N1 = − N 4 = 4.0 P = 0.54kN
N 2 = − N 3 = 1.0 P = 0.135kN
(b) Vertical Shearing Forces F in the Beams
For each part of the subframe, ∑
F = 0 , therefore
F1 = N1 = 0.54kN
F2 = N1 + N 2 = 0.675kN

(c) Horizontal Shearing Forces H in the Columns

Taking moments about the points of contra flexure of each beam, ∑ M = 0 , therefore
H 1 × 1.75 − N1 × 3.0 = 0
H 1 = 0.93 kN
and
( H 1 + H 2 )1.75 − N1 × 8.0 − N 2 × 2.0 = 0
H 2 = 1.70 kN
The calculations of the equivalent forces for the fourth floor (figure 4.20 b) follow a similar procedure, as follows.
(d) Axial Forces in the Columns
For the frame about section tt ′ , ∑ M t = 0 , therefore
5.25(3 × 1.75) + 10.5 × 1.75 + P × 6.0 − P × 10.0 − 4 P × 16.0 = 0
P = 0.675 kN
therefore
N1 = 4.0 P = 2.70kN
N 2 = 1.0 P = 0.68kN
(e) Beam Shears
F1 = 2.70 − 0.54 = 2.16 kN
F2 = 2.70 + 0.68 − 0.54 − 0.135 = 2.705 kN
(f) Column Shears
H1 × 1.75 + 0.93 × 1.75 − (2.70 − 0.54)3.0 = 0
H1 = 2.78 kN
1
H2 = (10.5 + 5.25) − 2.78 = 5.1 kN
2
Values calculated for sections taken below the remaining floors are
third floor N1 = 7.03 kN N 2 = 1.76 kN
F1 = 4.33 kN F2 = 5.41 kN
H1 = 4.64 kN H 2 = 8.49 kN
second floor N1 = 14.14 kN N 2 = 3.53 kN
F1 = 7.11 kN F2 = 8.88 kN
H1 = 6.61 kN H 2 = 12.14 kN
first floor N1 = 24.37 kN N 2 = 6.09 kN
F1 = 10.23 kN F2 = 12.79 kN
H1 = 8.74 kN H 2 = 16.01 kN
The bending moments in the beams and columns at their connections can be calculated from these results by the
following formulae
1
beams M B = F × 2 beam span
1
columns M C = H × 2 storey height
Page 14 of 17
CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER IV

so that the roof’s external connection

1
M B = 0.54 × × 6.0 = 1.6 kN m
2
1
M C = 0.93 × × 3.5 = 1.6 kN m
2
As a check at each joint, ∑ M B =∑ M C .
The bending moments due to characteristic wind loads in all the columns and beams of this structure are shown in
figure 4.21.
1.6 1.4 1.6
1.6 3.0
1.6 1.4 1.6
6.5 5.4 6.5
1.6 4.9 3.0 8.9
6.5 5.4 6.5
13.0 10.8 13.0
4.9 8.1 8.9 14.9
13.0 21.3 10.8 13.0 21.3
17.8
8.1 13.2 14.9 24.3
21.3 30.7 17.8 21.3 30.7
25.6
13.2 17.5 24.3 32.0
30.7 25.6 30.7
17.5 32.0 32.0

24.4 6.1 6.1 24.4

External Internal
Column Beams Column
Fig 4.21 Moments (kN m) and reactions (kN)

4.5 Redistribution of moments

Some method of elastic analysis is generally used to calculate the forces in a concrete structure, despite the fact that
the structure does not behave elastically near its ultimate load. The assumption of elastic behaviour is reasonably
true for low stress levels; but as a section approaches its ultimate moment of resistance, plastic deformation will
occur. This is recognized in EC2, by allowing redistribution of the elastic moments subject to certain limitations.
Reinforced concrete behaves in a manner midway between that of steel and concrete. The stress-strain curves for
the two materials (figures 2.3 and 2.2) show the elastoplastic behaviour of steel and the plastic behaviour of
concrete. The latter will fail at a relatively small compressive strain. The exact behaviour of a reinforced concrete
section depends on the relative quantities and the individual properties of the two materials. However, such a
section may be considered virtually elastic until the steel yields ; and then plastic until the concrete fails in
compression. Thus the plastic behaviour is limited by the concrete failure ; or more specifically, the concrete failure
limits the rotation that may take place at a section in bending.
Thus, in an indeterminate structure, once a beam section develops its ultimate moment of resistance M u , it then
behaves as a plastic hinge resisting a constant moment of that value. Further loading must be taken by other parts of
the structure, with the changes in moment elsewhere being just the same as if a real hinge existed. Provided rotation
of a hinge does not cause crushing of the concrete, further hinges will be formed until a mechanism is produced.

Example 4.6 Moment redistribution

In example 4.3, figure 4.13, it is requited to reduce the maximum support moment of M BA = 147 kNm as much as
possible , but without increasing the span moment above the present maximum value of 118 kN m.

Page 15 of 17
CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER IV

147
115 102
67 80
46

79
114
(a) Original Moments (kNm)

140 108 102

67 80
46

79
118
(b) Redistributed Moments (kNm)

134
105 111

90 92
158.5
(c) Shears (kN)

Fig 4.22 Moments and shears after redistribution

Figure 4.22a duplicates the original bending-moment diagram (part 3 of figure 4.13) of example 4.3 while figure
4.22b shows the redistributed moments, with the span moment set at 118 kN m. The moment at support B can be
calculated, using a rearrangement of equations 4.4 and 4.1 . Thus
V AB = [( M max − M AB )2 w]
and
 wL 
M BA = V AB −  L + M AB
 2 
For span AB, w = 48.75kN/m , therefore
V AB = [(118 + 67) × 2 × 48.75] = 134kN
 48.75 × 6.0 
M BA = 134 − 6.0 − 67 = 140kNm
 2 
and
VBA = 292.5 − 134 = 158.5kN
Reduction in M BA = 147 − 140
= 7 kNm
7 ×100
= = 4.8 per cent
147
In order to ensure that the moments in the columns at joint B are not changed by the distribution, moment M BC
must also be reduced by 7 kN m. Therefore
M BC = 115 − 7 = 108kNm hogging
For the revised moments in BC:
(108 − 80) 195
VBC = + = 105kN
4 2
Page 16 of 17
CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER IV

VCB = 195 − 105 = 90kN

For span BC:
105 2
M max = − 108 = 5kNm sagging
2 × 48.75
Figure 4.22c shows the revised shearing-force diagram to accord with the redistributed moments. This example
illustrates how, with redistribution
1. the moments at a section of beam can be reduced without exceeding the maximum design moments at other
sections;
2. the values of the column moments are not affected ; and
3. the equilibrium between external loads and internal forces is maintained.

Page 17 of 17
CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER V

CHAPTER V. ANALYSIS OF THE SECTION

5.1 Stress-strain relations

Short-term stress-strain curves for concrete and steel are presented in EC2. These curves are in an idealized form
which can be used in the analysis of member sections.
Concrete
The behaviour of structural concrete (figure 5.1) is represented by a parabolic stress-strain relationship, up to a
strain ε c 2 , from which point the strain increases while the stress remains constant. The ultimate design is given by
αf ck 0.85 f ck
=
γc 1.5
= 0.567 f ck
where the factor of 0.85 allows for the difference between the bending strength and the cylinder crushing strength
of the concrete, and γ c = 1.5 is the usual partial safety factor for the strength of concrete. The ultimate strain of
ε cu 2 = 0.0035 is typical for classes of concrete ≤ C 50 / 60 . These are the classes most commonly used in
reinforced concrete construction.
Parabolic 0.85f ck
curve
2
Stress N/mm

c2 cu2

0.0020 0.0035
Strain
Fig.5-1 Parabolic-rectangular stress-strain diagram for concrete in compression

Reinforcing steel
The representative short-term design stress-strain curve for reinforcement is given in figure 5.2. the behaviour of
the steel identical in tension and compression, being linear in the elastic range up to the design yield stress of
f yk / γ s where f yk is the characteristic yield stress and γ s is the partial factor of safety.

f yk
S
Tension and
compression
2
Stress N/mm

2
200 KN/mm

Strain
Fig.5-2 Short-term design stress-strain curve for reinforcement

Within the elastic range, the relationship between the stress and strain is
Stress = elastic modulus × strain
= Es × ε s (5-1)

Page 1 of 18
CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER V

 f yk 
so that the design yield strain is ε y =   / E s
 γs 
at the ultimate limit for f yk = 500 N / mm 2
ε y = 500 /(1.15 × 200 × 10 3 )
= 0.00217

5.2 Distribution of strains and stress across a section in bending

The theory of bending for reinforcement concrete assumes that the concrete will crack in the regions of tensile
strains and that, after cracking, all tension is carried by the reinforcement. It is also assumed that plane sections of a
structural member remain plane after straining, so that across the section there must be a distribution of strain.
b
cc

d' s=0.8x
A's sc x
neutral
d axis

As

st (a) (b) (c)

triangular rectangular equivalent
parabolic rectangular
Section Strain Stress blocks
Fig.5-3 Section with strain diagram and stress blocks

Figure 5.3 shows the cross-section of a member subjected to bending, and the resultant strain diagram, together
with three different types of stress distribution in the concrete:
1. The triangular stress distribution applies when the stresses are very nearly proportional to the strains, which
generally occurs at the loading levels encountered under working conditions and is, therefore, used at the
serviceability limit state.
2. The rectangular-parabolic stress block represents the distribution at failure when the compressive strains are
within the plastic range, and it is associated with the design for the ultimate state.
3. The equivalent rectangular stress block is a simplified alternative to the rectangular-parabolic distribution.
where b = beam width
d = effective depth of the beam
d ′ = depth of the compression steel
As = Area of tension steel
′
As = Area of compression steel
ε cc = ultimate strain of concrete in compression
ε sc = strain of steel in compression
ε st = strain of steel in tension
x = depth of neutral axis
s = 0.8 x = depth of equivalent stress block
As there is compatibility of strains between the reinforcement and the adjacent concrete, the steel strains ε st in
tension and ε sc in compression can be determined from the strain diagram. The relationships between the depth of
neutral axis (x) and the maximum concrete strain ( ε cu 2 ) and the steel strains are given by
d − x
ε st = ε cu 2   (5-2)
 x 
and
Page 2 of 18
CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER V

 x − d′
ε sc = ε cu 2   (5-3)
 x 
Having determined the strains, we can evaluate the stresses in the reinforcement from the stress-strain curve of
figure 5-2, together with the equations developed in section reinforcing steel.
For analysis of a section with known steel strains, the depth of the neutral axis can be determined by rearranging
equation 5-2 as
d
x= (5-4)
ε
1 + st
ε cu 2
At the ultimate limit state the maximum compressive strain in the concrete is taken as ε cu 2 = 0.0035 for concrete
class ≤ 50 / 60 .
For steel with f yk = 500 N / mm 2 the yield strain is ε y = 0.00217 .
Inserting these values for ε cu 2 and ε y into equation 5-4:
d d
x= = = 0.617 d
ε st 0.00217
1+ 1+
ε cu 2 0.0035
Hence, to ensure yielding of the tension steel at the ultimate limit state:
x ≤ 0.617 d

At the ultimate limit state it is important that member sections in flexure should be ductile and that failure should
occur with the gradual yielding of the tension steel and not by a sudden catastrophic compression failure of the
concrete. Also, yielding of the reinforcement enables the formation of plastic hinges so that redistribution of
maximum moments can occur, resulting in a safer and more economical structure. To ensure rotation of the plastic
hinges with sufficient yielding of the tension steel and also to allow for other factors such as the strain hardening of
the steel, EC2 limits the depth of neutral axis to
x ≤ 0.45d
for concrete class ≤ 50 / 60 .
This is the limiting maximum value for x given by EC2 with no redistribution applied to the moments calculated by
an elastic analysis of the structure. When moment redistribution is applied these maximum values of x are reduced.

5.3 Bending and the equivalent rectangular stress block

For most reinforced concrete structures it is usual to commence the design for the conditions at the ultimate limit
state, followed by checks to ensure that the structure is adequate for the serviceability limit state without excessive
deflection or cracking of the concrete. For this reason the analysis will first consider the simplified rectangular
stress block which can be used for the design at the ultimate limit state.
The rectangular stress block as shown in figure 5-4 may be used in preference to the more rigorous rectangular-
parabolic stress block.
b 0.85f ck / =0.567fck
0.0035 C

s/2
x s=0.8x
neutral Fcc
d axis z
As

st Fst

Section Strain Stress block

Fig.5-4 Singly reinforced section with rectangular stress block
Page 3 of 18
CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER V

The design equations derived bellow are for zero redistribution of moments. When moment redistribution is
applied, reference should be made to section 5.7 which describes how to modify the design equations.

5.4 Singly reinforced rectangular section in bending at the ultimate limit state
Design equations for bending
Bending of the section will induce a resultant tensile force Fst in the reinforcing steel, and a resultant compressive
force in the concrete Fcc which acts through the centroid of the effective area of concrete in compression, as shown
in figure 5-4.
For equilibrium, the ultimate design moment, M , must be balanced by the moment of resistance of the section so
that
M = Fcc z = Fst z (5.5)
where z the lever arm between the resultant forces Fcc and Fst
Fcc = stress × area of action
= 0.567 f ck × bs
and
z = d −s/2 (5.6)
so that substituting in equation 5.5
M = 0.567 f ck bs × z
and replacing s from equation 5.6 gives
M = 1.134 f ck b(d − z ) × z (5.7)
Rearranging and substituting K = M / bd 2 f ck :
( z / d ) 2 − ( z / d ) + K / 1.134 = 0
Solving this quadratic equation:
[
z = s 0.5 + (0.25 − K / 1.134) ] (5.8)
in equation 5.5
Fst = ( f y / γ s ) As with γ s = 1.15
= 0.87 f yk As
Hence
M
As = (5.9)
0.87 f yk z
Equations 5.8 and 5.9 can be used to design the area of tension reinforcement in a singly reinforced concrete
section to resist an ultimate moment, M .

The balanced section

The concrete section with the depth of neutral axis at the specified maximum depth of 0.45d is often referred to as
the balanced section because at the ultimate limit state the concrete and tension steel reach their ultimate strains at
the same time. This occurs at the maximum moment of resistance for a singly reinforced section, that is a section
with no compression steel. So for this section with
xbal = 0.45d
the depth of the stress block is
s = 0.8 xbal = 0.8 × 0.45d = 0.36d
The force in the concrete stress block is
Fcc bal = 0.567 f ck × bs = 0.204 f ck bd
For equilibrium the force in the concrete Fcc bal must be balanced by the force Fst bal in the steel. So that
Fst bal = 0.87 f yk As bal = 0.204 f ck bd
Therefore
As bal = 0.234 f ck bd / f yk
So that

Page 4 of 18
CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER V

100 As bal f ck
= 23.4 per cent
bd f yk
which is the steel percentage for a balanced section which should not be exceeded for a ductile singly reinforced
section.
Thus, for example, with f ck = 25 N / mm 2 and f yk = 500 N / mm 2
100 As bal 25
= 23.4 × = 1.17 per cent
bd 500
The ultimate moment of resistance of the balanced section is M bal = Fcc bal z bal where
z bal = d − s / 2 = 0.82d
Substituting for Fcc bal and z:
M bal = 0.167 f ck bd 2 (5.10)
and
Md
= 0.167 = K bal
f ck bd 2
Md
When the design moment M d is such that > K bal = 0.167 then the section cannot be singly reinforced
f ck bd 2
and compression reinforcing steel is required in the compression zone of the section.

Example 5.1 Design of a singly rectangular section

The ultimate design moment to be resisted by the section in figure 5-5 is 185KNm. Determine the area of tension
reinforcement ( As ) required given the characteristic material strength are f yk = 500 N / mm 2 and
f ck = 25 N / mm 2 .
b=260

M
K=
bd 2 f ck
d=440

185 × 10 6
= = 0.147 < 0.167
260 × 440 2 × 25
therefore compression steel is not required. As

Lever arm:
  K  
z = d 0.5 +  0.25 −  Fig.5-5 Design example-singly reinforced section
  1.134  
  0.147  
= 4400.5 +  0.25 − 
  1.134  
= 373 mm
Area of tension reinforcement:
M
As =
0.87 f yk z
185 × 10 6
=
0.87 × 500 × 373
= 1140 mm 2

Page 5 of 18
CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER V

Analysis equation for a singly reinforced section

The following equations may be used to calculate the moment of resistance of a given section with a known area of
steel reinforcement.
For equilibrium of the compressive force in the concrete and the tensile force in the steel in figure 5-4:
Fcc = Fst
or
0.567 f ck b × s = 0.87 f yk As
Therefore depth of stress block is
0.87 f yk As
s= (5.11)
0.567 f ck b
and
x = s / 0.8
Therefore the moment of resistance of the section is
M = Fst × z
= 0.87 f yk As (d − s / 2)
 0.87 f yk As 
= 0.87 f yk As  d −  (5.12)
 1.134 f ck b 
These equations assume the tension reinforcement has yielded, which will be the case if x < 0.617 d .

Example 5.2 Analysis of a singly reinforced rectangular section in bending

Determine the ultimate moment of resistance of the cross-section shown in figure 5.6 given that the characteristic
strengths are f yk = 500 N / mm 2 for the reinforcement and f ck = 25 N / mm 2 for the concrete.

b=300 0.567fck

x s
neutral Fcc
d=520

axis z
2
A s =1470mm

Fst
Fig.5-6 Analysis example –singly reinforced section
For equilibrium of the compressive and tensile forces on the section
Fcc = Fst
therefore
0.567 f ck b × s = 0.87 f yk As
0.567 × 25 × 300 × s = 0.87 × 500 × 1470
therefore
s = 150 mm
and
x = s / 0.8 = 150 / 0.8
= 188 mm
This value of x is less than the value of 0.617d derived from section 5.2, and therefore the steel has yielded and
f st = 0.87 f yk as assumed.
Moment of resistance of the section is
M = Fst × z
= 0.87 f yk As (d − s / 2)
= 0.87 × 500 × 1470(520 − 150 / 2) × 10 −6 = 284 KNm

Page 6 of 18
CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER V

5.5 Rectangular section in bending with compression reinforcement at the ultimate limit state
(a) Derivation of basic equations
It should be noted that the equations in this section have been derived for the case of zero moment redistribution.
When this is not the case, reference should be made to section 5.7 which deals with the effect of moment
redistribution.
b
0.0035 0.567fck

d' Fsc
A's sc x=0.45d s=0.8x
neutral Fcc
d axis
Z bal
As

st Fst

Section Strain Stress block

Fig.5-7 Section with compression reinforcement

From the section dealing with the analysis of a singly reinforced section and for concrete class not greater than
C50/60 when M > 0.167 f ck bd 2 the design moment exceeds the moment of resistance of the concrete ( M bal )
and therefore compression reinforcement is required. For this condition the depth of neutral axis, x < 0.45d , the
maximum value allowed by the code in order to endure a tension failure with a ductile section. Therefore
z bal = d − s bal / 2 = d − 0.8 x bal / 2
= d − 0.8 × 0.45d / 2
= 0.82d
For equilibrium of the section in figure 5-7
Fst = Fcc + Fsc
so that with the reinforcement at yield
0.87 f yk As = 0.567 f ck bs + 0.87 f yk As′
or with
s = 0.8 × 0.45d = 0.36d
0.87 f yk As = 0.204 f ck bd + 0.87 f yk As′ (5.13)
and taking moments about the centroid of the tension steel,
M = Fcc × z bal + Fsc (d − d ′)
= 0.204 f ck bd × 0.82d + 0.87 f yk As′ (d − d ′)
= 0.167 f ck bd 2 + 0.87 f yk As′ (d − d ′) (5.14)
From equation 5.14
M − 0.167 f ck bd 2
As′ = (5.15)
0.87 f yk (d − d ′)
Multiplying both sides of equation 5.13 by z = 0.82d and rearranging gives
0.167 f ck bd 2
As = + As′ (5.16)
0.87 f yk × z bal
with z bal = 0.82d .
Hence the areas of compression steel, As′ , and tension steel, As , can be calculated from equations 5.15 and 5.16.
Substituting K bal = 0.167 and K = M / bd 2 f ck into these equations would convert them into:
( K − K bal ) f ck bd 2
As′ = (5.17)
0.87 f yk (d − d ′)

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CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER V

K bal f ck bd 2
As = + As′ (5.18)
0.87 f yk × z bal
In this analysis it has been assumed that the compression steel has yielded so that the steel stress f sc = 0.87 f yk .
From the proportions of the strain distribution diagram:
ε sc 0.0035
= (5.19)
x − d′ x
so that
x − d′ ε sc
=
x 0.0035
or
d′ ε sc
= 1−
x 0.0035
At yield with f yk = 500 N / mm 2 , the steel strain ε sc = ε y = 0.00217 . Therefore for yielding of the compression
steel
d′ 0.00217
< 1− < 0.38 (5.20)
x 0.0035
or with x = 0.45d
d′
< 0.171 (5.21)
d
The ratio of d ′ / d for yielding of other grades of steel can be determined by using their yield strain in equation
5.19, but for values of f yk less than 500 N / mm 2 , the application of equation 5.21 will provide an adequate safe
check.
If d ′ / d > 0.171 , then it is necessary to calculate the strain ε sc from equation 5.19 and then determine f sc from
f sc = E s × ε sc
= 200000ε sc
This value of stress for the compressive steel must then be used in the denominator of equation 5.15 in place of
0.87 f yk in order to calculate the area As′ of compression steel. The area of tension steel is calculated from a
modified equation 5.16 such that
0.167 f ck bd 2 f sc
As = + As′ ×
0.87 f yk × z bal 0.87 f yk
The above equations apply for the case where the concrete class is less than or equal to C50/60. The constants for
concretes up to class C50/60 are tabulated in table 5.1.

Table 5-1 Limiting constant values

Concrete class ≤ C 50 / 60
Limiting x bal / d 0.45
Maximum z bal 0.82d
K bal = limiting K 0.167
Limiting d ′ / d 0.171
Maximum percentage steel area 100 Abal / bd 23.4 f ck / f yk

Page 8 of 18
CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER V

Example 5.3 Design of a rectangular section with compression reinforcement (no moment redistribution)
The section shown in figure 5-8 is to resist an ultimate design moment of 285 KNm . The characteristic material
strengths are f yk = 500 N / mm 2 and f ck = 25 N / mm 2 . Determine the areas of reinforcement required.

b=260 M
K=
bd 2 f ck
d ' =50
285 × 10 6
A's = = 0.226
260 × 440 2 × 25
d=440

> 0.167
therefore, compression steel is required
As d ′ / d = 50 / 440 = 0.11 < 0.171
as in equation 5.21 and the compression steel will have yielded.

Fig.5-8 Design example with

compression reinforcement,
no moment redistribution

Compression steel:
( K − K bal ) f ck bd 2
As′ =
0.87 f yk (d − d ′)
(0.226 − 0.167)25 × 260 × 440 2
=
0.87 × 500(440 − 50)
= 438 mm 2

Tension steel:
K bal f ck bd 2
As = + As′
0.87 f yk × z bal
0.167 × 25 × 260 × 440 2
= + 438
0.87 × 500(0.82 × 440)
= 1339 + 438 = 1777 mm 2

Example 5.4 Analysis of a doubly reinforced rectangular section

Determine the ultimate moment of resistance of the cross-section shown in figure 5-9 given that the characteristic
strengths are f yk = 500 N / mm 2 for the reinforcement and f ck = 25 N / mm 2 for the concrete.
b=280
0.567fck

d ' =50 Fsc

s=0.8x
A's =628 Fcc
d=510

As =2410

Fst
Section Stress block
Fig.5.9 Analysis example, doubly reinforced section
Page 9 of 18
CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER V

For equilibrium of the tensile and compressive forces on the section:

Fst = Fcc + Fsc
Assuming initially that the steel stresses f st and f sc are the design yield values, then
0.87 f yk As = 0.567 f ck bs + 0.87 f yk As′
therefore
0.87 f yk ( As − As′ )
s=
0.567 f ck b
0.87 × 500(2410 − 628)
=
0.567 × 25 × 280
= 195 mm
x = s / 0.8 = 195 / 0.8 = 244 mm
x / d = 244 / 510 = 0.48 < 0.617 (see section 5.2)
so the tension steel will have yielded. Also
d ′ / x = 50 / 244 = 0.2 < 0.38 (see equation 5.20)
so the compression steel will also have yielded, as assumed.
Taking moment about the tension steel
M = Fcc (d − s / 2) + Fsc (d − d ′)
= 0.567 f ck bs (d − s / 2) + 0.87 f yk As′ (d − d ′)
= [0.567 × 25 × 280 ×195(510 − 195 / 2) + 0.87 × 500 × 620(510 − 50)]×10 −6
= 319 + 124 = 443 KNm

5.6 Flanged section in bending at the ultimate limit state

T-section and L-section which have their flanges in compression can be designed or analysed in a similar manner,
and the equations which are derived can be applied to either type of cross-section. As the flanges generally provide
a large compressive area, it is usually unnecessary to consider the case where compression steel is required; if it
should be required, the design would be based on the principles derived in section Flanged section with
compression reinforcement.
For the singly reinforced section it is necessary to consider two conditions:
1. the stress block lies within the compression flange, and
2. the stress block extends below the flange.

Flanged section- the depth of the stress block lies within the flange, s < h f

bf 0.567f ck

s/2
hf s=0.8x
x
neutral axis
Fcc
d z
As
Fst
bw
Section Stress block

Fig. 5-10 T-section, stress block within the flange, s < h f

For this depth of stress block, the beam can be considered as an equivalent rectangular section of breadth b f equal
to the flange width. This is because the non-rectangular section below the neutral axis is in tension and is, therefore,
considered to be cracked and inactive. Thus K = M / b f d 2 f ck can be calculated and the lever arm determined
from equation 5.8. The relation between the lever arm, z, and depth, x, of the neutral axis is given by

Page 10 of 18
CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER V

z = d −s/2
or
s = 2(d − z )
If s is less than the flange thickness ( h f ), the stress block does lie within the flange as assumed and the area of
reinforcement is given by
M
As =
0.87 f yk z

Example 5.5 Analysis of a flanged section

Determine the ultimate moment of resistance of the T-section shown in figure 5-11. the characteristic material
strengths are f yk = 500 N / mm 2 and f ck = 25 N / mm 2 .
b f =800 0.567f ck

s/2
h f =150 neutral axis
x s
Fcc
d=420

As =1470mm2
Fst
Section Stress block

Fig.5-11 Analysis example of a T-section, s < h f

Assume initially that the stress block depth lies within the flange and the reinforcement is strained to the yield, so
that f st = 0.87 f yk .
For equilibrium of the section
Fcc = Fst
therefore
0.567 f ck b f s = 0.87 f yk As
and solving for the depth of stress block
0.87 × 500 × 1470
s=
0.567 × 25 × 800
= 56 mm < h f = 150 mm
x = s / 0.8 = 56 / 0.8 = 70 mm
Hence the stress block does lie within the flange and with this depth of neutral axis the steel will have yielded as
assumed.
Lever arm:
z = d −s/2
= 420 − 56 / 2
= 392 mm
Taking moments about the centroid of the reinforcement the moment of resistance is
M = Fcc × z
= 0.567 f ck b f sz
= 0.567 × 25 × 800 × 56 × 392 ×10 −6
= 249 KNm

Flanged section- the depth of the stress block extends below the flange, s > h f
For the design of a flanged section, the procedure described in section above (Flanged section- the depth of the
stress block lies within the flange, s < h f ) will check if the depth of the stress block extends below the flange.

Page 11 of 18
CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER V

An alternative procedure is to calculate the moment of resistance, M f , of the section with s = h f , the depth of the
flange(see equation 5.22 of example 5.6 following). Hence if the design moment, M d , is such that
Md > M f
then the stress block must extend below the flange, and
s > hf
In this case the design can be carried out by either:
(a) using an exact method to determine the depth of the neutral axis, as in example 5.6 or
(b) designing for the conservative condition of x = 0.45d , which is the maximum value of x for a singly
reinforced section and concrete class ≤ C 50 / 60.

Example 5.6 Design of a flanged section with the depth of the stress block below the flange
The T-section beam shown in figure 5.12 is required to resist an ultimate design moment of 180KNm. The
characteristic material strengths are f yk = 500 N / mm 2 and f ck = 25 N / mm 2 .
Calculate the area of reinforcement required.
bf =400
0.567fck
Fcf
hf =100 x s
neutral sw
Fcw
d =350

axis z1
z2
As
Fst
bw =200

Section Stress block

Fig.5-12 Design example of a T-section, s > h f
In figure 5.12
Fcf is the force developed in the flange
Fcw is the force in the area of web in compression
Moment of resistance, M f , of the flange is
M f = Fcf × z1
or
M f = 0.567 f ck b f h f (d − h f / 2) (5.22)
= 0.567 × 25 × 400 ×100(350 − 100 / 2) ×10 −6
= 170 KNm < 180 KNm , the design moment
Therefore, the stress block must extend below the flange.
It is now necessary to determine the depth, s w , of the web in compression, where s w = s − h f .
For equilibrium:
Applied moment
180 = Fcf × z1 + Fcw × z 2
= 170 + 0.567 f ck bw s w × z 2
= 170 + 0.567 × 25 × 200 s w (250 − s w / 2) ×10 −6
= 170 + 2835s w (250 − s w / 2) ×10 −6
This equation can be rearranged into
2
s w − 500 s w + 7.05 ×10 3 = 0
Solving this quadratic equation
s w = 15 mm
Page 12 of 18
CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER V

so that the depth of neutral axis

x = (h f + s w ) / 0.8 = (100 + 15) / 0.8
= 144 mm = 0.41d
As x < 0.45d compression reinforcement is not required.
For the equilibrium of the section
Fst = Fcf + Fcw
or
0.87 f yk As = 0.567 f ck b f h f + 0.567 f ck bw s w
0.87 × 500 × As = 0.567 × 25(400 ×100 + 200 ×15) = 610 ×10 3
Therefore
610 ×10 3
As =
0.87 × 500
= 1402 mm 2

Example 5.7 Analysis of a flanged section

Determine the ultimate moment of resistance of the T-beam section shown in figure 5.13 given f yk = 500 N / mm 2
and f ck = 25 N / mm 2 .
b f =450
0.567fck

Fcf
hf =150
s=0.8x
neutral
axis
Fcw
d =550

As =2592

Fst
b w=300

Section Stress block

Fig.5-13 Analysis example of a T-section, s > h f
The compressive force in the flange is
Fcf = 0.567 f ck b f h f
= 0.567 × 25 × 450 × 150 × 10 −3 = 957 KN
Then tensile force in the reinforcing steel, assuming it has yielded, is
Fst = 0.87 f yk As
= 0.87 × 500 × 2592 × 10 −3
= 1128kN
Therefore Fst > Fcf so that s > h f and the force in the web is
Fcw = 0.567 f ck bw ( s − h f )
= 0.567 × 25 × 300( s − 150) × 10 −3
= 4.25( s − 150)
For equilibrium
Page 13 of 18
CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER V

Fcw = Fst − Fcf

or
4.25( s − 150) = 1128 − 957
Hence
s = 190 mm
x = s / 0.8 = 190 / 0.8 = 238 mm = 0.43d
With this depth of neutral axis the reinforcement has yielded, as assumed, and
Fcw = 4.25(190 − 150) = 170 KN
(If Fcf > Fst , the stress block would not extend beyond the flange and the section would be analysed as in example
5.2 for a rectangular section of dimensions b f × d .)
Taking moments about the centroid of the reinforcement
M = Fcf (d − h f / 2) + Fcw (d − s / 2 − h f / 2)
= [957(550 − 150 / 2) + 170(550 − 190 / 2 − 150 / 2)]× 10 −3
= 519 KNm

Example 5.8 Design of a flanged section with depth of neutral axis x = 0.45d
A safe but conservative design for a flanged section with s > h f can be achieved by setting the depth of neutral
axis to x = 0.45d , the maximum depth allowed in the code. Design equations can be derived for this condition as
follows.
bf 0.567f ck

Fc2
hf 2 2 s=0.8x
1 x=0.45d
neutral Fc1
axis z1 z2

As
Fst
bw
Section Stress block
Fig.5-14 Flanged section with depth of neutral axis x = 0.45d

Depth of stress block, s = 0.8 x = 0.8 × 0.45d = 0.36d

Divide the flanged section within the depth of the stress block into areas 1 and 2 as shown in figure 5.14, so that
Area 1 = bw × s = 0.36bw d
Area 2 = (b f − bw ) × h f
and the compression forces developed by these areas are
Fc1 = 0.567 f ck × 0.36bw d = 0.2 f ck bw d
Fc 2 = 0.567 f ck h f (b f − bw )
Taking moments about Fc 2 at the centroid of the flange
M = Fst (d − h f / 2) − Fc1 ( s / 2 − h f / 2)
= 0.87 f yk As (d − h f / 2) − 0.2 f ck bw d (0.36d − h f ) / 2
Therefore
M + 0.1 f ck bw d (0.36d − h f )
As = (5.23)
0.87 f yk (d − 0.5h f )
Page 14 of 18
CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER V

This equation should not be used when h f > 0.36d .

Appling this equation to example 5.6:
180 × 10 6 + 0.1 × 25 × 200 × 350(0.36 × 350 − 100)
As =
0.87 × 500(350 − 100 / 2)
= 1414 mm (compared with 1407 mm 2 in example 5.6)
2

Before using equation 5.23 for calculating As , it is necessary to confirm that compression reinforcement is not
required. This is achieved by using equation 5.24 to check that the moment of resistance of the concrete, M bal , is
greater than the design moment, M.

Flanged section with compression reinforcement

With x = 0.45d in figure 5-14 and taking moments about As , the maximum resistance moment of the concrete is
M bal = Fc1 × z1 + Fc 2 × z 2
= 0.167 f ck bw d 2 + 0.567 f ck (b f − bw )(d − h f / 2)
(Note that the value of 0.167 was derived in equation 5.10 for the rectangular section.)
Dividing through by f ck b f d 2

M bal bw hf  bw  h f 
= 0 .167 + 0 .567 1 − 1 −  (5.25)
f ck b f d 2 bf d  b  2d 
 f  
If the applied design moment, M > M bal , compression reinforcement is required. In this case the area of
compression steel can be calculated from
M − M bal
As′ = (5.26)
0.87 f yk (d − d ′)
and considering the equilibrium of forces on the section
Fst = Fc1 + Fc 2 + Fsc
so that the area of tension steel is
0.2 f ck bw d + 0.567 f ck h f (b f − bw )
As = + As′ (5.27)
0.87 f yk
Again, d ′ / x < 0.38 , otherwise the design compressive steel stress is less than 0.87 f yk .

5.7 Moment redistribution and the design equations

The plastic behaviour of reinforced concrete at the ultimate limit state affects the distribution of moments in a
structure. To allow for this, the moments derived from an elastic analysis may be redistributed based on the
assumption that plastic hinges have formed at the sections with the largest moments. The formation of plastic
hinges requires relatively large rotations with yielding of the tension reinforcement. To ensure large strains in the
tension steel, the code of practice restricts the depth of the neutral axis according to the magnitude of the moment
redistribution carried out.
The equations for this, given by EC2 for concrete class less than or equal to C50/60 is
x bal
δ ≥ k1 + k 2
d
or
x bal
≤ (δ − k1 ) / k 2 (5.28)
d
where
moment at section after redistribution
δ= < 1.0
moment at section before redistribution
k1 and k 2 are constants from the EC2 code
x bal is the maximum value of the depth of the neutral axis which will take the limiting value of the equality of
equation 5.28 but should be less than 0.45d for class ≤ C 50 / 60.
Page 15 of 18
CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER V

The depth of the stress block is

s bal = 0.8 x bal
and the lever arm is
z bal = d − s bal / 2 (5.29)
The moment of resistance of the concrete in compression is
M bal = Fcc × z bal = 0.567 f ck bs bal × z bal
and
K bal = M bal / bd 2 f ck = 0.567 s bal × z bal / d 2
This equation for K bal and the previous equations from 5.28to 5.29 can be arranged to give
K bal = 0.454(δ − k1 ) / k 2 − 0.182[(δ − k1 ) / k 2 ]
2
(5.30)
or alternatively
 x  z 
K bal = 0.454 bal  bal 
 d  d 
From the EC2 the constants k1 and k 2 are given as: k1 = 0.44 and k 2 = 1.25 .
The relevant values of x bal , z bal and K bal for varying percentages of moment redistribution and concrete
class ≤ C 50 / 60 are shown in table 5-2.
Table 5.2 Moment redistribution design factors
Redistribution x bal / d z bal / d K bal
δ d′/ d
(%)
According to EC2, k1 = 0.44 and k 2 = 1.25
0 1.0 0.448 0.821 0.167 0.171
10 0.90 0.368 0.853 0.142 0.140
15 0.85 0.328 0.869 0.129 0.125
20 0.80 0.288 0.885 0.116 0.109
25 0.75 0.248 0.900 0.101 0.094
30 0.70 0.206 0.917 0.087 0.079

When the ultimate design moment is such that

M > K bal bd 2 f ck
or K > K bal
then compression steel is required such that
( K − K bal ) f ck bd 2
As′ = (5.31)
0.87 f yk (d − d ′)
and
K bal f ck bd 2
As = + As′ (5.32)
0.87 f yk z bal
M bal
where K= (5.33)
bd 2 f ck
If the value of d ′ / d for the section exceeds that shown in table 5.2, the compression steel will not have yielded
and the compressive stress will be less than 0.87 f yk . In such cases, the compressive stress f sc will be E s ε sc
where the strain ε sc is obtained from the proportions of the strain diagram. This value of f sc should replace
0.87 f yk in equation 5.31, and equation 5.32 becomes
K bal f ck bd 2 f sc
As = + As′ ×
0.87 f yk z bal 0.87 f yk
It should be noted that for a singly reinforced section ( K < K bal ), the lever arm is calculated from equation 5.8.

Page 16 of 18
CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER V

For a section requiring compression steel, the lever arm can be calculated from equation 5.29 or by using the
equation
[
z = d 0.5 + (0.25 − K bal / 1.134) ] (5.34)
which is similar to equation 5.8 but with K bal replacing K .

Example 5.9 Design of a section with moment redistribution applied and δ = 0.8
The section shown in figure 5.15 is subject to an ultimate design moment of 230 KNm after a 20% reduction due
to moment redistribution. The characteristic material strengths are f yk = 500 N / mm 2 and f ck = 25 N / mm 2 .
Determine the areas of reinforcement required using the constants k1 and k 2 .

(i) From first principles

b=260
Limiting neutral axis depth, x bal = (δ − k1 )d / k 2
From EC2 k1 = 0.44 and k 2 = 1.25 , d ' =50
A's
therefore x bal = (0.8 − 0.44)490 / 1.25 = 141 mm

d=490
Stress block depth s bal = 0.8 x bal = 0.8 × 141 = 113 mm
As
Lever arm z bal = d − s bal / 2 = 490 − 113 / 2 = 434 mm
Moment of resistance of the concrete
M bal = Fcc × z bal = 0.567 f ck bs bal × z bal Fig.5-15 Design example with moment
= 0.567 × 25 × 260 ×113 × 434 ×10 −6 redistribution, δ = 0.8
= 181 KNm
< 230 KNm , the applied moment
therefore compression steel is required.
d ′ / x bal = 50 / 141 = 0.35 < 0.38 (see equation 5.20)
therefore compression steel has yielded.
Compression steel:
M − M bal
As′ =
0.87 f yk (d − d ′)
(230 − 181) × 10 6
=
0.87 × 500(490 − 50)
= 256 mm 2
Tension steel:
M bal
As = + As′
0.87 f yk z bal
181 × 10 6
= + 256
0.87 × 500 × 434
= 959 + 256 = 1215 mm 2

(ii) Alternative solution applying equations developed in section 5.7

From equations 5.30 to 5.34
K bal = 0.454(δ − k1 ) / k 2 − 0.182[(δ − k1 ) / k 2 ]
2

= 0.454(0.8 − 0.44) / 1.25 − 0.182[(0.8 − 0.44) / 1.25]

2

= 0.131 − 0.015 = 0.116

which agrees with the value given in table 5.2.

Page 17 of 18
CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER V

M
K=
bd 2 f ck
230 × 10 6
=
260 × 490 2 × 25
= 0.147 > K bal = 0.116
Therefore compression steel required.
Compression steel:
( K − K bal ) f ck bd 2
As′ =
0.87 f yk (d − d ′)
(0.147 − 0.116)25 × 260 × 490 2
=
0.87 × 500(490 − 50)
= 244 mm 2
Tension steel:
[
z bal = d 0.5 + (0.25 − K bal / 1.134) ]
= d [0.5 + ]
(0.25 − 0.116 / 1.134) = 0.89d

K bal f ck bd 2
As = + As′
0.87 f yk z bal
0.116 × 25 × 260 × 490 2
= + 244
0.87 × 500 × 0.89 × 490
= 954 + 244 = 1198 mm 2

Page 18 of 18
CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER VI

CHAPTER VI. SHEAR AND BOND

6.1 Shear

The variable strut inclination method for sections that do require shear reinforcement
In order to derive the design equations the action of a reinforced concrete beam in shear is represented by an
analogous truss as shown in figure 6.2. The concrete acts as the top compression member and as the diagonal
compression members inclined at an angle θ to the horizontal. The bottom chord is the horizontal tension steel and
the vertical links are the transverse tension members. It should be noted that in this method of shear behaviour all
shear will be resisted by the provision of links with no direct contribution from the shear capacity of the concrete
itself.
X Y
b
z

zc
os
compression Fc
on on
ssi VEd ssi
tension

e e
z = 0.9d

r r
d mp mp
co co VEd / sin
tension

tension
tension Fs

zcot Section
X Y
VEd
Fig.6-2 Assumed truss for the variable strut inclination method

The analysis of the truss to derive the design equation will be carried out in the following order:
1. Consideration of the compressive strength of the diagonal concrete strut and its angle θ ;
2. Calculation of the required shear reinforcement Asw / s for the vertical ties;
3. Calculation of the additional tension steel As1 required in the bottom chord member.
The following notation is used in the equations for the shear design
Asw = the cross-sectional area of the two legs of the link
s = the spacing of the links
z = the lever arm between the upper and lower chord members of the analogous truss
f ywd = the design yield strength of the link reinforcement
f yk = the characteristic strength of the link reinforcement
VEd = the shear force due to the actions at the ultimate limit state
VEf = the ultimate shear force at the face of the support
Vwd = the shear force in the link
VRd , s = the shear resistance of the links
VRd ,max = the maximum design value of the shear which can be resisted by the concrete strut

(1) The diagonal compressive strut and the angle θ

The shear force applied to the section must be limited so that excessive compressive stresses do not occur in the
diagonal compressive struts, leading to compressive failure of the concrete. Thus the maximum design shear force
VRd ,max is limited by the ultimate crushing strength of the diagonal concrete member in the analogous truss and its
vertical component.
With reference to figure 6.2, the effective cross sectional area of concrete acting as the diagonal strut is taken as
bw × z cos θ and the design concrete stress f cd = f ck / 1.5 .
The ultimate strength of the strut = ultimate design stress × cross-sectional area
= ( f ck / 1.5) × (bw × z cos θ )
and its vertical component = [( f ck / 1.5) × (bw × z cos θ )] × sin θ

Page 1 of 8
CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER VI

so that VRd ,max = f ck bw z cos θ sin θ / 1.5

which by conversion of the trigometrical functions can be expressed as
f ck bw z
VRd ,max =
1.5(cot θ + tan θ )
In EC2 this equation is modified by the inclusion of a strength reduction factor ( v1 ) for concrete cracked in shear.
f ck bw zv1
V Rd ,max = (6.3)
1.5(cot θ + tan θ )
where the strength reduction factor takes the value of v1 = 0.6(1 − f ck / 250) and, putting z = 0.9d , equation 6.3
becomes
0.9d × bw × 0.6(1 − f ck / 250) f ck
VRd ,max =
1.5(cot θ + tan θ )
0.36bw d (1 − f ck / 250) f ck
= (6.4)
(cot θ + tan θ )
and to ensure that there is no crushing of the diagonal compressive strut:
VRd ,max ≥ VEd (6.5)
This must be checked for the maximum value of shear on the beam, which is usually taken as the shear force, V Ef ,
at face of the beam’s supports so that
VRd ,max ≥ VEf
EC2 limits θ to a value between 22 and 45 degrees.
The angle θ increases with the magnitude of the maximum shear force on the beam and hence the compressive
forces in the diagonal concrete members. It is set by EC2 to have a value 22 and 45 degrees. For most cases of
predominately uniformly distributed loading the angle θ will be 22 degrees but for heavy and concentrated loads it
can be higher in order to resist crushing of the concrete diagonal members.
(i) With θ = 22 degrees (this is the usual case for uniformly distributed loads)
From equation 6.4:
VRd ,max( 22 ) = 0.124bw d (1 − f ck / 250) f ck (6.6)
If V Rd ,max( 22 ) < V Ef then a larger value of the angle θ must be used so that the diagonal concrete strut has a larger
vertical component to balance V Ed .
(ii) With θ = 45 degrees (the maximum value of θ as allowed by EC2)
From equation 6.4:
VRd ,max( 45) = 0.18bw d (1 − f ck / 250) f ck (6.7)
which is the upper limit on the compressive strength of the concrete diagonal member in the analogous truss. When
V Ef > VRd ,max( 45) , from equation 6.7 the diagonal strut will be over stressed and the beam’s dimensions must be
increased or a higher class of concrete be used.
(iii) With θ between 22 degrees and 45 degrees
The required value for θ can be obtained by equating V Ed to V Rd ,max and solving for θ in equation 6.4 as follows:
0.36bw d (1 − f ck / 250) f ck
VED = V Rd ,max =
(cot θ + tan θ )
and
1 /(cot θ + tan θ ) = sin θ × cos θ
= 0.5 sin 2θ
therefore by substitution
 V Ed 
θ = 0.5 sin −1   ≤ 45° (6.8a)
 0.18bw d (1 − f ck / 250) f ck 
which alternatively can be expressed as:

Page 2 of 8
CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER VI

 VEd 
θ = 0.5 sin −1   ≤ 45° (6.8b)
VRd ,max( 45) 
where V Ef is the shear force at the face of the support and the calculated value of the angle θ can then be used to
determine cot θ and calculate the shear reinforcement Asw / s from equation 6.9 below (when 22° < θ < 45° ).

(2) The vertical shear reinforcement

As previously noted, all shear will be resisted by the provision of links with no direct contribution from the shear
capacity of the concrete itself. Using the method of section it can be seen that, at section X-X in figure 6.2, the
force in the vertical link member ( Vwd ) must equal the shear force ( V Ed ), that is
Vwd = VEd = f ywd Asw
f yk Asw
=
1.15
= 0.87 f yk Asw
If the links are spaced at a distance s apart, then the force in each link is reduced proportionately and is given by
s
Vwd = 0.87 f yk Asw
z cot θ
or
Vwd = VEd
Asw
= 0.87 zf yk cot θ
s
A
= 0.87 sw 0.9df yk cot θ
s
thus rearranging
Asw VEd
= (6.9)
s 0.78df yk cot θ
EC2 specifies a minimum value for Asw / s such that
Asw,min 0.08 f ck0.5bw
= (6.10)
s f yk
Equation 6.9 can be used to determine the amount and spacing of the shear links and will depend on the value of θ
used in the design. For most cases of beams with predominately uniformly distributed loads the angle θ will be 22
degrees with cot θ = 2.5 . Otherwise the value for θ can be calculated from equation 6.8.
EC2 also specifies that, for beams with predominately uniformly distributed loads, the design shear force VEd need
not be checked at a distance d from the face of the support but the shear reinforcement calculated must be
continued to the support.
Equation 6.9 can be rearranged to give the shear resistance VRd ,s of a given arrangement of links Asw / s .
Thus:
Asw
VRd ,s = × 0.78df yk cot θ (6.11)
s

3) Additional longitudinal force

When using this method of shear design it is necessary to allow for the additional longitudinal force in the tension
steel caused by the shear V Ed . This longitudinal tensile force ∆Ftd is caused by the horizontal component required
to balance the compressive force in the inclined concrete strut.
Resolving forces horizontally in the Y-Y shown in figure 6-2, the longitudinal component of the force in the
compressive strut is given by
Longitudinal force = (VEd / sin θ ) × cosθ
= VEd cot θ
Page 3 of 8
CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER VI

If it is assumed that half of this force is carried by the reinforcement in the tension zone of the beam then
the additional tensile force to be provided in the tensile zone is given by
∆Ftd = 0.5VEd cot θ (6.12)
To provide for this longitudinal force, at any section it is necessary to provide longitudinal reinforcement additional
to that required at that section to resist bending. In practice, increasing the curtailment lengths of the bottom-face
tension reinforcement can usually provide the required force.

Bent-up bars
To resist shearing forces, longitudinal tension bars may be bent up near to the supports as shown in figure 6.3. the
bent-up bars and the concrete in compression are considered to act as an analogous lattice girder and the shear
resistance of the bars is determined by taking a section X-X through the girder.
Anchorage
length
X

Asw Asw Asw

0.9d

com
p

X
s

s=0.9d(cot + cot )
(a) Single system (b) Multiple system
Fig.6.3 Bent up bars

From the geometry of part (a) of figure 6.3, the spacing of the bent-up bars is:
s = 0.9d (cot α + cot θ )
and at the section X-X the shear resistance of a single bent-up bar ( Vwd ) must equal the shear force ( VEd ).
f yk
Vwd = VEd = f ywd Asw sin α = Asw sin α = 0.87 f yk Asw sin α
1.15
where Asw is the cross-sectional area of the bent-up bar.
For a multiple system of bent-up bars, as in part (b) of figure 6.3, the shear resistance is increased proportionately
to the spacing, s. Hence:
0.9d (cot α + cot θ )
VEd = 0.87 f yk Asw sin α ×
s
0.9d (cot α + cot θ )
= number of bars crossing the crack
s
or
Asw VEd
= (6.13)
s 0.78df yk (cot α + cot θ ) sin α
This equation is analogous to equation (6.9) for the resistance of shear links. In a similar way it can be shown that,
based on crushing of the concrete in the compressive struts, the analogous equation to (6.4) is given by:
(cot θ + cot α )
VRd ,max ≤ 0.36bw d (1 − f ck / 250) f ck × (6.14)
(1 + cot 2 θ )
and the additional tensile force to be provided by the provision of additional tension steel is given by a modified
version of equation 6.12:
∆Ftd = 0.5VEd (cot θ − cot α ) (6.15)
EC2 also requires that
i) the maximum longitudinal spacing of bent-up bars limited to 0.6(1 + cot α ) ;
ii) at least 50 per cent of the required shear reinforcement should be in the form of shear links.

Page 4 of 8
CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER VI

6.2 Anchorage bond

Anchorage is the embedment of the bar into the concrete so that it can carry the load through bond between the
steel and the concrete.
The reinforcing bar subject to direct tension shown in figure 6.4 must be firmly anchored if it is not to be pulled out
of the concrete. Bars subject to forces induced by flexure must be similarly anchored to develop their design
stresses. The anchorage depends on the bond between the bar and the concrete, the area of contact and whether or
not the bar is located in a region where good bond conditions can be expected. Let:
lb = basic required anchorage length to prevent pull out
φ = bar size or nominal diameter
f bd = ultimate anchorage bond stress
f s = the direct tensile or compressive stress in the bar

Fig.6.4 Anchorage bond

Considering the forces on the bar
Tensile pull-out force = cross-sectional area of bar × direct stress
πφ 2
= fs
4
Anchorage force = contact area × anchorage bond stress
= (lbπφ ) × f bd
Hence
f sφ
lb =
4 f bd
and when f s = f yd , the design yield strength of the reinforcement ( = f yk / 1.15 ) the anchorage length is given by
lb = (φ / 4)([ f yk / 1.15] / f bd )
f yk φ
lb = (6.19)
4.6 f bd
Basic anchorage length
Equation 6.19 may be used to determine the basic anchorage length of bars which are either in tension or
compression. For the calculation of anchorage lengths, design values of ultimate anchorage bond stresses are
specified according to whether the bond conditions are good or otherwise.

Fig.6.5 Definition of good and poor bond conditions

Good bond conditions are considered to be when (a) bars are inclined at an angle of between 45° and 90° to the
horizontal or (b) zero to 45° provided that in this second case additional requirements are met. These additional
conditions are that bars are
Page 5 of 8
CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER VI

1. either placed in members whose depth in the direction of concreting does not exceed 250mm or
2. embedded in members with a depth greater than 250mm and are either in the lower 250mm of the member or at
least 300mm from the top surface when the depth exceeds 600mm.
These conditions are illustrated in figure 6.5. When bond conditions are poor then the specified ultimate bond
stresses should be reduced by a factor 0.7.
The design value of the ultimate bond stress is also dependent on the bar size. For all bar size ( φ ) greater than
32mm the bond stress should additionally be multiplied by a factor (132 − φ ) / 100 .
Table 6.1 gives the design values of ultimate bond stresses for ‘good’ conditions. These depend on the class of
concrete and are obtained from the equation f bd = 1.5 f ctk where f ctk is the characteristic tensile strength of the
concrete.
Table 6.1 Design values of bond stresses f bd ( N / mm 2 )
f ck N / mm 2 12 16 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
Plain bars 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7
Bars ≤ 32mm diameter and
1.6 2.0 2.3 2.7 3.0 3.4 3.7 4.0 4.3 4.5 4.7
good bond conditions
Bars ≤ 32mm diameter and
1.1 1.4 1.6 1.9 2.1 2.4 2.6 2.8 3.0 3.1 3.3
poor bond conditions

Design anchorage length

The required minimum anchorage length ( lbd ) is given by
lbd = α 1α 2 lb As ,req / As , prov (6.20)
where As ,req , As. prov = area of reinforcement required and provided at that section
α1 ,α 2 = coefficients as given in Table 6.2
In Table 6.2:
cd = concrete cover coefficients as shown in figure 6.6.
c1 a c a

c c
Straight bars Bent or hooked bars Looped bars
cd = min (a / 2, c1 , c) cd = min (a / 2, c1 ) cd = c
Fig.6.6 values of c d for beams and slabs

Table 6.2 Coefficients α

Value of Reinforcement in
α α allows for the effect of: Type of anchorage
Tension Compression
Straight 1.0 1.0
α1 The shape of the bars
0.7 if cd > 3.0φ or 1.0 if not
Other than Straight 1.0
1 − 0.15(cd − φ ) / φ
Straight 1.0
Concrete cover to the But ≥ 0.7 and ≤ 1.0
α2 reinforcement
Other than Straight 1 − 0.15(cd − 3φ ) / φ 1.0
But ≥ 0.7 and ≤ 1.0

This minimum design length must not be less than:

for tension bars: 0.3lb
for compression bars: 0.6lb
In both cases the minimum value must also exceed both 10 bar diameters and 100mm.

Page 6 of 8
CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER VI

Example 6.1 Shear resistance of a beam

The beam in figure 6.7 spans 8.0 meters on 300mm wide supports. It is required to support a uniformly distributed
ultimate load, wu of 200 KN / m . The characteristic material strengths are f ck = 30 N / mm 2 for the concrete and
f yk = 500 N / mm 2 for the steel. check if the shear reinforcement in the form of the vertical links shown can
support, in shear, the given ultimate load.
H12 stirrups at 175 spcg
b=350

d=650
H12

Section

2
2H25: As =982mm
Fig.6.7 Beam with stirrups
Total ultimate load on beam = 200 × 8.0 = 1600 KN
Support reaction = 1600 / 2 = 800 KN
Shear, VEf at face of support = 800 − 200 × 0.3 / 2 = 770 KN
Shear, VEd distance d from face of support = 770 − 200 × 0.65 = 640 KN

1. Check the crushing strength VRd ,max of the concrete diagonal strut at the face of the beams support.
From equation 6.6 with θ = 22°
VRd ,max( 22 ) = 0.124bw d (1 − f ck / 250) f ck
= 0.124 × 350 × 650(1 − 30 / 250)30
= 745 KN (< VEf = 770 KN )
From equation 6.7 with θ = 45°
VRd ,max( 45) = 0.18bw d (1 − f ck / 250) f ck
= 0.18 × 350 × 650(1 − 30 / 250)30
= 1081KN (> VEf = 770 KN )
Therefore: 22° < θ < 45° .

2. Determine angle θ
From equation 6.8(a)
 VEf 
θ = 0.5 sin −1   ≤ 45°
 0.18bw d (1 − f ck / 250) f ck 
or alternatively from equation 6.8(b)
 VEf  −1  770 
θ = 0.5 sin −1   = 0.5 sin   = 22.7°
VRd ,max( 45)  1081
From which cot θ = 2.39 and tan θ = 0.42 .

3. Determine shear resistance of the links

The cross-sectional area Asw of a 12mm bar = 113mm 2 . Thus for the two legs of the link and a spacing of 175mm
Asw 2 × 113
= = 1.29
s 175
From equation 6.11 the shear resistance, VRd , s of the links is given by

Page 7 of 8
CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER VI

Asw
VRd ,s = × 0.78df yk cot θ
s
= 1.29 × 0.78 × 650 × 500 × 2.39 × 10 −3 = 781KN
Therefore shear resistance of links = 781KN .
Design shear, VEd distance d from the face of the support = 640 KN (< 781KN ) . Therefore, the beam can support,
in shear, the ultimate load of 200 KN / m .

4. Additional longitudinal tensile force in the tension steel

It is necessary to check that the bottom tension steel has a sufficient length of curtailment, and anchorage to resist
the additional horizontal tension ∆Ftd caused by the design shear. These additional tension forces are calculated
from equation 6.12. Therefore
∆Ftd = 0.5VEd cot θ
= 0.5 × 640 × 2.39 = 765KN

Example 6.2 Calculations of anchorage length

Determine the anchorage length required for the top reinforcement of 25mm bars in the beam at its junction with
the external column as shown in figure 6.8 . The reinforcing bars are in tension resisting a hogging moment. The
characteristic strengths are f ck = 30 N / mm 2 and f yk = 500 N / mm 2 .

Fig 6.8 Anchorage for a beam framing into an end column

Assuming there is a construction joint in the column just above the beam and, as the bars are in the top of the beam,
from figure 6.5 the bond conditions are poor and from table 6.1 the ultimate anchorage bond stress is 2.1N / mm 2 .
As the bars are bent into the column and the concrete cover coefficient, c d (figure 6.6) is equivalent to 4φ , which
is greater than 3φ . From the table 6.2 coefficient α 1 is 0.7. Also from table 6.2, coefficient
α 2 = 1 − 0.15(cd − 3φ ) / φ = 1 − 0.15(4φ − 3φ ) / φ = 0.85 .
Hence the required anchorage length is
 f yk 
lbd = α 1α 2  φ
 4.6 f bd 
 500 
= 0.7 × 0.85 φ = 31φ
 4.6 × 2.1 
= 31× 25 = 775mm.

Page 8 of 8
CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER VII

CHAPTER VII. DESIGN OF REINFORCED CONCRETE BEAMS

7.0 Introduction
Reinforced concrete beam design consists primarily of producing member details which will adequately resist the
ultimate bending moments, shear forces and torsional moments. At the same time serviceability requirements must
be considered to ensure that the member will behave satisfactorily under working loads.
The design procedure consists of three basic design stages:
1. preliminary analysis and member sizing;
2. detailed analysis and design of reinforcement;
3. serviceability calculations.

7.1 Preliminary analysis and member sizing

The preliminary analysis need only provide the maximum moments and shears in order to ascertain reasonable
dimensions. Beam dimensions required are
1. cover to the reinforcement
2. breadth (b)
3. effective depth (d)
4. overall depth (h)
Adequate concrete cover is required to ensure adequate bond and to protect the reinforcement from corrosion and
damage. The necessary cover depends on the class of concrete, the exposure of the beam, and the required fire
resistance. Table 7.2 gives the nominal cover that should be provided to all reinforcement, including links. This
cover may need to be increased to meet the fire resistance requirement of the Code of Practice.

Table 7.1 Exposure class designation

Class
Description Examples of environmental conditions
designation
XO No risk of corrosion Unreinforced concrete ( no freeze/thaw, abrasion
- Very dry or chemical attack)
Reinforced concrete buildings with very low
humidity
XC Carbonation-induced corrosion risk Reinforced and prestressed concrete:
-1 - Dry or permanently wet - inside structures (except high humidity) or
-2 permanently submerged (non-aggressive water)
-3 - Wet- rarely dry - completely buried in non-aggressive soil
-4 - Moderate humidity - external surfaces (including exposed to rain)
- Cyclic wet and dry - exposed to alternate wetting and drying
XD Chloride-induced corrosion risk (not due to seawater) Reinforced and prestressed concrete:
-1 - Moderate humidity - exposed to airborne chlorides, bridge parts away
from direct spray containing de-icing agents,
occasional/slight chloride exposure
-2 - Wet, rarely dry - totally immersed in water containing chlorides
(swimming pools, industrial waters)
-3 - Cyclic wet and dry -exposed to de-icing salts and spray (bridges and
adjacent structures, pavements, car parks)
XS Chloride-induced corrosion risk (sea water) Reinforced and prestressed concrete:
-1 - Exposed to airborne salt but not in direct water contact - external in coastal areas
-2 - Permanently submerged - remaining saturated (e.g. below mid-tide level)
-3 - Tidal, splash and spray zones - in upper tidal, splash and spray zones
XF Freeze/thaw attack whilst wet Concrete surfaces exposed to freezing:
-1 - Moderate water saturation-without de-icing agent - vertical exposed to rain
-2 - Moderate water saturation-with de-icing agent - vertical (road structures) exposed to de-icing
agents as spray or run-off
-3 - High water saturation-without de-icing agent - horizontal exposed to rain or water accumulation
-4 - High water saturation-with de-icing agent or sea water - horizontal exposed to de-icing agents directly or
as spray or run-off. Others subject to frequent
splashing
XA Chemical attack
-1 - Slightly aggressive
-2 - Moderately aggressive - Defined in specialist literature
-3 - Highly aggressive

Page 1 of 27
CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER VII

Table 7.2 Cover to reinforcement

Expose class Nominal Cover(mm)
XO Not recommended for reinforced concrete
XC1 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25
XC2 - 35 35 35 35 35 35 35
XC3/4 - 45 40 35 35 30 30 30
XD1 - - 45 1
40 1
40 35 1 35 35
XD2 - - 50 2 45 2 45 1 40 2 40 40
XD3 - - - - 60 2 55 2 50 1
50
XS1 - - - - 50 1 45 1 45 40
XS2 - - 50 2 45 2 45 1 40 2 40 40
XS3 - - - - - 60 2 55 1
55
Maximum free
0.70 0.65 0.60 0.55 0.50 0.45 0.35 0.35
water/cement ratio
Minimum cement
240 260 280 300 320 340 360 380
(kg/m 3 )
Lowest concrete C20/25 C25/30 C28/35 C32/40 C35/45 C40/50 C45/55 C50/60
Notes:
1. Cement content should be increased by 20 kg/m 3 above the values shown in the table.
2. Cement content should be increased by 40 kg/m 3 AND water-cement ratio reduced by 0.05 compared with
the values shown in the table.
General Notes
These values may be reduced by 5mm if an approved quality control system is specified.
Cover should not be less than the bar diameter + 10mm to ensure adequate bond performance.
Table 7.3 Minimum concrete mix-requirement for concrete exposed to
freeze/thaw (Exposure Class XF) 20mm aggregates
Class Strength Class (maximum water/cement ratio)
No air-entrainment 3.5% air-entrainment
XF1 C25/30 (0.6) 28/35 (0.6)
XF2 C25/30 (0.6) 32/40(0.55)
XF3 1 C25/30 (0.6) 40/50(0.45)
XF4 1 C28/35 (0.55) 40/50 (0.45)
Note:
1. Freeze-thaw resisting aggregates to be specified.
Table 7.4 Minimum dimensions and axis distance for RC beams for fire resistance
Minimum dimensions (mm)
Possible combinations of a and bmin where a is the average axis distance and bmin
Standard fire resistance is the width of the beam
Simply supported Continuous
A B C D E F G H
bmin = 120 160 200 300 120 200
R60
a= 40 35 30 25 25 12
bmin = 150 200 300 400 150 250
R90
a= 55 45 40 35 35 25
bmin = 200 240 300 500 200 300 450 500
R120
a= 65 60 55 50 45 35 35 30
bmin = 280 350 500 700 280 500 650 700
R240
a= 90 80 75 70 75 60 60 50
Note: The axis distance a sd from the side of a beam to the corner bar should be a + 10mm except where bmin
is greater than the values in columns C and F
Page 2 of 27
CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER VII

The strength of a beam is affected considerably more by its depth than its breadth. The span-depth ratios usually
vary between say 14 and 30 but for larger spans the ratios can be greater. A suitable breadth may be one-third to
one-half of the depth; but it may be much less for a deep beam. At other times wide shallow beams are used to
conserve headroom. The beam should not be too narrow; if it is much less than 200mm wide there may be
difficulty in providing adequate side cover and space for the reinforcing bars.
Suitable dimensions for b and d can be decided by a few trial calculations as follow:

1. For no compression reinforcement

K = M / bd 2 f ck ≤ K bal
where
K bal = 0.167 for f ck ≤ 50
With compression reinforcement it can be shown that
M / bd 2 f ck < 8 / f ck
approximately, if the area of bending reinforcement is not to be excessive.
2. The maximum design shear force VEd ,max should not be greater than VRd ,max = 0.18bw d (1 − f ck / 250) f ck . To
avoid congested shear reinforcement, VEd ,max should preferably be somewhat closer to half ( or less) of the
maximum allowed.
3. The span-effective depth ratio for spans not exceeding 7m should be within the basic values given in table 7.5.
For spans greater than 7m the basic ratios are multiplied by 7/span.
4. The overall depth of the beam is given by
h = d + cover + t
b
where t = estimated distance from the outside of the link to the centre of the tension
bars ( see figure 7.1). For example, with nominal sized 12mm links and one
layer of 32mm tension bars, t = 28 , mm approximately. It will, in fact, be
h d slightly larger than this with deformed bars as they have a larger overall
dimension than the nominal bar size.
t cover

Fig.7.1 Beam dimensions

Span-effective depth ratios

The appearance and function of a reinforced concrete beam or slab may be impaired if the deflection under
serviceability loading is excessive. Deflections can be calculated but it is more usual to control deflections by
placing a limit on the ratio of the span to the effective depth of the beam or slab. EC2 specifies equations to
calculate basic span-effective depth ratios, to control deflections to a maximum of span/250. Some typical values
are given in the table 7.5 for rectangular sections of class C30/35 concrete and for grade 500 steel. The ratios can
also be used for flanged sections except where the ratio of the width of flange to the width of web exceeds 3 when
the basic values should be multiplied by 0.8. For two-way spanning slabs, the check for the basic span-effective
depth ratio should be based on the shorter span whereas for flat slabs calculations should be based on the longer
span.
The two columns given in the table 7.5 correspond to levels of concrete stress under serviceability conditions:
highly stressed when the steel ratio ρ exceeds 1.5 per cent and lightly stressed when ρ equals 0.5 per cent. ρ is
given by 100 As ,req / bd where As ,req is the area of tension reinforcement required in the section. Interpolation
between the values of ρ indicated is permissible. In the case of slabs it is reasonable to assume that they are lightly
stressed.
Since the value of allowable span-effective depth ratio is affected by both reinforcement ratio and concrete strength
it may be more convenient to use the chart in figure 7.2 which is for a simply supported span with no compression
steel together with a modification factor K (as shown in table 7.5) according to member type.

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CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER VII

Fig.7.2 Basic span effective depth ratios

The basic ratios are modified in particular cases as follows:

(a) For spans loner than 7m (except flat slabs) and where it is necessary to limit deflections to ensure that finishes,
such as partitions, are not damaged, the basic values should be multiplied by 7/span.
(b) For flat slabs with spans in excess of 8.5m, similarly multiply the basic ratios by 8.5/span.
(c) For characteristic steel strength other than 500 N / mm 2 , multiply the basic ratios by 500 / f yk .
(d) Where more tension reinforcement is provided ( As , prov ) than that calculated ( As ,req ) at the ultimate limit state,
multiply the basic ratios by A s , prov / A s , req (upper limit = 1.5 ).
These basic ratios assume a steel working stress of f s = 310 N / mm 2 where f yk = 500 N / mm 2 .
Table 7.5 Basic span-effective depth ratios ( f yk = 500 N / mm 2 , C30/35 concrete)
Basic span-effective depth ratio
Factor for Concrete highly Concrete
Structural system structural stressed lightly stressed
system K
( ρ = 1.5% ) ( ρ = 0.5% )
1. Simply supported beams and slabs 1.0 14 20
2. End span of continuous beams and slabs 1.3 18 26
3. Interior spans of continuous beams and slabs 1.5 20 30
4. Cantilever beams and slabs 0.4 6 8

Table 7.5 shows basic span/depth ratio for commonly occurring reinforced concrete members and support
conditions. They have been obtained using equations 7.1 and 7.2.
  
3/ 2
l  ρ0   ρ0
= K 11 + 1.5 f ck   + 3.2 f ck  − 1  if ρ ≤ ρ 0 (7.1)
d   ρ   ρ  

l   ρ0  1  ρ′ 
1/ 2

= K 11 + 1.5 f ck   + f ck    if ρ > ρ 0 (7.2)
d   ρ − ρ ′  12  ρ0  
where
l / d is the limiting span/depth ratio
K is the factor to take into account the different structural systems, given in Table 7.5
Page 4 of 27
CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER VII

ρ 0 = f ck × 10 −3
ρ is the required tension reinforcement ratio
ρ ′ is the required compression reinforcement ratio
The values in Table 7.5 assume the steel stress at the critical section, σ s , is 310 N mm −2 , corresponding roughly to
the stress under characteristic load when f yk = 500 Nmm −2 . Where other steel stresses are used, the values in the
table can be multiplied by 310 / σ s . It will normally be conservative to assume that
310 f yk As ,req
σs = (7.3)
500 As , prov
where
As ,req is the area of steel required
As , prov is the area of steels provided

Example 7.1 Span-effective depth ratio

A rectangular continuous beam of class C25/30 concrete spans 10m. If the breadth is 300mm, check the
acceptability of an effective depth of 600mm when high yield reinforcement, f yk = 500 N / mm 2 , is used. At the
ultimate limit state it is determined that 1250mm 2 of tension steel is needed and 3 No. 25mm diameter reinforcing
bars ( As , prov = 1470mm 2 ) are actually provided in an interior span.
ρ = 100 As ,req / bd
= (100 × 1250) /(300 × 600)
= 0.7% (0.007)
f ck = 25 N / mm 2 ⇒ ρ 0 = f ck × 10 −3 = 25 × 10 −3 = 5 × 10 −3
From the table 7.5, for interior span K = 1.5
Since ρ > ρ 0 , use equation 7.2

l   ρ0  1  ρ′ 
1/ 2
   0.005  1  0  
1/ 2

= K 11 + 1.5 f ck   + f ck    = 1.511 + 1.5 25  + 25   

d   ρ − ρ ′  12  ρ0     0.007 − 0  12  0.005  
= 1.5 × 16.357 = 24.5

To avoid damage to finishes for span greater than 7m:

7
Modified ratio = 24.5 × = 17.15
10
Modification for steel area provided:
1470
Modified ratio = 17.15 × = 20.17
1250
10 × 10 3
Span-effective depth ratio provided = = 16.7
600
which is less than the allowable upper limit, thus deflection requirements are likely to be satisfied.

Example 7.2 Beam sizing

A concrete lintel with an effective span of 4.0m supports a 230mm brick wall as shown in figure 7.3. The loads on
the lintel are G k = 100 KN and Qk = 40 KN . Determine suitable dimensions for the lintel if class C25/30
concrete is used.
Page 5 of 27
CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER VII

The beam breadth b will match the wall thickness so that

b = 230mm
Allowing, say, 14KN for the weight of the beam, gives the ultimate Assumed load
load distribution
F = 1.35 × 114 + 1.5 × 40 4m effective span

= 214 KN
Therefore maximum design shear force
VEd = 107 KN Fig.7.3 Beam dimensions
Assuming a triangular load distribution for the preliminary analysis, we have
F × span 214 × 4.0
M = = = 143KNm
6 6
For such a relatively minor beam the case with no compression steel should be considered
M
K= < K bal = 0.167
bd 2 f ck
therefore
143 × 10 6
< 0.167
230 × d 2 × 25
Rearranging, d > 386mm .
Assume a concrete cover of 25mm to the reinforcing steel. So for 10mm links and, say, 32mm bars
Overall beam depth h = d + 25 + 10 + 32 / 2
= d + 51
Therefore make h = 525mm as an integer number of brick courses. So that
d = 525 − 51 = 474mm
Maximum shear resistance is
VRd ,max = 0.18bw d (1 − f ck / 250) f ck
= 0.18 × 230 × 474 × (1 − 25 / 250) × 25 × 10 3
= 446 KN > VEd = 107 KN
4000
Basic span-effective depth = = 8.44 <≈ 20 (for a lightly stressed beam in C25 concrete- table 7.5)
474
A beam size of 230mm by 525mm deep would be suitable.
Weight of beam = 0.23 × 0.525 × 4.0 × 25 = 12.1KN which is sufficiently close to the assumed value.

7.2 Design for bending of a rectangular section with no moment redistribution

• Requirements
Minimum areas of reinforcement
Table 7.6 Minimum areas of reinforcement
Concrete class
Tension reinforcement in beams and slabs ( f yk = 500 N / mm 2 )
C25/30 C30/35 C40/50 C50/60
As ,min f ctm
> 0.26 (> 0.0013) 0.0013 0.0015 0.0018 0.0021
bt d f yk
Secondary reinforcement > 20% main reinforcement
Longitudinal reinforcement in columns
As ,min > 0.10 N sd / 0.87 f yk > 0.002 Ac where N sd is the axial compression force
Vertical reinforcement in walls
As ,min > 0.002 Ac where Ac is the area of concrete = b × h for a rectangular section
Note: bt is the mean width of the beam’s tension zone.
f ctm is the concrete’s mean axial tensile strength = 0.3 × f ck2 / 3 for f ck ≤ C 50
Page 6 of 27
CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER VII

Maximum areas of reinforcement

These are determined largely from the practical need to achieve adequate compaction of the concrete around the
reinforcement. The limits specified are as follows
(a) For a slab or beam, tension or compression reinforcement
100 As / Ac ≤ 4 per cent other than at laps
(b) For a column
100 As / Ac ≤ 4 per cent other than at laps and 8 per cent at laps
(c) For a wall, vertical reinforcement
100 As / Ac ≤ 4 per cent

Bar areas
Table 7.7 Sectional areas of groups of bars ( mm 2 )
Bar size Number of bars
(mm) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
6 28.3 56.6 84.9 113 142 170 198 226 255 283
8 50.3 101 151 201 252 302 352 402 453 503
10 78.5 157 236 314 393 471 550 628 707 785
12 113 226 339 452 566 679 792 905 1020 1130
16 201 402 603 804 1010 1210 1410 1610 1810 2010
20 314 628 943 1260 1570 1890 2200 2510 2830 3140
25 491 982 1470 1960 2450 2950 3440 3930 4420 4910
32 804 1610 2410 3220 4020 4830 5630 6430 7240 8040
40 1260 2510 3770 5030 6280 7540 8800 10100 11300 12600

• Singly reinforced rectangular sections, no moment redistribution

A beam section needs reinforcement only in the tensile zone when
M
K= ≤ K bal = 0.167
bd 2 f ck
The singly reinforced section considered is shown in figure 7.4 and it is subjected to a sagging design moment M at
the ultimate limit state. The design calculations for the longitudinal steel can be summarized as follows:
b 0.85f ck / =0.567fck
0.0035 C

s/2
x s=0.8x
neutral Fcc
d axis z
As

st Fst

Section Strain Stress block

Fig.7-4 Singly reinforced section with rectangular stress block
M
1. Check that K = < K bal = 0.167
bd 2 f ck
2. Determine the lever-arm, z, from the equation
[
z = d 0.5 + (0.25 − K / 1.134) ] (7.4)
3. Calculate the area of tension steel required from
M
As = (7.5)
0.87 f yk z

Page 7 of 27
CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER VII

4. Select suitable bar sizes.

5. Check that the area of steel actually provided is within the limits required by the code, that is
As ,max
100 ≤ 4.0 %
bh
and
As ,min f ctm
100 ≥ 26 % and not less than 0.13%
bd f yk
where f ctm = 0.3 × f ck2 / 3 for ≤ C 50

Example 7.3 Design of tension reinforcement for a rectangular sections, no moment redistribution
The beam section shown in figure 7.5 has characteristic material strengths of f ck = 25 N / mm 2 for the concrete
and f yk = 500 N / mm 2 for the steel. The design moment at the ultimate limit state is 165KNm which causes
sagging of the beam.
b=230
M 165 × 10 6
1. K = = = 0.12
bd 2 f ck 230 × 490 2 × 25
This is less than K bal = 0.167 therefore compression steel is not required.

d=490

h=550
2. From the lever-arm equation
[
z = d 0.5 + (0.25 − K / 1.134) ]
[
= 490 0.5 + (0.25 − 0.12 / 1.134) = 431mm ] As 3-H20
6
M 165 × 10
3. As = = = 880mm 2 Fig.7.5 Singly reinforced beam example
0.87 f yk z 0.87 × 500 × 431
4. Provide three H20 bars, area = 943mm 2 .
100 As 100 × 943
5. For the steel provided = = 0.84 (> 0.13%)
bd 230 × 490
and
100 As 100 × 943
= = 0.75 (< 4.0%)
bh 230 × 550
therefore the steel percentage is within the limits specified by the code.

• Rectangular sections with tension and compression reinforcement, no moment redistribution

Compression steel is required whenever the concrete in compression, by itself, is unable to develop the necessary
moment of resistance. The simplified equations based on the equivalent rectangular stress block are quick to apply.
The arrangement of the reinforcement to resist a sagging moment is shown in figure 7.6.
b
0.0035 0.567fck

d' s=0.8x
A's sc x
neutral
d axis

As

st Fst
Equivalent
rectangular
Section Strain Stress block
Fig. 7.6 Beam doubly reinforced to resist a sagging moment

Page 8 of 27
CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER VII

In order to have a ductile section so avoiding a sudden compressive failure of the concrete it is generally required
that the maximum depth of the neutral axis is xbal = 0.45d and this is the value used in the design of a section
with compression steel.

The design steps are:

M
1. Calculate K =
f ck bd 2
If K > K bal = 0.167 compression reinforcement is required and x = x bal = 0.45d .
2. Calculate the area of compression steel from
( M − K bal f ck bd 2 )
As′ = (7.6)
f sc (d − d ′)
where f sc is the compressive stress in the steel
If d ′ / x ≤ 0.38 the compression steel has yielded and f sc = 0.87 f yk
If d ′ / x > 0.38 then the strain ε sc in the compressive steel must be calculated from the proportions of the strain
diagram and f sc = E s ε sc = 200 × 10 3 ε sc .
3. Calculate the area of tension steel required from
K bal f ck bd 2 f sc
As = + As′ (7.7)
0.87 f yk z 0.87 f yk
With lever arm z = 0.82d .
4. Check for the areas of steel required and the areas provided that
( As′, prov − As′,req ) ≥ ( As , prov − As ,req ) (7.8)
This is to ensure that the depth of the neutral axis has not exceeded the maximum value of 0.45d by providing an
over-excess of tensile reinforcement.
5. Check that the area of steel actually provided is within the limits required by the Code of practice.

Example 7.4 Design of tension and compression reinforcement, no moment redistribution

The beam section shown in figure 7.7 has characteristic material strengths of f ck = 25 N / mm 2 and
f yk = 500 N / mm 2 . The ultimate design moment is 165KNm, causing hogging of the beam:
165 × 10 6
1. K = = 0.26 > K bal = 0.167 b=230
25 × 230 × 330 2
so that compression steel is required.
2. x = 0.45d = 0.45 × 330 = 148mm
d ′ / x = 50 / 148 = 0.34 < 0.38
As
h=390

therefore the compression steel has yielded and

d=330

f sc = 0.87 f yk
From equation 7.6 A's
2
( M − K bal f ck bd ) d ' =50
Compression steel As′ =
f sc (d − d ′)
( M − 0.167 f ck bd 2 )
= Fig.7.7 Beam doubly reinforced to resist a hogging moment
0.87 f yk (d − d ′)
(165 × 10 6 − 0.167 × 25 × 230 × 330 2 )
= = 496mm 2
0.87 × 500(330 − 50)
Provide two H20 bars for As′ , area = 628mm 2 , bottom steel.
3. From equation 7.7
K bal f ck bd 2 f sc
Tension steel As = + As′
0.87 f yk z 0.87 f yk
Page 9 of 27
CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER VII

0.167 f ck bd 2
= + As′
0.87 f yk z
0.167 × 25 × 230 × 330 2
= + 496
0.87 × 500 × 0.82 × 330
= 888 + 496 = 1384mm 2
Provide three H25 bars for As , area = 1470mm 2 , top steel.
4. Check equation 7.8 for the areas of steel required and provided for the compression and tension reinforcement to
ensure ductility of the section
( As′, prov − As′,req ) ≥ ( As , prov − As ,req )
That is
628 − 496(= 132) > 1470 − 1384(= 86)mm 2
5. The bar areas provided are within the upper and lower limits specified by the code. To restrain the compression
steel, at least 8mm links at 300mm centres should be provided.

7.3 Design for bending of a rectangular section with moment redistribution

• Singly reinforced rectangular sections with moment redistribution
The design procedure using the equations based on the UK Annex to EC2 is
1. Calculate K = M / bd 2 f ck
2. Take K bal from table 5.2 or alternatively calculate
K bal = 0.454(δ − 0.4) − 0.182(δ − 0.4) 2 for ≤ C 50
where δ = moment after redistribution/moment before redistribution
and check that K < K bal . Therefore compression steel is not required.
[
3. Calculate z = d 0.5 + (0.25 − K / 1.134) ]
M
4. Calculate As =
0.87 f yk z
5. Check that the area of steel provided is within the maximum and minimum limits required.

• Rectangular sections with tension and compression reinforcement with moment redistribution applied
(based on the UK Annex to EC2)
The steps in the design are:
1. Calculate x bal ≤ (δ − 0.4)d
2. Calculate K = M / bd 2 f ck
3. Take K bal from table 5.2 or alternatively calculate
K bal = 0.454(δ − 0.4) − 0.182(δ − 0.4) 2 for ≤ C 50
If K > K bal , compression steel is required.
4. Calculate the area of compression steel from
( K − K bal ) f ck bd 2
As′ =
f sc (d − d ′)
where f sc is the stress in the compression steel
If d ′ / x ≤ 0.38 the compression steel has yielded and f sc = 0.87 f yk
If d ′ / x > 0.38 then the strain ε sc in the compressive steel must be calculated from the proportions of the strain
diagram and f sc = E s ε sc = 200 × 10 3 ε sc .
5. Calculate the area of tension steel required from
K bal f ck bd 2 f sc
As = + As′ (7.9)
0.87 f yk z 0.87 f yk

Page 10 of 27
CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER VII

where lever arm z = d − 0.8 x bal / 2 .

6. Check equation 7.8 for the areas of steel required and the areas provided that
( As′, prov − As′,req ) ≥ ( As , prov − As ,req )
This is to ensure that the depth of the neutral axis has not exceeded the maximum value of x bal by providing an
over-excess of tensile reinforcement.
7. Check that the area of steel actually provided is within the maximum and minimum limits required.

Example 7.5 Design of tension and compression reinforcement, with 20 per cent moment redistribution,
δ = 0.8 (based on the UK Annex to EC2)
The beam section shown in figure 7.8 has characteristic material strengths of f ck = 25 N / mm 2 and
f yk = 500 N / mm 2 . The ultimate moment is 370KNm, causing hogging of the beam.
b=300
st

As sc
d=540

neutral
A's axis
x=216

d '=100
0.0035

Section Strain
Fig.7.8 Beam doubly reinforced to resist a hogging moment

1. As the moment reduction factor δ = 0.8 , the limiting depth of the neutral axis is
x = (δ − 0.4)d
= (0.8 − 0.4) × 540 = 216mm
2. K = M / bd 2 f ck = 370 × 10 6 /(300 × 540 2 × 25) = 0.169
3. K bal = 0.454(δ − 0.4) − 0.182(δ − 0.4) 2
= 0.454(0.8 − 0.4) − 0.182(0.8 − 0.4) 2 = 0.152
K > K bal therefore compression steel is required.
4. d ′ / x = 100 / 216 = 0.46 > 0.38
therefore f sc < 0.87 f yk
From the proportions of the strain diagram
0.0035( x − d ′)
Steel compressive strain ε sc =
x
0.0035(216 − 100)
= = 0.00188
216
Steel compressive stress = E s ε sc
= 200000 × 0.00188 = 376 N / mm 2
( K − K bal ) f ck bd 2
′
Compression steel As =
f sc (d − d ′)
(0.169 − 0.152)25 × 300 × 540 2
= = 224 mm 2
376(540 − 100)
Provide two H20 bars for As′ , area = 628mm 2 , bottom steel.

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CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER VII

5. Tension steel
K bal f ck bd 2 f sc
As = + As′
0.87 f yk z 0.87 f yk
where
z = d − 0.8 x / 2 = 540 − 0.8 × 216 / 2 = 454mm
therefore
0.152 × 25 × 300 × 540 2 376
As = + 224 ×
0.87 × 500 × 454 0.87 × 500
2
= 1683 + 194 = 1877 mm
Provide four H25 bars for As , area = 1960mm 2 , top steel.
6. Check equation 7.8 for the areas of steel required and provided for the compression, and tension reinforcement to
ensure ductility of the section
( As′, prov − As′,req ) ≥ ( As , prov − As ,req )
That is
628 − 224(= 404) > 1960 − 1877(= 83) mm 2
7. These areas lie within the maximum and minimum limits specified by the code. To restrain the compression
steel, at least 8mm links at 300mm centres should be provided.

7.4 Flanged beams

Figure 7.9 shows sections through a T-beam and an L-beam which may form part of a concrete beam and slab floor.
When the beams are resisting sagging moments, part of the slab acts as a compression flange and the members may
be designed as T- or L-beams. With hogging moments the slab will be in tension and assumed to be cracked,
therefore the beam must then be designed as a rectangular section of width bw and overall depth h.
beff beff
As As
hf

d h
Transverse steel in flange

beff 1 bw beff 2 bw

Section Section
Fig 7.9 T-beam and L-beam

At intermediate supports of continuous beams where hogging moments occur the total area of tension
reinforcement should be spread over the effective width of the flange as shown in figure 7.9.
The effective flange width beff is specified by the following equation:
beff = bw + ∑ beff,i
where
beff,i = 0.2bi + 0.1l0 ≤ 0.2l0 and also beff,i ≤ bi
2bi is the clear distance between the webs of adjacent beams
l0 is the distance between the points of contraflexure along the beam as shown in figure 7.10.
So that for the interior span of a symmetrical T-beam with b1 = b2 = b′ and l 0 = 0.7l
beff = bw + 2[0.2b′ + 0.07l ] ≤ bw + 2[0.14l ]
For sagging moments the flanges act as a large compressive area. Therefore the stress block for the flanged beam
section usually falls within the flange thickness. For this position of the stress block, the section may be designed as
an equivalent rectangular section of breadth bf (= beff ) .

Page 12 of 27
CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER VII

Transverse reinforcement should be placed across the full width of the flange to resist the shear developed between
the web and the flange.

l 0= 0.85l 1 0.15(l1+l 2 ) l 0= 0.7l 2 l 0= 0.15l2+l 3

l1 l2 l3

Fig 7.10 Dimensions to be used in the calculation of effective flange widths

Note: (i) the length of the cantilever should be less than half the length of the adjacent span
(ii) the ratio of adjacent span lengths should be between 0.67 and 1.50
eff

beff 1 beff 2

b1 b1 b2 b2
bw
b
Fig.7.11 Effective flange width parameters

Design procedure for a flanged beam subject to a sagging moment

M
1. Calculate and determine the lever arm z from the equation
b f d 2 f ck
[
z = d 0.5 + (0.25 − K / 1.134) ]
and
s = 2(d − z )

2. If s ≤ h f the stress block falls within the flange depth, and the design may proceed as for a rectangular section,
breadth b f .
3. Design transverse steel in the top of the flange to resist the longitudinal shear stresses at the flange-web interface.

Shear between the web and flange of a flanged section

It is assumed that the web carries all of the vertical shear and that the web width, bw , is used as the minimum width
of the section in the relevant calculations.
Longitudinal shear stresses also occur in a flanged section along the interface between the web and flange. This is
allowed for by providing transverse reinforcement over the width of the flange on the assumption that this
reinforcement acts as ties combined with compressive struts in the concrete.
The design is divided into the following stages:

1. Calculate the longitudinal design shear stresses, v Ed at the web-flange interface.

The longitudinal shear stresses are at a maximum in the regions of the maximum changes in bending stresses that,
in turn, occur at the steepest parts of the bending moment diagram. These occur at the lengths up to the maximum
hogging moment over the supports and at the lengths away from the zero sagging moments in the span of the beam.
The change in the longitudinal force ∆Fd in the flange outstand at a section is obtained from
∆M b
∆Fd = × fo
(d − h f / 2) b f
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CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER VII

where b f = the effective breadth of the flange

bfo = the breadth of the outstand of the flange = (b f − bw ) / 2
bw = the breadth of the web
h f = the thickness of the flange
and ∆M = the change in moment over the distance ∆x
Therefore
∆M (b f − bw ) / 2
∆Fd = ×
( d − h f / 2) bf
The longitudinal shear stress, v Ed , at the vertical section between the outstand of the flange and the web is caused
by the change in the longitudinal force, ∆Fd , which occurs over the distance ∆x , so that
∆Fd
v Ed = (7.10)
(h f × ∆x)
The maximum value allowed for ∆x is half the distance between the section with zero moment and that where
maximum moment occurs. Where point loads occur ∆x should not exceed the distance between the loads.
If v Ed is less than or equal to 40 per cent of the design tensile cracking strength of the concrete, f ctd , i.e.
v Ed ≤ 0.4 f ctk / 1.5 = 0.27 f ctk , then no shear reinforcement is required and proceed directly to step 4.
2. Check the shear stresses in the inclined strut
The angle θ for the inclination of the concrete strut is restricted to a lower and upper value and EC2 recommends
that, in this case:
26.5° ≤ θ f ≤ 45° i.e 2.0 ≥ cot θ f ≥ 1.0 for flanges in compression
38.6° ≤ θ f ≤ 45° i.e 1.25 ≥ cot θ f ≥ 1.0 for flanges in tension.
To prevent crushing of the concrete in the compressive struts the longitudinal shear stress is limited to:
v1 f ck
v Ed ≤ (7.11)
1.5(cot θ f + tan θ f )
where the strength reduction factor v1 = 0.6(1 − f ck / 250) .
The lower value of the angle θ is first tried and if the shear stresses are too high the angle θ is calculated from the
following equation:
 v Ed 
θ f = 0.5 sin −1   ≤ 45°
 0.2(1 − f ck / 250) f ck 
3. Calculate the transverse shear reinforcement required
The required transverse reinforcement per unit length, Asf / s f , may be calculated from the equation:
Asf v Ed h f
≥ (7.12)
sf 0.87 f yk cot θ f
4. The requirements of transverse steel.
EC2 requires that the area of transverse steel should be the greater of (a) that given by equation 7.12 or (b) half that
given by equation 7.12 plus the area of steel required by transverse bending of the flange.
The minimum amount of transverse steel required in the flange is
As ,min = 0.26bd f xf ctm / f yk (> 0.0012bd f ) mm 2 m , where b = 1000mm (see table 7.6).

Example 7.6 Design of bending and transverse reinforcement for a T-section

A simply supported beam has a span L = 6.0m and has the flanged cross-section shown in figure 7.12. the
characteristic material strengths are f ck = 25 N / mm 2 and f yk = 500 N / mm 2 and the ultimate design uniformly
distributed load wu is 44kN per metre.

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CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER VII

600
H10 at 300

150
d=530
h=580
As 2-H25

250
Fig 7.12 T-beam
44 × 6 2
Maximum bending moment at mid-span is M = = 198 kNm
8
(1) Longitudinal reinforcement
M 198 × 10 6
= = 0.047
b f d 2 f ck 600 × 530 2 × 25
[ ]
z = d 0.5 + (0.25 − K / 1.134) = d [0.5 + (0.25 − 0.047 / 1.134) ] = 0.956d > 0.95d
Therefore z = 0.95d = 0.95 × 530 = 503mm
Depth of stress block s = 2(d − z ) = 2(530 − 503) = 54mm (< h f = 150mm)
Thus the stress block lies within the flange
M 198 × 10 6
As = = = 905 mm 2
0.87 f yk z 0.87 × 500 × 503
Provide two H25 bars, area = 982 mm 2 . For these bars
100 As 100 × 982
= = 0.74 per cent > 0.13
bw d 250 × 530
Thus the steel percentage is greater than the minimum specified by the Code of practice.

(2) Transverse steel in the flange

(i) Calculate the design longitudinal shear v Ed at the web-flange interface
For a sagging moment the longitudinal shear stresses are the greatest over a distance of ∆x measured from the
point of zero moment and ∆x is taken as half the distance to the maximum moment at mid-span, or
∆x = 0.5 × L / 2 = L / 4 = 6000 / 4 = 1500mm .
Therefore the change in moment ∆M over distance ∆x = L / 4 from the zero moment is
wu × L L wu × L L 3wu L2 3 × 44 × 6 2
∆M = × − × = = = 149 kNm
2 4 4 8 32 32
The change in longitudinal force ∆F at the flange-web interface is
∆M b
∆Fd = × fo
(d − h f / 2) b f
where bfo is the breadth of flange outstanding from the web.
Thus
∆M (b f − bw ) / 2
∆Fd = ×
(d − h f / 2) bf
149 × 10 3 (600 − 250 / 2)
= × = 96 kN
(530 − 150 / 2) 600
The longitudinal shear stress v Ed induced is

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CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER VII

∆Fd 96 × 10 3
v Ed = = = 0.43 N / mm 2
(h f × ∆x) 150 × 1500
(ii) Check the strength of the concrete strut
From equation 7.11, to prevent crushing of the compressive strut in the flange
0.6(1 − f ck / 250) f ck
v Ed ≤
1.5(cot θ f + tan θ f )
The moments are sagging so the flange is in compression and the limits for θ f are
26.5° ≤ θ f ≤ 45°
with θ f = the minimum value of 26.5°
0.6(1 − 25 / 250) × 25
∴ v Ed (max) = = 3.6 (> 0.43 N / mm 2 )
1.5(2.0 + 0.5)
and the concrete strut has sufficient strength with θ = 26.5° ( for a flange in tension the limits on θ are
38.6° ≤ θ ≤ 45° or 1.0 ≤ cot θ ≤ 1.25 .)

(iii) Design transverse steel reinforcement

Transverse shear reinforcement is required if v Ed ≥ 0.27 f ctk where f ctk is the characteristic axial tensile strength
of concrete ( = 1.8 N / mm 2 for class 25 concrete).
The maximum allowable value of v Ed = 0.27 f ctk = 0.27 × 1.8 = 0.49 N / mm 2 (> 0.43) and transverse shear
reinforcement is therefore not required.
A minimum area of 0.13% of transverse steel should be provided as given in table 7.6.
Hence
Asf = 0.13bh f / 100 = 0.13 × 1000 × 150 / 100 = 195 mm 2 / m
Provide H10 bars at 300mm centres = 262 mm 2 / m (see table below)
Longitudinal reinforcement should also be provided in the flange as shown in figure 7.12.
Sectional areas per metre width for various bar spacings ( mm 2 )
Bar size Spacing of bars
(mm) 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 250 300
6 566 377 283 226 189 162 142 113 94
8 1010 671 503 402 335 287 252 201 168
10 1570 1050 785 628 523 446 393 314 262
12 2260 1510 1130 905 754 646 566 452 377
16 4020 2680 2010 1610 1340 1150 1010 804 670
20 6280 4190 3140 2510 2090 1800 1570 1260 1050
25 9820 6550 4910 3930 3270 2810 2450 1960 1640
32 16100 10700 8040 6430 5360 4600 4020 3220 2680
40 25100 16800 12600 10100 8380 7180 6280 5030 4190

7.5 One-span beams

The following example describes the calculations for designing the bending reinforcement for a simply supported
beam. The shear reinforcement for this beam is designed later in example 7.8.

Example 7.7 Design of a beam-bending reinforcement

The beam shown in figure 7.9 supports the following uniformly distributed loads
permanent load g k = 60 KN / m , including self-weight
variable load q k = 18 KN / m
The characteristic strengths of the concrete and steel are f ck = 30 N / mm 2 and f yk = 500 N / mm 2 . Effective
depth, d = 540mm and breadth, b = 300mm .

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CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER VII

480

50
2H16
540
2H32+2H25

300 2H25 2H25

6.0m

Fig.7.10 One-span beam-bending

(a) Ultimate loading and maximum moment
Ultimate load wu = (1.35 g k + 1.5q k ) KN / m
= (1.35 × 60 + 1.5 × 18) = 108 KN / m
therefore
wu L2 108 × 6.0 2
maximum design moment M = = = 486 KNm
8 8
(b) Bending reinforcement
M 486 × 10 6
K= 2 = = 0.185 > K bal = 0.167
bd f ck 300 × 540 2 × 30
Therefore compression reinforcement, As′ is required.
d ′ / d = 50 / 540 = 0.092 < 0.171 in table 5.2, therefore f sc = 0.87 f yk
( K − K bal ) f ck bd 2
Compression steel As′ =
f sc (d − d ′)
(0.185 − 0.167) × 30 × 300 × 540 2
= = 222 mm 2
0.87 × 500(540 − 50)
Provide two H16 bars, As′ = 402mm 2
0.167 f ck bd 2
Tension steel, As = + As′
0.87 f yk z
where
z = 0.82d = 0.82 × 540 = 442.8mm
therefore
0.167 × 30 × 300 × 540 2
As = + 222
0.87 × 500 × 442.8
= 2275 + 222 = 2497 mm 2
Provide two H32 bars and two H25 bars, for As , area = 2592mm 2 , 100 As / bd = 1.6 > 0.15 .
(c) Curtailment at support
The tension reinforcement should be anchored over the supports with a bend as shown in figure 7.11 which is based
on past UK practice. Two bars may be curtailed near to the supports.

50% 100% 50%

0.08L 0.08L
L

Fig.7.11 Simplified rules for curtailment of bars in beams

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CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER VII

(d) Span-effective depth ratio

ρ = 100 As ,req / bd = (100 × 2497) /(300 × 540) = 1.54 per cent.
From table 7.5 basic span-effective depth ratio = 14
2592
Modified ratio = 14.0 × = 14.5
2497
6000
Span-effective depth ratio provided = = 11.1
540
which is less than the allowable upper limit, thus deflection requirements are likely to be satisfied.

7.6 Design for shear

The shear reinforcement will usually take the form of vertical links or a combination of links and bent-up bars.
Shear reinforcement may not be required in very minor beams such as door or window lintels with short spans of
less than say 1.5 metres and light loads.
The following notation is used in the equations for the shear design
Asw = the cross-sectional area of the two legs of the link
s = the spacing of the stirrups
z = the lever arm between the upper and lower chord members of the analogous truss
f ywd = the design yield strength of the stirrup reinforcement
f yk = the characteristic strength of the stirrup reinforcement
VEd = the shear force due to the actions at the ultimate limit state
VEf = the ultimate shear force at the face of the support
Vwd = the shear force in the stirrup
VRd , s = the shear resistance of the stirrups
VRd ,max = the maximum design value of the shear which can be resisted by the concrete strut

• Vertical stirrups or links

The procedure for designing the shear links is as follows
1. Calculate the ultimate design shear forced VEd along the beam’s span.
2. Check the crushing strength VRd ,max of the concrete diagonal strut at the section of maximum shear, usually at
the face of the beam support.
For most cases the angle of inclination of the strut is θ = 22° , with cot θ = 2.5 and tan θ = 0.4 so that from
equation 6.6:
VRd ,max = 0.124bw d (1 − f ck / 250) f ck (7.10)
and if VRd ,max ≥ VEd then go to step (3) with θ = 22° and cot θ = 2.5
but if VRd ,max < VEd then θ > 22° and θ must be calculated from equation 7.11 as
 V Ed 
θ = 0.5 sin −1   ≤ 45° (7.11)
 0.18bw d (1 − f ck / 250) f ck 
3. The shear links required can be calculated from equation 7.12
Asw VEd
= (7.12)
s 0.78df yk cot θ
where Asw is the cross-sectional area of the legs of the stirrups ( 2 × πφ 2 / 4 for single stirrups)
For a predominately uniformly distributed load the shear VEd should be taken at a distance d from the face of the
support and the shear reinforcement should continue to the face of the support.

4. Calculate the minimum links required by EC2 from

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CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER VII

Asw,min 0.08 f ck0.5bw

= (7.13)
s f yk
and the shear resistance for the links actually specified
Asw
Vmin = × 0.78df yk cot θ (7.14)
s
This value should be marked on the shear force envelop to show the extent of these links as shown in figure 7.11 of
example 7.8.

5. Calculate the additional longitudinal tensile force caused by the shear force
∆Ftd = 0.5VEd cot θ (7.15)
This additional tensile force increases the curtailment length of the tension bars as shown in section 7.9.
The minimum spacing of the links is governed by the requirements of placing and compacting the concrete and
should not normally be less than about 80mm. EC2 gives the following guidance on the maximum link spacing:
(a) Maximum longitudinal spacing between shear links in a series of links
s1,max = 0.75d (1 + cot α )
where α is the inclination of the shear reinforcement to the longitudinal axis of the beam.
(b) Maximum transverse spacing between legs in a series of shear links
sb ,max = 0.75d (≤ 600mm)

Table 7.8 Asw / s for varying stirrup diameter spacing

Stirrup Stirrup spacing (mm)
diameter
85 90 100 125 150 175 200 225 250 275 300
(mm)
8 1.183 1.118 1.006 0.805 0.671 0.575 0.503 0.447 0.402 0.366 0.335
10 1.847 1.744 1.57 1.256 1.047 0.897 0.785 0.698 0.628 0.571 0.523
12 2.659 2.511 2.26 1.808 1.507 1.291 1.13 1.004 0.904 0.822 0.753
16 4.729 4.467 4.02 3.216 2.68 2.297 2.01 1.787 1.608 1.462 1.34

Example 7.8 Design of shear reinforcement for a beam

Shear reinforcement is to be designed for the one-span beam of example 7.7 as shown in figure 7.9 and 7.12. The
total ultimate load is 108KN/metre and the characteristic strengths of the concrete and steel are f ck = 30 N / mm 2
and f yk = 500 N / mm 2 .

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CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER VII

1.45 m

308KN
SR nominal links

151KN

151KN

308KN
S.F diagram

9-H8 @ 200 H8 links @ 350 9-H8 @ 200

300

540
300
6.0m

Fig.7.12 Non-continuous beam-shear reinforcement

(a) Check maximum shear = wu × effective span / 2 = 108 × 6.0 / 2 = 324 KN

Maximum shear at face of support VEd = 324 − 108 × 0.15 = 308 KN
Crushing strength VRd ,max of diagonal strut, assuming angle θ = 22°, cot θ = 2.5 is
VRd ,max = 0.124bw d (1 − f ck / 250) f ck
= 0.124 × 300 × 540(1 − 30 / 250) × 30 × 10 −3
= 530 KN (> VEd = 308 KN )
Therefore angle θ = 22° and cot θ = 2.5 as assumed.
(b) Shear links
At distance d from face of support the design shear is VEd = 308 − wu d = 308 − 108 × 0.54 = 250 KN
Asw VEd
=
s 0.78df yk cot θ
250 × 10 3
= = 0.475
0.78 × 540 × 500 × 2.5
Using table 7.8
Provide 8mm links at 200mm centres, Asw / s = 0.503 .
(c) Minimum links
Asw,min 0.08 f ck0.5bw
=
s f yk
0.08 × 30 0.5 × 300
= = 0.26
500
Provide 8mm links at 350mm centres, Asw / s = 0.287 .
The shear resistance of the links actually specified is

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CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER VII

Asw
Vmin = × 0.78df yk cot θ
s
= 0.287 × 0.78 × 540 × 500 × 2.5 × 10 −3 = 151KN
(d) Extent of shear links
Shear links are required at each of the beam from the face of the support to the point where the design shear force is
Vmin = 151KN as shown on the shear force diagram of figure 7.12.
From the face of the support
VEd − Vmin 308 − 151
distance x = = = 1.45 metres
wu 108
Therefore the number of H8 links at 200mm centres required at each end of the beam is
1 + ( x / s ) = 1 + (1450 / 200) = 9
Spaced over a distance of (9 − 1)200 = 1600mm .
(e) Additional longitudinal tensile force
∆Ftd = 0.5VEd cot θ
= 0.5 × 308 × 2.5
= 385KN
This additional longitudinal tensile force is provided for by extending the curtailment point of the mid-span
longitudinal reinforcement as discussed in section 7.8.

• Bent-up bars to resist shear

In regions of high forces it may be found that the use of links to carry the full force will cause steel congestion and
lead to constructional problems. In these situations, consideration should be given to ‘bending-up’ main
reinforcement which is no longer required to resist bending forces but can be so used to resist part of the shear.
The equations for designing this type of shear reinforcement and the additional longitudinal tension force are given
below
Asw VEd
=
s 0.78df yk (cot α + cot θ ) sin α
∆Ftd = 0.5VEd (cot θ − cot α )
where α is the angle of inclination with the horizontal of the bent-up bar.
Bent-up bars must be fully anchored past the point at which they are acting as tension members.
EC2 also requires that the maximum longitudinal spacing of bent-up bars is limited to 0.6d (1 + cot α ) and at least
50 per cent of the required shear reinforcement should be in the form of shear links.

7.7 Continuous beams

The bending-moment envelope is generally a series of sagging moments in the spans and hogging moments at the
supports, but occasionally the hogging moments may extend completely over the span. Where the sagging
moments occur the beam and slab act together, and the beam can be designed as a T-section. At the supports, the
beam must be designed as a rectangular section because the hogging moments cause tension in the slab.

Example 7.9 Design of a continuous beam

The beam has a width, bw = 300mm and an overall depth, h = 660mm with three equal spans, L = 5.0m . In the
transverse direction the beams spacings are B = 4.0m centres with a slab thickness, h f = 180mm , as shown in
figure 7.13 and 7.14. The supports have a width of 300mm.
The uniformly distributed ultimate design load, wu = 190 KN / m . The ultimate design moments and shears near
mid-span and the supports are shown in figure 7.13.
The characteristic strengths of the concrete and steel are f ck = 30 N / mm 2 and f yk = 500 N / mm 2 .

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CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER VII

0 -523 -523 0
Moment M (kNm) =
428 333 428

Shear V (kN) = 427 570 522 522 570 427

A B C D

5.0m 5.0m 5.0m

F=1.35Gk +1.5Qk
Fig.7.13 Continuous beam with ultimate design bending moments and shear forces shown

Total ultimate load on each span is

F = 190 × 5.0 = 950 KN

Design for bending

(a) Mid-span of 1st and 3rd end spans-design as a T-section
Moment 428KNm sagging
Effective width of flange
beff = bw + 2[0.2b ′ + 0.1 × 0.85 L] (≤ bw + 2[0.2 × 0.85 L])
= 300 + 2[(0.2 × (2000 − 300 / 2)) + (0.085 × 5000)] = 1890mm
bw + 2[0.2 × 0.85 L] = 300 + 2[0.2 × 0.85 × 5000] = 2000mm
Therefore b f = beff = 1890mm .
M 428 × 10 6
= = 0.021
b f d 2 f ck 1890 × 600 2 × 30
Lever arm z = d [0.5 + (0.25 − K / 1.134) ] = d [0.5 + (0.25 − 0.021 / 1.134) ] = 0.98d > 0.95d
therefore z = 0.95d = 0.95 × 600 = 570mm
and d − z = 600 − 570 = 30 (< h f / 2)
so that the stress block must lie within the 180mm thick flange and the section is designed as a rectangular section
with b = b f .
M 428 × 10 6
As = = = 1726mm 2
0.87 f yk z 0.87 × 500 × 570
Provide three H25 bars and two H16 bars, area = 1872mm 2 (bottom steel).

(b) Interior supports –design as a rectangular section

Moment 523KNm hogging
M 523 × 10 6
= = 0.173 > 0.167
bd 2 f ck 300 × 580 2 × 30
Therefore, compression steel is required.
( K − K bal ) f ck bd 2
As′ =
0.87 f yk (d − d ′)
(0.173 − 0.167) × 30 × 300 × 580 2
= = 79 mm 2
0.87 × 500(580 − 50)
This small area of reinforcement can be provided by extending the bottom span bars beyond the internal supports.
From the lever arm equation
z = d [0.5 + (0.25 − K / 1.134) ] = d [0.5 + (0.25 − 0.173 / 1.134) ] = 0.812d < 0.82d
therefore z = 0.82d = 0.82 × 580 = 475.6mm

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CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER VII

0.167 f ck bd 2
Tension steel, As = + As′
0.87 f yk z
0.167 × 30 × 300 × 580 2
= + 79 = 2444 + 79 = 2523mm 2
0.87 × 500 × 475.6
Provide four H25 bars plus two H20 bars, area = 2588mm 2 (top steel). The arrangement of the reinforcement is
shown in figure 7.14. At end support A two H25 bars have been provided as top continuity steel to meet the
requirement.
H8 @ 200 H8 @ 300 H10 @ 200
2-H20
4-H25
2-H25

A B
3-H25
300 2-H16 300
L= 5.0m

25 20 25
180

H8 H10
h=660
16 16 16 16

25 25 25 25 25 25
b w=300

Sections midspan near the interior support

Fig.7.14 End span reinforcement details
(c) Mid-span of interior 2nd span BC –design as a T-section
Moment 333KNm sagging
Effective flange width
beff = bw + 2[0.2b′ + 0.1× 0.70 L] (≤ bw + 2[0.2 × 0.70 L])
= 300 + 2[(0.2 × (2000 − 300 / 2)) + (0.07 × 5000)] = 1740mm
bw + 2[0.2 × 0.7 L] = 300 + 2[0.2 × 0.7 × 5000] = 1700mm
Therefore b f = beff = 1700mm .
Calculate K
M 333 × 10 6
= = 0.018
b f d 2 f ck 1700 × 600 2 × 30
Lever arm z = d [0.5 + (0.25 − K / 1.134) ] = d [0.5 + (0.25 − 0.018 / 1.134) ] = 0.98d > 0.95d
therefore z = 0.95d = 0.95 × 600 = 570mm
M 333 × 10 6
As = = = 1343mm 2
0.87 f yk z 0.87 × 500 × 570
Provide three H25 bars, area = 1470mm 2 (bottom steel).

Design for shear

(a) Check for crushing of the concrete strut at the maximum shear force
Maximum shear is in spans AB and CD at supports B and C.
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CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER VII

At the face of the supports

VEd = 570 − wu × support width / 2
= 570 − 190 × 0.15 = 542 KN
Crushing strength VRd ,max of diagonal strut, assuming angle θ = 22°, cot θ = 2.5 is
VRd ,max = 0.124bw d (1 − f ck / 250) f ck
= 0.124 × 300 × 600(1 − 30 / 250) × 30 × 10 −3
= 589 KN (> VEd = 542 KN )
Therefore angle θ = 22° and cot θ = 2.5 for all the shear calculations.
(b) Design of shear links
(i) Shear links in end spans at supports A and D
Shear distance d from face of support is V Ed = 427 − wu d = 427 − 190 × (0.15 + 0.6) = 285 KN
Asw V Ed
=
s 0.78df yk cot θ
285 × 10 3
= = 0.49
0.78 × 600 × 500 × 2.5
Using table 7.8
Provide H8 links at 200mm centres, Asw / s = 0.50 .
Additional longitudinal tensile force is
∆Ftd = 0.5V Ed cot θ
= 0.5 × 285 × 2.5
= 356 KN
This additional longitudinal tensile force is provided for by extending the curtailment point of the mid-span
longitudinal reinforcement as discussed in section 7.8.

(ii) Shear links in end spans at supports B and C

Shear distance d from face of support is V Ed = 570 − wu d = 570 − 190 × (0.15 + 0.58) = 431KN
Therefore:
Asw VEd
=
s 0.78df yk cot θ
431 × 10 3
= = 0.762
0.78 × 580 × 500 × 2.5
Using table 7.8
Provide H10 links at 200mm centres, Asw / s = 0.762 .
Additional longitudinal tensile force is
∆Ftd = 0.5VEd cot θ
= 0.5 × 431 × 2.5
= 539 KN
This additional longitudinal tensile force is provided for by extending the curtailment point of longitudinal
reinforcement as discussed in section 7.8.

(iii) Shear links in middle span BC at supports B and C

Shear distance d from face of support is V Ed = 522 − wu d = 522 − 190 × (0.15 + 0.6) = 380 KN
Therefore:

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CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER VII

Asw VEd
=
s 0.78df yk cot θ
380 × 10 3
= = 0.65
0.78 × 600 × 500 × 2.5
Using table 7.8
Provide 10mm links at 225mm centres, Asw / s = 0.65 .
Additional longitudinal tensile force is
∆Ftd = 0.5VEd cot θ
= 0.5 × 380 × 2.5
= 475 KN

(iv) Minimum shear links

Asw,min 0.08 f ck0.5 bw
=
s f yk
0.08 × 30 0.5 × 300
= = 0.263
500
Provide H8 links at 300mm spacing, Asw / s = 0.335 .
The shear resistance of the links actually specified is
Asw
Vmin = × 0.78df yk cot θ
s
= 0.335 × 0.78 × 600 × 500 × 2.5 × 10 −3 = 196 KN
(v) Extent of shear links
Links to resist shear are required over a distance xi from the face of the supports to the point on the shear force
diagram where the shear can be resisted by Vmin = 196 KN , as provided by the minimum links.
For the face of the end supports A and D the distance x1 is
VEd − Vmin 427 − 196
x1 = − 0.15 = − 0.15 = 1.07 m
wu 190
For the interior supports B and C of the 1st and 3rd spans
570 − 196
x2 = − 0.15 = 1.82 m
190
For the links at supports B and C in the middle span
522 − 196
x3 = − 0.15 = 1.57 m
190
Based on these dimensions the links are arranged as shown in figure 7.13.

7.8 Curtailment and anchorage of reinforcing bars

As the magnitude of the bending moment on a beam decreases along its length, so may the area of bending
reinforcement be reduced by curtailing bars since they are no longer required, as shown in figure 7.15.
Figure 7.15 illustrates the curtailment of bars in the span and at an internal support of a continuous beam.
Each curtailed bar should extend a full anchorage length beyond the point at which it is no longer needed so that it
is well anchored into the concrete.
The equation for the design anchorage length, lbd , is
f yk
lbd = φ ×α n
4.6 f bd
where
α n is a series of coefficients depending on the anchorage conditions
φ is the bar diameter
Page 25 of 27
CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER VII

f bd is the design bond strength which, for a beam, depends on the concrete strength and the bar size and
whether the bar is in the top or bottom of the beam.

l full anchorage length

6
Curtailment anchorage
5 M Ed / z envelope diagram
Ftd (hogging region)
4 a1
M Ed / z

4 5 6
Beam
2,3
1 1 2 3

M Ed / z M Ed / z envelope diagram
a1
3
(sagging region)
Ftd
2
1

Fig 7.15 Curtailment of reinforcement-envelope of tensile forces

For a straight bar with φ ≤ 32mm , the order of anchorage lengths are lbd = 52φ for a top bar and lbd = 36φ for a
bottom bar with class C30 concrete.
The curtailment of the tension reinforcement is based upon the envelope of tensile forces, Fs , derived from the
bending moment envelope as shown in figure 7.15 such that at any location along the span
Fs = M Ed / z + ∆Ftd
where
M Ed is the design bending moment from the moment envelope
z is the lever arm
∆Ftd is the additional tensile force obtained from the design for shear
∆Ftd is a maximum where the shear force is a maximum at section of zero moment, and ∆Ftd is zero at the
maximum moment near to mid-span and the interior support.
For members where shear reinforcement is not required the tensile force envelope may be estimated by simply
‘shifting’ the bending moment envelope diagram horizontally by a distance a1 (= d ) as shown in figure 7.15.
To determine the curtailment positions of each reinforcing bar the tensile force envelope is divided into sections as
shown, in proportional to the area of each bar.

When considering the curtailment the following rules must also be applied:
1. At least one-quarter of the bottom reinforcement should extend to the supports
2. The bottom reinforcement at an end support should be anchored into the supports as shown in figure 7.16.
3. At an end support where there is little or no fixity the bottom steel should be designed to resist a tensile
force of 0.5VEd to allow for the tension induced by the shear with a minimum requirement of 25% of the
reinforcement provided in the span.
4. At an end support where is fixity but it has been analysed as a simply support, top steel should be designed
and anchored to resist at least 25 per cent of the maximum span moment.
5. At internal supports the bottom steel should extend at least 10 bar diameters φ beyond the face of the
support. To achieve continuity and resistance to such factors as accidental damage or seismic forces, splice
bars should be provided across the support with a full anchorage lap on each side as shown in figure 7.17.
Page 26 of 27
CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER VII

6. Where the loads on a beam are substantially uniformly distributed, simplified rules for curtailment may be
used. These rules only apply to continuous beams if the characteristic variable load does not exceed the
characteristic permanent load and the spans are approximately equal. Figure 7,18 shows the rules in
diagrammatic form.
l bd l bd l bd l bd

10

(1) Beam supported (2) Beam intersecting

on wall or column another supporting beam

Fig 7.16 Anchorage of bottom Fig 7.17 Anchorage at intermediate supports

Reinforcement at end supports

50% 100% 50%

0.08L 0.08L
L

Simply supported
C=0.25L

C=0.15L
C 45

20% 60% 100%

30% 100% 30%

0.15L
0.1L
L

Continuous beam
Fig 7.18 Simplified rules for curtailment of bars in beams

Page 27 of 27
CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER VIII

CHAPTER VIII. DESIGN OF REINFORCED CONCRETE SLABS

8.0 Introduction
Reinforced concrete slabs are used in floors, roofs and walls of buildings and as the deck of bridges.

Classification of Slabs
i) By support conditions
• Slabs supported on beams
• Slabs supported on columns (Flat slabs)
• Slabs supported on walls or steel beams
ii) By Form Cross-section
• Solid slabs
• Ribbed slabs
iii) By Spanning Method
• One way spanning slabs
• Two way spanning slabs
iv) By Fixing
• Simply supported slabs
• Continuous slabs

Concrete sections that do not require design shear reinforcement

The Concrete sections that do not require design shear reinforcement are mainly lightly loaded floor slabs and pad
foundations. Beams are generally more heavily loaded and have a smaller cross-section so that they nearly always
require shear reinforcement.
Where shear forces are small the concrete section on its own may have sufficient shear capacity ( V Rd ,c ) to resist the
ultimate shear force ( V Ed ) resulting from the worst combination of actions on the structure.
In those sections where V Ed < V Rd ,c then no calculated shear reinforcement is required.
The shear capacity of the concrete, V Rd ,c , in such situations is given by an empirical expression:
[
VRd ,c = 0.12k (100 ρ1 f ck )1 / 3 bw d ] (8.1)
with a minimum value of:
[
VRd ,c = 0.035k 3 / 2 f ck
1/ 2
]b d
w (8.2)
where
VRd ,c = the design shear resistance of the section without shear reinforcement
 200 
k = 1 +  ≤ 2.0 with d expressed in mm

 d 
As1
ρ1 = ≤ 0.02
bw d
As1 = the area of tensile reinforcement that extends beyond the section being considered by at least a full
anchorage length plus one effective depth (d)
bw = the smallest width of the section in the tensile area (mm)
Slabs are designed in the same way as beams except:
i) the breadth of the slab is already fixed and a unit breadth of 1m is used in the calculations;
ii) the shear stresses are usually low in a slab except when there are heavy concentrated loads;
iii) compression reinforcement is seldom required.

8.1 Shear in slabs

The shear resistance of a solid slab may be calculated by the procedures given in chapter 6. Calculations are
usually based on a strip of slab 1m wide.

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CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER VIII

Since shear forces in slabs subject to uniformly distributed loads are generally small, shear reinforcement will
seldom be required and it would be usual to design the slab such that the design ultimate shear force, V Ed , is less
than the shear strength of the unreinforced section, V Rd ,c . In this case it is not necessary to provide any shear
reinforcement. This can conveniently be checked using Table 8.1 which has been derived from Equations 8.1 and
8.2 for class C30 concrete on the basis that the allowable shear stress in the unreinforced slab is given by
VRd ,c
v Rd ,c =
bd
In this case, the applied ultimate shear stress
VEd
vEd = ≤ vRd ,c
bd
Table 8.1 Shear resistance of slabs without shear reinforcement v Rd ,c N / mm 2 (Class C30/35 concrete)
Effective depth, d (mm)
ρ1 = As / bd
≤ 200 225 250 300 350 400 500 600 750
0.25% 0.54 0.52 0.50 0.47 0.45 0.43 0.40 0.38 0.36
0.50% 0.59 0.57 0.56 0.54 0.52 0.51 0.48 0.47 0.45
0.75% 0.68 0.66 0.64 0.62 0.59 0.58 0.55 0.53 0.51
1.00% 0.75 0.72 0.71 0.68 0.65 0.64 0.61 0.59 0.57
1.25% 0.80 0.78 0.76 0.73 0.71 0.69 0.66 0.63 0.61
1.50% 0.85 0.83 0.81 0.78 0.75 0.73 0.70 0.67 0.65
2.00% 0.94 0.91 0.89 0.85 0.82 0.80 0.77 0.74 0.71

Where different concrete strengths are used, the values in table 8.1 may be modified by the factors in table 8.2
provided ρ1 ≥ 0.4% .
Table 8.2 Concrete strength modification factor
2
f ck ( N / mm ) 25 30 35 40 45 50
Modification factor 0.94 1.00 1.05 1.10 1.14 1.19

Punching shear analysis

Localized ‘punching’ actions due to heavy concentrated loads may cause more critical conditions.
A concentrated load on a slab causes shearing stresses on a section around the load; this effect is referred to as
punching shear. The critical surface for checking punching shear is shown as the perimeter in figure 8.1 which is
located at 2.0d from the loaded area.
2.0d

a
Critical
Section Loaded
b area

Plan
Load

d h

Elevation
Fig.8.1 Punching shear
The maximum force that can be carried by the slab without shear reinforcement ( V Rd ,c ) can be obtained using the
values of v Rd ,c given in table 8.1 based on equations 8.1 and 8.2 for normal shear in beams and slabs, where
ρ1 = ( ρ y ρ z ) where ρ y and ρ z are the reinforcement ratios, As / bd in the two mutually perpendicular
directions then
VRd ,c = v Rd ,c du (8.3)
where
Page 2 of 23
CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER VIII

 dy + dz 
d = effective depth of section [average of the two steel layers in perpendicular directions =   ]
 2 
u = length of the punching shear perimeter.
Checks must be undertaken to ensure that the maximum permissible shear force ( V Rd ,max ) is not exceeded at the
face of the loaded area.
The maximum permissible shear force is given by V Rd ,max = 0.5v1 f cd ud = 0.5v1 ( f ck / 1.5)ud
where
u is the perimeter of the loaded area
v1 is the strength reduction factor given by v1 = 0.6(1 − f ck / 250) .

Example 8.1 Punching shear

A slab, 175mm thick, average effective depth 145mm is constructed with C25/30 concrete and reinforcement with
12mm bars at 150mm centers one way ( 754mm 2 / m ) and 10mm bars at 200mm centres in the other direction
( 393mm 2 / m ). Determine the maximum ultimate load that can be carried on an area 300 × 400mm .
For the unreinforced section, the first critical perimeter
u1 = (2a + 2b + 2π × 2d )
= 2(a + b) + 4πd
= 2(300 + 400) + 4π ×145
= 3222 mm
hence from equation 8.3
VRd ,c = v Rd ,c du = v Rd ,c × 3222 ×145 = 467190v Rd ,c
Average steel ratio
ρ1 = ( ρ y ρ z )
where
ρ y = 754 /(1000 ×145) = 0.0052
ρ z = 393 /(1000 ×145) = 0.0027
hence
ρ1 = (0.0052 × 0.0027) = 0.0038 = 0.38%
Thus from table 8.1, for a 175mm slab, v Rd ,c = 0.56 N / mm 2 for a class C30 concrete and from table 8.2 for class
C25 concrete, as used here, modification factor = 0.94 .
Hence, maximum ultimate load
VRd ,c = 467190v Rd ,c = (467190 ×10 −3 ) × (0.94 × 0.56) = 246 KN
The maximum permissible shear force based on the face of the loaded area is given by the maximum shear
resistance
  f  f
VRd ,max = 0.5ud 0.61 − ck  ck
  250  1.5
  25  25
= 0.5 × 2(300 + 400) ×145 × 0.61 −  ×10 −3
  250  1.5
= 914 KN
which clearly exceeds the value VRd ,c based on the first critical perimeter. Hence the maximum load that the slab
can carry is 246 KN .

Punching shear reinforcement design

If reinforcement is required to resist shear around the control perimeter indicated in Figure 8.1, it should be placed
between not more than 0.5d from the loaded area and a distance 1.5d inside the outer control perimeter at which
shear reinforcement is no longer required. The length of this is given by u out,ef = V Ed /(v Rd ,c d ) from which the

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CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER VIII

necessary distance from the loaded area can be calculated. If this is less than 3d from the face of the loaded area,
then reinforcement should be placed in the zone between 0.3d and 1.5d from this face.
Vertical links will normally be used and provided around at least two perimeters not more than 0.75d apart. Link
spacing around a perimeter within 2d of the face of the loaded area should not be greater than 1.5d.
Provide that the slab is greater than 200mm thick overall then the amount of reinforcement :
v Rd ,cs − 0.75v Rd ,c
Asw sin α ≥
d × f ywd ,ef
1.5
s r × u1 d
where
Asw is the total area of shear reinforcement in one perimeter ( mm 2 )
s r is the radial spacing of perimeters of shear reinforcement
f ywd ,ef is the effective design strength of the reinforcement and is given by
f ywd ,ef = 250 + 0.25d ≤ f ywd .
v Rd ,cs is the punching shear resistance of the reinforced slab
α is the angle between shear reinforcement and the plane of the slab, so that sin α = 1 for critical
reinforcement.
This expression effectively allows for a 75 per cent contribution from the unreinforced concrete slab, and for
vertical kinks can be expressed as:
v Rd ,cs − 0.75v Rd ,c
Asw ≥
 f ywd ,ef 
1.5 
 s r u1 
VEd
Where the required v Rd ,cs would be given by .
u1 d
A check must also be made that the calculated reinforcement satisfies the minimum requirement that:
0.08 f ck ( s r st ) 0.053 f ck ( s r st )
Asw,min ≥ =
1.5 f yk f yk
where s t is the spacing of links around the perimeter
Asw,min is the area of an individual link leg.

Example 8.2 Design of Punching shear reinforcement

A 260mm thick slab of class C25/30 concrete is reinforced by 12mm high yield bars at 125mm centres in each
direction. The slab is subject to a dry environment and must be able to carry a localized concentrated ultimate load
of 650KN over a square area of 300mm side. Determine the shear reinforcement required for f yk = 500 N / mm 2 .
For exposure class XC-1, cover required for a C25/30 concrete is 25mm, thus average effective depth for the two
layers of steel and allowing for 8mm links is equal to 260 − (25 + 8 + 12) = 215mm .
(i) Check maximum permissible force at face of loaded area
Maximum shear resistance:
  f  f
V Rd ,max = 0.5ud 0.61 − ck  ck
  250  1.5
  25  25
= 0.5(4 × 300) × 215 × 0.61 −  × 10 −3
  250  1.5
= 1161KN (> V Ed = 650 KN )
(ii) Check control perimeter 2d from loaded face
Perimeter u1 = 2(a + b) + 4πd
= 2(300 + 300) + 4π × 215 = 3902mm

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CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER VIII

hence for concrete without shear reinforcement the shear capacity is given by:
VRd ,c = v Rd ,c × 3902 × 215 = 83890v Rd ,c
bending steel ratio
As 905
ρ1 = = = 0.0042 (> 0.40 per cent )
bd 1000 × 215
hence from table 8.1, v Rd ,c = 0.56 for class C30 concrete and, from table 8.2, modification factor for class C25
concrete = 0.94 then
V Rd ,c = 83890 × 0.56 × 0.94 × 10 −3
= 442 KN (< V Ed = 650 KN )
and punching shear reinforcement is required.
(iii) Check outer perimeter at which reinforcement is not required.
VEd 650 × 10 3
u out,ef = = = 5743mm
v Rd ,c d 0.56 × 0.94 × 215
This will occur at a distance xd from the face of the loaded area, such that
5743 = 2(300 + 300) + 2π × 215 × x
and x = 3.36 (> 3.0)
(iv) Provision of reinforcement
Shear reinforcement should thus be provided within the zone extending from a distance not greater than 0.5d and
less than (3.36 − 1.5)d = 1.86d from the loaded face.
For perimeters ≤ 0.75d apart, 3 perimeters of steel will thus be adequate loaded area (i.e. s r ≈ 0.75d = 160mm
apart).
Since all perimeters lie within 2d (= 430mm) of the loaded and maximum link spacing, ( s t ) , is limited to
1.5d (= 323mm) .
The minimum link leg area is therefore given by:
0.053 f ck ( s r st ) 0.053 25 (160 × 323)
Asw,min = =
f yk 500
= 27.3mm 2 which is satisfied by a 6mm diameter bar ( 28.3mm 2 )
Hence the assumed 8mm links will be adequate.
The area of steel required/perimeter is thus given by:
v Rd ,cs − 0.75v Rd ,c
Asw ≥
 f ywd ,ef 
1.5 
s u
 r 1 
where, for the outer perimeter
VEd 650 × 10 3
VRd ,cs = = = 0.775 N / mm 2
u1 d 3902 × 215
v Rd ,c = 0.94 × 0.56 = 0.526 N / mm 2 (as above)
f ywd ,ef = 250 + 0.25 × 215 = 303 N / mm 2 (≤ 500)
and s r = 160mm
(0.775 − 0.75 × 0.526) × 160 × 3902
thus Asw ≥
1.5 × 303
2
= 523mm
(v) Number of links
The area of one leg of an 8mm link is 50.3mm 2 . Hence the number of link-legs required = 523 / 50.3 = 11 on the
outer perimeter. The same number of links can conveniently be provided around each of the 3 proposed perimeters
as summarized in the table below. The table indicates the number of single-leg 8mm diameter links
(area = 50.3mm 2 ) proposed for each of the three reinforcement perimeters taking account of the maximum

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CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER VIII

required spacing and practical fixing considerations. Bending reinforcement is spaced at 125mm centres in both
directions; hence link spacing is set at multiples of this values.
Distance from Length of Required link Proposed link Proposed
load face (mm) perimeter (mm) spacing (mm) spacing (mm) number of links
85 1734 158 125 14
245 2739 249 250 11
400 3713 323 250 15

8.2 Span-effective depth ratios

Excessive deflections of slabs will cause damage to the ceiling, floor finishes or other architectural finishes. To
avoid this, limits are set on the span-depth ratios. These limits are exactly the same as those beams. In terms of the
span-effective depth ratio, the depth of slab is given by
span
minimum effective depth =
basic ratio × correction factors

8.3 Reinforcement details

To resist cracking of the concrete, codes of practice specify details such as
• the minimum area of reinforcement required in a section
• limits to the maximum and minimum spacing of bars.
(a) Minimum areas of reinforcement
minimum area = 0.26 f ctm bt d / f yk ≥ 0.0013bt d
in both directions, where bt is the mean width of the tensile zone of section. The minimum reinforcement
provision for crack control, as specified in table 7.6 may also have to be considered where the slab depth
exceeds 200mm. Secondary transverse reinforcement should not be less than 20 per cent of the minimum main
reinforcement requirement in one way slabs.
(b) Maximum areas of longitudinal and transverse reinforcement
maximum area = 0.04 Ac
where Ac is the gross cross-sectional area. This limit applies to sections away from areas of bar lapping.
(c) Maximum spacing of bars
For slabs not exceeding 200mm thickness, bar spacing should not exceed three times the overall depth of slab
or 400mm whichever is the lesser for main reinforcement, and 3.5h or 450mm for secondary reinforcement.

8.4 Solid slabs spanning in one direction

The slabs are designed as if they consist of a series of beams of 1m breadth. The main steel is in the direction of the
span and secondary or distribution steel is required in the transverse direction. The main steel should from the outer
layer of reinforcement to give it the maximum lever arm.
The calculations for bending reinforcement follow a similar procedure to that used in beam design. The area of
tension reinforcement is given by
M
As =
0.87 f yk z
Single-span solid slabs
The basic span-effective depth ratio for this type of slab is 20:1 on the basis that it is ‘lightly stressed’ and that
grade 500 steel is used in the design. For a start-point in design a value above this can usually be estimated (unless
the slab is known to be heavily loaded).
The effective span of the slab may be taken as the clear distance between the face of the supports plus a distance at
both ends taken as the lesser of (a) the distance from the face of the support to its centerline and (b) one-half of the
overall depth of the slab.

Example 8.3 Design of a simply supported slab

The slab shown in figure 8.2 is to be designed to carry a variable load of 3.0 KN / mm 2 plus floor finishes and
ceiling loads of 1.0 KN / mm 2 . The characteristic material strengths are f ck = 25 N / mm 2 and
f yk = 500 N / mm 2 . Basic span-effective depth ratio = 19 for a lightly stressed slab from Figure 7.2 for class
C25/30 concrete and ρ = 0.5% .
Page 6 of 23
CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER VIII

For simplicity, take the effective span to be 4.5m between centrelines of supports.
H10-300

H10-150
300
4.5m

Fig.8.2 Simply supported slab example

(a) Estimate of slab depth
Try a basic span-depth ratio of 27 (approx. 40% above value from figure 7.2):
span
Minimum effective depth =
27 × correction factors (c.f)
4500 167
= =
27 × c.f. c.f.
As high yield steel is being used and the span is less than 7m the correction factors can be taken as unity. Try an
effective depth of 170mm. For a class XC-1 exposure the cover = 25mm . Allowing, say, 5mm as half the bar
diameter of the reinforcing bar:
Overall depth of slab = 170 + 25 + 5 = 200mm
(b) Slab loading
Self-weight of slab = 200 × 25 × 10 −3 = 5.0 KN / m 2
Total permanent load = 1.0 + 5.0 = 6.0 KN / m 2
For a 1m width of slab:
Ultimate load = (1.35 g k + 1.5q k )4.5
= (1.35 × 6.0 + 1.5 × 3.0)4.5 = 56.7 KN
M = 56.7 × 4.5 / 8 = 31.9 KNm
(c) Bending reinforcement
M 31.9 × 10 6
= = 0.044
bd 2 f ck 1000 × 170 2 × 25
From the lever arm equation
z = d [0.5 + (0.25 − K / 1.134) ] = d [0.5 + (0.25 − 0.044 / 1.134) ] = 0.96d > 0.95d
Therefore adopt upper limit of 0.95d and lever arm z = 0.95d = 0.95 × 170 = 161mm :
M 31.9 × 10 6
As = = = 455mm 2 / m
0.87 f yk z 0.87 × 500 × 161
Provide H10 bars at 150mm centres, As = 523mm 2 / m (as shown in table 8.3).
Table 8.3 Sectional areas per metre width for various bar spacings ( mm 2 )
Bar size Spacing of bars
(mm) 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 250 300
6 566 377 283 226 189 162 142 113 94
8 1010 671 503 402 335 287 252 201 168
10 1570 1050 785 628 523 446 393 314 262
12 2260 1510 1130 905 754 646 566 452 377
16 4020 2680 2010 1610 1340 1150 1010 804 670
20 6280 4190 3140 2510 2090 1800 1570 1260 1050
25 9820 6550 4910 3930 3270 2810 2450 1960 1640
32 16100 10700 8040 6430 5360 4600 4020 3220 2680
40 25100 16800 12600 10100 8380 7180 6280 5030 4190

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CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER VIII

(d) Check span-effective depth ratio

100 As ,req 100 × 455
ρ= = = 0.268% (> 0.13% minimum requirement)
bd 1000 × 170
From figure 7.2, this corresponds to a basic span-effective depth ratio of 32. The actual ratio = 4500 / 170 = 26.5 ;
hence the chosen effective depth is acceptable.
(e) Shear
At the face of the support
55.5  2.25 − 0.5 × 0.3 
Shear V Ed =   = 25.9 KN
2  2.25 
100 × 523
ρ1 = = 0.31
1000 × 170
VRd ,c = v Rd ,c bd where vRd ,c from table 8.1 = 0.55 (note: no concrete strength adjustment since
ρ1 < 0.4% ). Thus:
VRd ,c = 0.55 × 1000 × 170 = 93.5 KN
as V Ed is less than V Rd ,c then no shear reinforcement is required.
(f) End anchorage
From the table 8.4 the tension anchorage length = 40φ = 40 × 10 = 400mm
f yk φ 500 × 10
or l b = = = 402mm
4.6 f bd 4.6 × 2.7

Table 8.4 Anchorage and lap length coefficients (length L = K A × bar size) for good bond conditions
K A for concrete strength, f ck ( N / mm 2 )
20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Straight bars
Anchorage in tension and compression 47 40 36 32 29 27 25
Curved bars
Anchorage in tension 33 28 25 22 20 19 18
Anchorage in compression 47 40 36 32 29 27 25
% of bars lapped
at section
< 25% 47 40 36 32 29 27 25
Compression and tension laps
33% 54 46 42 37 33 31 29
50% 66 56 51 45 41 38 35
> 50% 71 60 54 48 44 41 38
Notes:
1. For poor bond conditions divide the coefficients by 0.7.
2. For bars greater than 32mm divide the coefficients by [(132 − φ )100] where φ is the bar size.

(g) Distribution steel

Provide minimum = 0.0012bd = 0.0013 × 1000 × 170 = 221mm 2 / m .
Provide H10 at 300mm centres ( 262mm 2 / m ) which satisfies maximum bar spacing limits.

Continuous solid slab spanning in one direction

Continuous slabs should in principle be designed to withstand the most unfavourable arrangements of loads, in the
same manner as beams. For a continuous slab, bottom reinforcement is required within the span and top
reinforcement over the supports. The effective span is the distance between the centerline of the supports and basic-
effective depth ratio of an interior span is 30 for ‘lightly stressed’ where grade 500 steel and class C30/35 concrete
are used. The corresponding limit for an end span is 26.
The bending moment and shear force coefficients given in table 8.5 may be used for one-way spanning slabs if the
following conditions are met.
i) the reinforcement must be of ductility class B and C

Page 8 of 23
CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER VIII

ii) neutral axis depth, x, should be no greater than 0.25 of the effective depth
iii) there are at least three spans that do not differ in length by more than 15 per cent
iv) Qk should be less than or equal to 1.25G k and also less than 5 KN / m 2

Table 8.5 Ultimate bending moment and shear force coefficients in one-way spanning slabs
End support condition
Pinned Continuous At first At middle
At interior
Near interior of interior
Outer supports
middle of End support End span support spans
support
end span
Moment 0 0.086 Fl − 0.04 Fl 0.075 Fl − 0.086 Fl 0.063Fl − 0.063Fl
Shear 0.40 F 0.46 F 0.60 F 0.50 F
Notes:
1. F is the total design ultimate load, F = (1.35G k + 1.5Qk ) L
2. L is the span length

Example 8.4 Design of a continuous solid slab

The four-span slab shown in figure 8.3 supports a variable load of 3.0 KN / m 2 plus floor finishes and a ceiling
load of 1.0 KN / m 2 . The characteristic material strengths are f ck = 25 N / mm 2 and f yk = 500 N / mm 2 .
Beam

Beam

Beam

Beam

Beam
Span Span Span Span
7m

Plan

4.5 m 4.5 m 4.5 m 4.5 m

Elevation

Fig.8.3 Continuous slab

(i) Estimate of slab depth
As the end span is more critical than interior spans, try a basic span-effective depth ratio 30 per cent above the end-
span limit of 26.0 (i.e. 33.0):
span
Minimum effective depth =
33 × correction factors (c.f)
4500 136
= =
33 × c.f. c.f.
As high yield steel is being used and the span is less than 7m the correction factors can be taken as unity. Try an
effective depth of 140mm. For a class XC-1 exposure the cover = 25mm . Allowing, say, 5mm as half the bar
diameter of the reinforcing bar:
Overall depth of slab = 140 + 25 + 5 = 170mm
(b) Slab loading
Self-weight of slab = 170 × 25 × 10 −3 = 4.25 KN / m 2
Total permanent load = 1.0 + 4.25 = 5.25 KN / m 2
For a 1m width of slab:
Ultimate load F = (1.35 g k + 1.5q k )4.5
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CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER VIII

= (1.35 × 5.25 + 1.5 × 3.0)4.5 = 52.14 KN

Using the coefficients of table 8.5, assuming the end support is pinned, the moment at the middle of the end span is
given by
M = 0.086 Fl = 0.086 × 52.14 × 4.5 = 20.18 KNm
(c) Bending reinforcement
M 20.18 × 10 6
= = 0.0412
bd 2 f ck 1000 × 140 2 × 25
From the lever arm equation
z = d [0.5 + (0.25 − K / 1.134) ] = d [0.5 + (0.25 − 0.0412 / 1.134) ] = 0.96d > 0.95d
Therefore adopt upper limit of 0.95d and lever arm z = 0.95d = 0.95 × 140 = 133mm :
M 20.18 × 10 6
As = = = 349mm 2 / m
0.87 f yk z 0.87 × 500 × 133
Provide H10 bars at 200mm centres, As = 393mm 2 / m (as shown in table 8.3).
(d) Check span-effective depth ratio
100 As ,req 100 × 349
ρ= = = 0.249% (> 0.13% minimum requirement)
bd 1000 × 140
From figure 7.2, this corresponds to a basic span-effective depth ratio in excess of 32 × 1.3 (for an end span) = 41 .
The actual ratio = 4500 / 140 = 32.1 ; hence the chosen effective depth is acceptable.
Similar calculations for the supports and the interior span give the steel areas shown in figure 8.4.

H10-400 H10-200 H10-400 H10-250

H10-200 H10-400 H10-250 H10-250

Fig.8.4 Reinforcement in a continuous slab

At the end supports there is a monolithic connection between the slab and the beam, therefore top steel should be
provided to resist any negative moment. The moment to be designed for is a minimum of 25 per cent of the span
moment, this is 5.1KNm . In fact, to provide a minimum of 0.13 per cent of steel, H10 bars at 400mm centres have
been specified.
Transverse reinforcement = 0.0013bd
= 0.0013 × 1000 × 140
= 182mm 2 / m
Provide H10 at 400mm centres top and bottom, wherever there is main reinforcement ( 196mm 2 / m ).

8.5 Solid slabs spanning in two directions

When a slab is supported on all four of its sides it spans in both directions. A solid slab is two way spanning if
L y / L x < 2.0 ( L y > L x ) . The amount of bending in each direction will depend on the ratio of the two spans and
the conditions of restraint at each support. Moments in each direction of span are generally calculated using
tabulated coefficients. Areas of reinforcement to resist the moments are determined independently for each
direction of span.
The span-effective depth ratios are based on the shorter span and the percentage of reinforcement in that direction.
With a uniformly distributed load the loads on the supporting beams may generally be apportioned as shown in
figure 8.5.
There are two types of two way spanning solid slabs.
i) Simply supported slab spanning in two directions
ii) Restrained slab spanning in two directions

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CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER VIII

Beam A

Load on beam A

Beam D
Beam C

Load on Load on
beam C beam D

Load on beam B

Beam B
Fig.8.5 loads carried by supporting beams

Simply supported slab spanning in two directions

A slab simply supported on its four sides will deflect about both axes under load and the corners will tend to lift
and curl up from the supports, causing torsional moments. When no provision has been made to prevent this lifting
or to resist the torsion then the moment coefficients of table 8.6 may be used and the maximum moments are given
by
M sx = a sx nl x2 in direction of span l x
and
M sy = a sy nl x2 in direction of span l y
where
M sx and M sy are the moments at mid-span on strips of unit width with spans l x and l y respectively
n = (1.35 g k + 1.5q k ) , that is the total ultimate load per unit area
l x is the length of the shorter side
l y is the length of the longer side
a sx and a sy are the moment coefficients from table 8.6.
The area of reinforcement in directions l x and l y respectively are
M sx
Asx = per metre width
0.87 f yk z
and
M sy
Asy = per metre width
0.87 f yk z
The slab should be reinforced uniformly across the full width, in each direction.
The effective depth d used in calculating Asy should be less than that for Asx because of the different depths of the
two layers of reinforcement.
At least 40 per cent of the mid-span reinforcement should extend to the supports and the remaining 60 per cent
should extend to within 0.1l x or 0.1l y of the appropriate support.

Table 8.6 Bending-moment coefficients for slabs spanning in two directions

at right angles, simply supported on four sides
l y / lx 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.75 2.0
a sx 0.062 0.074 0.084 0.093 0.099 0.104 0.113 0.118
a sy 0.062 0.061 0.059 0.055 0.051 0.046 0.037 0.029

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CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER VIII

Example 8.5 Design the reinforcement for a simply supported slab

The slab is 220mm thick and spans in two directions. The effective span in each direction is 4.5m and
6.3m and the slab supports a variable load of 10 KN / m 2 . The characteristic material strengths are
f ck = 25 N / mm 2 and f yk = 500 N / mm 2 .
l y / l x = 6.3 / 4.5 = 1.4
From table 8.6, a sx = 0.099 and a sy = 0.051 .
Self-weight of slab = 220 × 25 × 10 −3 = 5.5 KN / m 2
Ultimate load = 1.35 g k + 1.5q k
= 1.35 × 5.5 + 1.5 × 10.0 = 22.43KN / m 2
Bending-short span
With class XC-1 exposure conditions take d = 185mm .
M sx = a sx nl x2 = 0.099 × 22.43 × 4.5 2 = 45.0 KNm
M sx 45.0 × 10 6
= = 0.053
bd 2 f ck 1000 × 185 2 × 25
From the lever arm equation
z = d [0.5 + (0.25 − K / 1.134) ] = d [0.5 + (0.25 − 0.053 / 1.134) ] = 0.951d > 0.95d
Therefore adopt upper limit of 0.95d and lever arm z = 0.95d = 0.95 × 185 = 176mm
and
M sx 45.0 × 10 6
Asx = = = 588mm 2 / m
0.87 f yk z 0.87 × 500 × 176
Provide H12 at 175mm centres, Asx = 646mm 2 / m .

Span-effective depth ratio

100 As ,req 100 × 588
ρ1 = = = 0.318%
bd 1000 × 185
From figure 7.2, this corresponds to a basic span-effective depth ratio of 28.0:
Actual span-effective depth ratio = 4500 / 185 = 24.3
Thus d = 185mm is adequate.

Bending-long span
M sy = a sy nl x2 = 0.051 × 22.43 × 4.5 2 = 23.16 KNm
Since the reinforcement for this span will have a reduced effective depth, take z = 176 − 12 = 164mm . Therefore
M sy 23.16 × 10 6
Asy = = = 325mm 2 / m
0.87 f yk z 0.87 × 500 × 164
Provide H10 at 200mm centres, Asy = 393mm 2 / m .
100 As ,req 100 × 393
ρ2 = = = 0.24%
bd 1000 × 164
which is greater than 0.13, the minimum for transverse steel, with class C25/30 concrete.
The arrangement of the reinforcement is shown in figure 8.6.
H10-200

H12-175

4.5m

Fig.8.6 Simply supported slab spanning in two directions

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CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER VIII

Restrained slab spanning in two directions

When the slabs have fixity at the supports and reinforcement is added to resist torsion and to prevent the corners of
the slab from lifting then the maximum moments per unit width are given by
M sx = β sx nl x2 in direction of span l x
and
M sy = β sy nl x2 in direction of span l y
where β sx and β sy are the moment coefficients given in table 8.7.
The slab is divided into middle and edge strips as shown in figure 8.7 and reinforcement is required in the
middle strips to resist M sx and M sy . In the edge strips only nominal reinforcement is necessary, such that
As / bd = 0.26 f ctm / f yk ≥ 0.0013 for high yield steel.

Table 8.7 Bending moment coefficients for two-way spanning rectangular slabs supported by beams
Short span coefficients, β sx for values of l y / l x Long-span
Type of panel and coefficients, β sy for
moments considered 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.75 2.0
all value of l y / l x
Interior panels
Negative moment at continuous edge 0.031 0.037 0.042 0.046 0.050 0.053 0.059 0.063 0.032
Positive moment at mid-span 0.024 0.028 0.032 0.035 0.037 0.040 0.044 0.048 0.024
One short edge discontinuous
Negative moment at continuous edge 0.039 0.044 0.048 0.052 0.055 0.058 0.063 0.067 0.037
Positive moment at mid-span 0.029 0.033 0.036 0.039 0.041 0.043 0.047 0.050 0.028
One long edge discontinuous
Negative moment at continuous edge 0.039 0.049 0.056 0.062 0.068 0.073 0.082 0.089 0.037
Positive moment at mid-span 0.030 0.036 0.042 0.047 0.051 0.055 0.062 0.067 0.028
Two adjacent edges discontinuous
Negative moment at continuous edge 0.047 0.056 0.063 0.069 0.074 0.078 0.087 0.093 0.045
Positive moment at mid-span 0.036 0.042 0.047 0.051 0.055 0.059 0.065 0.070 0.034
Two short edges discontinuous
Negative moment at continuous edge 0.046 0.050 0.054 0.057 0.060 0.062 0.067 0.070 -
Positive moment at mid-span 0.034 0.038 0.040 0.043 0.045 0.047 0.050 0.053 0.034
Two long edges discontinuous
Negative moment at continuous edge - - - - - - - - 0.045
Positive moment at mid-span 0.034 0.046 0.056 0.065 0.072 0.078 0.091 0.100 0.034
Three edges discontinuous (one
long edge continuous)
Negative moment at continuous edge 0.057 0.065 0.071 0.076 0.081 0.084 0.092 0.098 -
Positive moment at mid-span 0.043 0.048 0.053 0.057 0.060 0.063 0.069 0.074 0.044
Three edges discontinuous (one
short edge continuous)
Negative moment at continuous edge - - - - - - - - 0.058
Positive moment at mid-span 0.042 0.054 0.063 0.071 0.078 0.084 0.096 0.105 0.044
Four edges discontinuous
Positive moment at mid-span 0.055 0.065 0.074 0.081 0.087 0.092 0.103 0.111 0.056

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CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER VIII

ly ly
lx
8
Edge strip

Middle strip
Edge strip

Edge strip
Middle strip 3lx
lx
4
Edge strip

ly 3ly ly lx
8 4 8 8

(a) For span l x (b) For span l y

Fig.8.7 Division of slab into middle and edge strips

In addition, torsion reinforcement is provided at discontinuous corners and it should:

1. consists of top and bottom mats, each having bars in both directions of span;
2. extend from the edges a minimum distance l x / 5 ;
3. at a corner where the slab is discontinuous in both directions have an area of steel in each of the four layers equal
to three-quarters of the area required for the maximum mid-span moment’
4. at a corner where the slab is discontinuous in one direction only, have an area of torsion reinforcement only half
of that specified in rule 3.
Torsion reinforcement is not, however, necessary at any corner where the slab is continuous in both directions.
Where l y / l x > 2 , the slabs should be designed as spanning in one direction only.
It should be noted that the coefficients for both shear and moments can only be used if class B or C ductility
reinforcement is specified and the ratio x / d is limited to 0.25.
Example 8.6 Moments in a continuous two-way slab
The panel considered is an edge panel, as shown in figure 8.8 and the uniformly distributed load,
n = (1.35 g k + 1.5q k ) = 10 KN / m 2 .
l x =5m

support
Discontinuous
a b supported edge
l y =6.25m

support

d c
support

Fig.8.8 Continuous panel spanning in two directions

The moment coefficients are taken from table 8.7.

ly 6.25
= = 1.25
lx 5.0
Positive moments at mid-span
M sx = β sx nl x2 = 0.045 × 10 × 5 2 = 11.25 KNm in direction of span l x
M sy = β sy nl x2 = 0.028 × 10 × 5 2 = 7.0 KNm in direction of span l y
Negative moments
Support ad, M x = 0.059 × 10 × 5 2 = 14.75 KNm
Support ab and dc, M y = 0.037 × 10 × 5 2 = 9.25 KNm

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CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER VIII

The moments calculated are for a metre width of slab.

The design of reinforcement to resist these moments would follow the usual procedure. Torsion reinforcement,
according to rule 4 is required at corners b and c. A check would be required on the span-effective depth ratio of
the slab.

8.6 Ribbed and hollow block floors

Classification;
i) Ribbed with hollow blocks, i.e. maxpans
ii) Rebbed without hollow blocks
Rebbed without hollow blocks are divided into:
a) Ribs running in one direction
b) Ribs running in both directions (waffle slab)

Cross-sections through a ribbed and hollow block floor slabs are shown in figure 8.9.

Advantages of Ribbed and hollow block slabs:

i) These floors are lighter
ii) These floors are economical for buildings where there are long spans, over about 5m, and light or moderate
live loads, such as in hospital wards or apartment buildings.

They would not be suitable for structures having a heavy loading, such as Warehouses and garages.

Design
• The slab is designed as a T-section with the effective flange breadths. Near the supports the slab is made solid at
about 0.5 ~ 1.0m from the support to increase shear strength.
• The slabs are usually made solid under partitions and concentrated loads.
• During construction the hollow tiles should be well soaked in water prior to placing the concrete, otherwise
shrinkage cracking of the top concrete flange is liable to occur.
• The thickness of the concrete flange should not be less than:
1. 40mm or one-tenth of the clear distance between ribs, whichever is the greater, for slabs with permanent
blocks;
2. 50mm or one-tenth tenth of the clear distance between ribs, whichever is the greater, for slabs without
permanent blocks.

• The rib width will be governed by

1. cover
2. bar-spacing
3. fire resistance requirements
• The ribs should be spaced no further apart 1.5m and their depth below the flange should not be greater than four
times their width.
• Transverse ribs should be provided at spacing no greater than ten times the overall slab depth.
• Span-effective depth ratios will be based on the shorter span with the basic values given in figure 7.2 multiplied
by 0.8 where the ratio of the flange width to the rib width exceeds 3.
• At least 50 per cent of the tensile reinforcement in the span should continue to the supports and be anchored.
• A light reinforcement mesh in the topping flange is provided:
1. to control cracking due to shrinkage or thermal movement;
2. to distribute concentrated or moving loads;
3. to give added strength and durability to the slab;
4. to serve as distribution bars for tension bars over supports
The minimum area of reinforcement mesh should not be less than 0.13% of the topping flange.
• Waffle slabs are designed as ribbed slabs and their design moments each way are obtained from the moment
coefficients tabulated in table 8.7 for two-way spanning slabs.

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CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER VIII

(a) Section through a ribbed floor

Supporting beam

Solid end section

Supporting beam

light mesh

(b) partial plan of and section through a waffle slab

(c) Section through a hollow block floor

Fig.8.9 Sections through ribbed and hollow block floors, and waffle slab

Example 8.7 Design of a ribbed floor

The ribbed floor is constructed with permanent fiberglass moulds; it is continuous over several spans of 5.0m. The
characteristic material strengths are f ck = 25 N / mm 2 and f yk = 500 N / mm 2 .
An effective section, as shown in figure 8.10, which satisfies requirements for a 60 minute resistance (see table 8.8)
is to be tried. The characteristic permanent load including self-weight and finishes is 4.5 KN / m 2 and the
characteristic variable load is 2.5 KN / m 2 .
600
solid 2-H10 above each rib
slab

2-H10 per rib

span = 5.0m

d =160 h =200
60

125 400

Cross-section at mid-span
Fig.8.10 Ribbed slab

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CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER VIII

Table 8.8 Minimum dimensions and axis distance for RC slabs for fire resistance
Minimum dimensions (mm)
Standard fire Two-way spanning
One-way Ribs in two-way spanning ribbed
resistance
spanning l y / l x ≤ 1.5 1.5 < l y / l x ≤ 2.0 slab
hs = 80 80 80 bmin = 100 120 ≥ 200
REI 60
a= 20 10 15 a= 25 15 10
hs = 100 100 100 bmin = 120 160 ≥ 250
REI 90
a= 30 15 20 a= 35 25 15
hs = 120 120 120 bmin = 160 190 ≥ 300
REI 120
a= 40 20 25 a= 45 40 30
hs = 175 175 175 bmin = 450 700 -
REI 240
a= 65 40 50 a= 70 60 -

The calculations are for an end span (which will be most critical) for which the moments and shears can be
determined from the coefficients in table 8.5.
Considering a 0.4m width of floor as supported by each rib:
Ultimate load = 0.4(0.35 g k + 1.5q k )
= 0.4(0.35 × 4.5 + 1.5 × 2.5)
= 3.93KN / m
Ultimate load on the span, F = 3.93 × 5.0 = 19.65 KN

Bending
1. At mid-span design as a T-section:
M = 0.086 Fl = 0.086 × 19.65 × 5.0 = 8.45 KNm
The effective breadth of flange = bw + beff 1 + beff 2 where
beff 1 = beff 2 = 0.2b1 + 0.1l 0 ≤ 0.2l 0 ≤ b1
with b1 = (400 − 125) / 2 = 137 mm and l 0 = 0.85 × 5000 = 4250mm
thus
bw + beff 1 + beff 2 = 125 + 2(0.2 × 137 + 0.1 × 4250) = 1030mm
or 0.2 × 4250) = 850mm
which both exceed the rib spacing of 400mm, which governs
M 8.45 × 10 6
= = 0.033
bd 2 f ck 400 × 160 2 × 25
From the lever arm equation
z = d [0.5 + (0.25 − K / 1.134) ] = d [0.5 + (0.25 − 0.033 / 1.134) ] = 0.97 d > 0.95d . Thus the
neutral axis depth lies within the flange.
Therefore adopt upper limit of 0.95d and lever arm z = 0.95d = 0.95 × 160 = 152mm
and
M 8.45 × 10 6
As = = = 127.8mm 2
0.87 f yk z 0.87 × 500 × 152
Provide two H10 bars in the ribs, As = 157mm 2 .
2. At the end interior support design as a rectangular section for the solid slab:
M = 0.086 Fl = 0.086 × 19.65 × 5.0 = 8.45 KNm as in 1.
and As = 128mm 2 as at mid-span
Provide two H10 bars in each 0.4m width of slab, As = 157mm 2 .

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CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER VIII

3. At the section where the ribs terminate: this occurs 0.6m from the centerline of the support and the moment may
be hogging so that 125mm ribs must provide the concrete area in compression to resist the design moment. The
maximum moment of resistance of the concrete is
M = 0.167 f ck bd 2 = 0.167 × 25 × 125 × 160 2 × 10 −6 = 13.36 KNm
which must be greater than the moment at this section, therefore compression steel is not required.

Span-effective depth ratio

At the centre of the span
100 As ,req 100 × 128
ρ= = = 0.20%
bd 400 × 160
From figure 7.2 and table 7.5 the limiting basic-effective depth ratio ( ρ = 0.3% ) for an end span is
32 × 1.3 = 41.6 .
For a T-section with a flange width greater than three times the web width this should be multiplied by 0.8 to give a
limiting ratio of 0.8 × 41.6 = 33.2 .
actual span-effective depth ratio = 5000 / 160 = 31.3
Thus d = 160mm is adequate.

Shear
Maximum shear in the rib 0.6m from the support centerline (end span)
V Ed = 0.6 F − 0.6 × 3.93 = 0.6 × 19.65 − 0.6 × 3.93 = 9.43KN
As 157
ρ1 = = = 0.0079
bd 125 × 160
From table 8.1, the shear resistance without reinforcement V Rd ,c = v Rd ,c bd where v Rd ,c = 0.68 N / mm 2 and, from
table 8.2, the strength modification factor = 0.94 . Hence:
VRd ,c = v Rd ,c bd = 0.94 × 0.68 × 125 × 160 = 12.78 KN
As V Rd ,c is greater than V Ed then no shear reinforcement is required provided that the bars in the ribs are securely
located during construction.

Example 8.8 Design of a waffle slab

Design a waffle slab for an internal panel of a floor system, each panel spanning 6.0m in each direction. The
characteristic material strengths are f ck = 25 N / mm 2 and f yk = 500 N / mm 2 . The section as used in example
8.7, figure 8.10 is to be tried with characteristic permanent load including self-weight of 6.0 KN / m 2 and
characteristic variable load of 2.5 KN / m 2 .
Design ultimate load = (1.35 g k + 1.5q k )
= (1.35 × 6.0) + (1.5 × 2.5) = 11.85 KN / m 2

As the slab has the same span in each direction the moment coefficients, β sx , β sy are taken from table 8.7 with
l y / l x = 1.0 . Calculations are given for a single 0.4m wide beam section and in both directions of span.

Bending
1. At mid-span: design as a T-section.
Positive moment at mid-span = m sx = β sx nl x2 = 0.024 × 11.85 × 6 2 = 10.24 KNm / m
Moment carried by each rib = 0.4 × 10.24 = 4.10 KNm
M 4.1 × 10 6
= = 0.016
bd 2 f ck 400 × 160 2 × 25
where the effective breadth is 400mm as in the previous example.
From the lever arm equation

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CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER VIII

z = d [0.5 + (0.25 − K / 1.134) ] = d [0.5 + (0.25 − 0.016 / 1.134) ] = 0.98d > 0.95d . Thus the neutral axis
depth lies within the flange and
M 4.1 × 10 6
As = = = 62 mm 2
0.87 f yk z 0.87 × 500 × 0.95 × 160
Provide two H10 bars in each rib at the bottom of the beam, As = 157mm 2 to satisfy minimum requirement of
0.13bd % = 0.0013 × 400 × 160 = 83mm 2 / rib . Note that since the service stress in the steel will be reduced, this
lead to a higher span-effective depth ratio thus ensuring that the span-effective depth ratio of the slab is kept within
acceptable limits.

2. At the support: design as a rectangular section for the solid slab.

Negative moment at support = m sx = β sx nl x2 = 0.031 × 11.85 × 6 2 = 13.22 KNm / m
Moment carried by each 0.4m width = 0.4 × 13.22 = 5.29 KNm
M 5.29 × 10 6
= = 0.021
bd 2 f ck 400 × 160 2 × 25
From the lever arm equation
z = d [0.5 + (0.25 − K / 1.134) ] = d [0.5 + (0.25 − 0.021 / 1.134) ] = 0.98d > 0.95d .
M 5.29 × 10 6
As = = = 80 mm 2
0.87 f yk z 0.87 × 500 × 0.95 × 160
Provide two H10 bars in each 0.4m width of slab, As = 157mm 2 .

3. At the section where the ribs terminate: the maximum hogging moment of resistance of the concrete ribs is
13.36 KNm as in the previous example. This is greater than the moment at this section, therefore compression steel
is not required.

Span-effective depth ratio

100 As ,req 100 × 62
At the mid span ρ = = = 0.096%
bd 400 × 160
Hence from figure 7.2, limiting basic sapn depth ratio = 32 × 1.5 (for interior span) × 0.8 ( for flange > 3 × web
thickness) when ρ < 0.3% .
Thus allowable ratio = 32 × 1.5 × 0.8 = 38.4
actual span-effective depth ratio = 6000 / 160 = 37.5
Thus d = 160mm is just adequate. It has not been necessary here to allow for the increased span/effective depth
resulting from providing an increased steel area, thus consideration could be given to reducing the rib
reinforcement to two H8 bars ( 101mm 2 ) which still satisfies nominal requirements.

Shear
From the table 8.9 the shear force coefficient for a continuous edge support is 0.33. Hence, for one rib, the shear at
the support
Vsx = β vx nl x × b = 0.33 × 11.85 × 6 × 0.4 = 9.38 KN
Maximum shear in the rib 0.6m from the centerline is
VEd = 9.38 − 0.6 × 11.85 × 0.4 = 6.54 KN
At this position, V Rd ,c = v Rd ,c × 125 × 160 and
100 As 100 × 157
ρ1 = = = 0.79%
bd 125 × 160
Hence from table 8.1, v Rd ,c = 0.68 N / mm 2 and, from table 8.2, the strength modification factor = 0.94 . Hence:
VRd ,c = v Rd ,c bd = 0.94 × 0.68 × 125 × 160 = 12.8 KN
Therefore the unreinforced section is adequate in shear, and no links are required provided that the bars in the ribs
are securely located during construction.
Page 19 of 23
CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER VIII

Table 8.9 Shear force coefficients for uniformly loaded rectangular panels supported
on four sides with provision for torsion at corners
β vx for values of l y / l x β vy
Type of panel and location 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.75 2.0
Four edges continuous
continuous 0.33 0.36 0.39 0.41 0.43 0.45 0.48 0.50 0.33
One short edge discontinuous
Continuous edge 0.36 0.39 0.42 0.44 0.45 0.47 0.50 0.52 0.36
Discontinuous edge - - - - - - - - 0.24
One long edge discontinuous
Continuous edge 0.36 0.40 0.44 0.47 0.49 0.51 0.55 0.59 0.36
Discontinuous edge 0.24 0.27 0.29 0.31 0.32 0.34 0.36 0.38 -
Two adjacent edges discontinuous
Continuous edge 0.40 0.44 0.47 0.50 0.52 0.54 0.57 0.60 0.40
Discontinuous edge 0.26 0.29 0.31 0.33 0.34 0.35 0.38 0.40 0.26
Two short edges discontinuous
Continuous edge 0.40 0.43 0.45 0.47 0.48 0.49 0.52 0.54 -
Discontinuous edge - - - - - - - - 0.26
Two long edges discontinuous
Continuous edge - - - - - - - - 0.40
Discontinuous edge 0.26 0.30 0.33 0.36 0.38 0.40 0.44 0.47 -
Three edges discontinuous
(one long edge discontinuous)
Continuous edge 0.45 0.48 0.51 0.53 0.55 0.57 0.60 0.63 -
Discontinuous edge 0.30 0.32 0.34 0.35 0.36 0.37 0.39 0.41 0.29
Three edges discontinuous
(one short edge discontinuous)
Continuous edge - - - - - - - - 0.45
Discontinuous edge 0.29 0.33 0.36 0.38 0.40 0.42 0.45 0.48 0.30
Four edges discontinuous
Discontinuous edge 0.33 0.36 0.39 0.41 0.43 0.45 0.48 0.50 0.33

Reinforcement in the topping flange

Light reinforcing mesh should be provided in the top of the flange.
Area required = 0.13 × b × h / 100 = 0.13 × 1000 × 60 / 100 = 78mm 2 / mm
Provide D98 mesh (see table 8.10), As = 98mm 2 / m .
Table 8.10 Sectional areas for different fabric types
Longitudinal wires Cross wires
Fabric reference Wire size Pitch Area Wire size Pitch Area
(mm) (mm) 2
( mm / m ) (mm) (mm) ( mm 2 / m )
Square mesh
200
A393 10 200 393 10 393
200
A252 8 200 252 8 252
200
A193 7 200 193 7 193
200
A142 6 200 142 6 142
200
A98 5 200 98 5 98
Structural mesh
B1131 12 100 1131 8 200 252
B785 10 100 785 8 200 252
B503 8 100 503 8 200 252
B385 7 100 385 7 200 193
B283 6 100 283 7 200 193
B196 5 100 196 7 200 193
Long mesh
C785 10 100 785 6 400 70.8
C636 9 100 636 6 400 70.8
C503 8 100 503 5 400 49
C385 7 100 385 5 400 49
C283 6 100 283 5 400 49
Wrapping mesh
D98 5 200 98 5 200 98
D49 2.5 100 49 2.5 100 49
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CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER VIII

8.7 Stair slabs

The usual form of stairs can be classified into two types:
a) those spanning horizontally in the transverse direction
b) those spanning longitudinally

Stairs are one way spanning slabs.

Building Regulation Requirements for stair Design

D
private Common b
Riser, R ≤ 220mm ≤ 190mm

Tread, G ≤ 220mm ≤ 230mm Tread

Distribution steel
Pitch, θ ≤ 42° ≤ 38°
No of steps
≤ 16 Main steel
in a flight
Riser
∗ if 700mm > G + 2 R > 550mm - Pitch
Assume G = 300mm and R = 150mm
∗ Tread should be uniform
∗ Riser should be uniform
Waist Fig. 8.11 Section of transverse stair

Stairs spanning horizontally

Stairs of this type may be supported on both sides (e.g. between walls, a wall and a stringer beam, between two
stringer beams) or they may be cantilevered from a supporting wall. Transverse spanning stair slabs are designed as
a series of beams consisting of one step with breadth, b and an effective depth of d = D / 2 as shown in the figure
8.11.
Distribution steel in the longitudinal direction is placed above the main reinforcement. The main steel must not be
spaced at more than one bar per rib.
In the case of the cantilever stairs, the effective depth of the member is taken as the mean effective depth of the
section and the main reinforcement must be placed in the top of the stairs and anchored into the support. A light
mesh of reinforcement is placed in the bottom face to resist shrinkage cracking.

CL

Light mesh

Fig. 8.12 Section of cantilevered stair

Stair slab spanning longitudinally

The stair slab may span into landings which span at right angles to the stairs as in figure 8.13 or it may span
between supporting beams as in figure 8.14.

Page 21 of 23
CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER VIII

Landing Landing
H12-400

H1
Open well 0-4
00

1.5m
H12-300

Effective depth, d=115

H12-400
Span 3.0m

Span

Fig.8.13 Stairs spanning into landings Fig.8.14 Stairs supported by beams

The permanent load is calculated along the slope length of the stairs but the variable load is based on the plan area.
If the total design load on the stair is F and the staircase is cast monolithically with the floor slab, then positive
moment at mid span, M = Fl / 10 , and negative moment at supports, M = Fl / 10 . If the staircase is precast, the
positive design moment, M = Fl / 8 . The shear force in both cases, SF = F / 2 .
When the staircase is built monolithically at its ends into a structural member spanning at right angles to its span,
the effective span is given by
Leff = Ln + a1 + a 2
where
Ln is the clear horizontal distance between supporting members
a1 is half the breadth of supporting member at one end
a 2 is half the breadth of supporting member at other end
The thickness of the waist is taken as the slab thickness.
The design procedure is the same as that of slabs.

Example 8.9 Design of stair slab

The stairs are of the type shown in figure 8.14 spanning longitudinally and set into pockets in the two supporting
beams. the effective span is 3m and the rise of the stairs is 1.5m with 260mm treads and 150mm risers. The
variable load is 3.0 KN / m 2 and the characteristic material strengths are f ck = 30 N / mm 2 and .
Try a 140mm thick waist, effective depth, d = 115mm . This would give an initial estimate of the span-effective
ratio of 26.1 (3000/115) which, from 7.2, lies a little above the basic value for a ‘lightly stressed’ simply supported
slab.

Slope length of stairs = (3 2 + 5 2 ) = 3.35m

Consider a 1m width of stairs:
Weight of waist plus steps = (0.14 × 3.35 + 0.26 × 1.5 / 2)25 = 16.6 KN
Variable load = 3.0 × 3 = 9.0 KN
Ultimate load,
With no effective end restraint:
Fl 13.91 × 3.0
M = = = 13.46 KNm
8 8

Bending reinforcement

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CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER VIII

M 13.16 × 10 6
= = 0.034
bd 2 f ck 1000 × 115 2 × 30
From the lever arm equation
z = d [0.5 + (0.25 − K / 1.134) ] = d [0.5 + (0.25 − 0.034 / 1.134) ] = 0.97 d > 0.95d .
M 13.46 × 10 6
As = = = 283 mm 2 / m
0.87 f yk z 0.87 × 500 × 0.95 × 115
Maximum allowable spacing is 3h = 3 × 140 = 420mm with an upper limit of 400mm.
Provide H12 bars at 300mm centres, As = 377 mm 2 / m .

Span-effective depth ratio

100 As ,req 100 × 377
At the centre of the span ρ = = = 0.33
bd 1000 × 115
which is greater than the minimum requirement of 0.15 for class C30 concrete (see table 7.6).
From table 7.5 the basic span-effective depth ratio for a simply supported span with ρ req = 0.5% is 20. Allowing
for the actual steel area provided:
limiting span-effective depth ratio = 20 × As , prov / As.req = 20 × 377 / 283 = 26.6
actual span-effective depth ratio = 3000 / 115 = 26.09
Hence the slab effective depth is acceptable. (Note that the allowable ratio will actually be greater than estimated
above since the required steel ratio is less than the 0.5% used with table 7.5)

Secondary reinforcement
Transverse distribution steel ≥ 0.2 As ,min = 0.2 × 377 = 75.4mm 2 / m
This is very small, and adequately covered by H10 bars at the maximum allowable spacing of 400mm centres, area
= 174mm 2 / m .
Continuity bars at the top and bottom of the span should be provided and, whereas about 50per cent of the main
steel would be reasonable, the maximum spacing is limited to 400mm. Hence provide, say, H12 bars at 400mm
centres as continuity steel.

Page 23 of 23
CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER IX

CHAPTER IX. DESIGN OF COLUMN

The columns in a structure carry the loads from the beams and slabs down to the foundations, and therefore they
are primarily compression members, although they may also have to resist bending forces due to the continuity of
the structure.
Columns carrying only axial forces can be designed based on the equations.
Columns carrying axial forces plus bending moments are designed with the aid of design charts.
Columns may be square, rectangular, circular, elliptical, cruciform or of other shapes.
Initial dimensions are normally determined by taking into account requirements for durability and fire resistance
(table 9.1).
Table 9.1 Minimum dimensions and axis distance for RC columns and walls for fire resistance
Minimum dimensions (mm)
Column width bmin /axis distance, a, of the Wall thickness/axis distance, a, of the main
Standard fire
main bars bars
resistance
Columns exposed on Columns exposed on Wall exposed on one Wall exposed on two
more than one side one side side sides
R60 250/46 155/25 130/10 140/10
350/40
R90 350/53 155/25 140/25 170/25
450/40
R120 350/57 175/35 160/35 220/35
450/51
R240 600/70 295/70 270/60 350/60

9.1 Classification of Columns

i) Braced and unbraced columns
• A braced column is one where the lateral loads are resisted by shear walls or other forms of bracing capable of
transmitting all horizontal loading to the foundations.
With a braced structure the axial forces and moments in the columns are caused by the vertical permanent and
variable actions only.
• An unbraced column is one where horizontal loads are resisted by the frame action of rigidly connected
columns, beams and slabs.
With an unbraced structure the loading arrangements which include the effects of the lateral loads must be
considered.
ii) Sway and Non sway structures
Both braced and unbraced structures can be further classified as sway or non-sway.
Frames may be classified as non-sway if the first order displacement of the connections do not increase the
bending moments by more than 10%, otherwise they are classified as sway.
iii) Isolated columns
These may be:
a) isolated compression members
• individual isolated columns (figure 9.1 a)
• columns with articulation in a non-sway structure (figure 9.1 b)
b) compression members which are integral parts of a structure but which are considered to be isolated for design
purposes.
• slender bracing element considered as isolated column (figure 9.1 c)
• columns with restrained ends in a non-sway structure (figure 9.1 d)

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Fig.9.1 Types of isolated columns

Page 1 of 14
CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER IX

In this chapter only the design of the most common types of columns found in building structures, namely braced
columns, will be described. A column may be considered to be braced in a given plane if the bracing element or
system (e.g. core or shear walls) is sufficiently stiff to resist all the lateral forces in that plane. Thus braced columns
are assumed to not contribute to the overall horizontal stability of a structure and as such are only designed to resist
axial load and bending due to vertical loading.

9.2 Slenderness ratio, Effective height and Limiting slenderness ratio of column

Slenderness ratio of a column

The slenderness ratio λ of a column bent about an axis is given by
l0 l0
λ= = (9.1)
i ( I / A)
where
l 0 is the effective height of the column
i is the radius of gyration about the axis considered
I is the second moment of area of the section about the axis
A is the cross-section area of the column

Effective height l 0 of a column

The effective height of a column, l 0 , is the height of a theoretical column of equivalent section but pinned at both
ends. This depends on the degree of fixity at each end of the column, which itself depends on the relative stiffness
of the columns and beam connected to either end of the column under consideration.
EC2 gives two formulae for calculating the effective height:
For braced members:

 k1  k2 
l 0 = 0.5l 1 +  1 +  (9.2)
 0.45 + k1   0.45 + k 2 

For unbraced members the larger of:

 k ×k 
l 0 = l 1 + 10 1 2  (9.3.a)
 k1 + k 2 
and
 k  k 
l 0 = l 1 + 1 1 + 2  (9.3.b)
 1 + k1  1 + k 2 
In the above formulae, k1 and k 2 are the relative flexibilities of the rotational restraints at ends ‘1’ and ‘2’
of the column respectively. At each end k1 and k 2 can be taken as:

column stiffness ( EI / l ) column ( I / l ) column

k= = =
∑ beam stiffness ∑ 2( EI / l ) beam ∑ 2( I / l ) beam
It is assumed that any column above or below the column under consideration does not contribute anything to the
rotational restraint of the joint and that the stiffness of each connecting beam is taken as 2 EI / l to allow for
cracking effects in the beam.
Once k1 and k 2 have been calculated, the effective length factor, F , can be established from table 9.2 for
braced columns. The effective length is then l 0 = Fl .

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CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER IX

Table 9.2 Effective length factor, F, for braced columns

k1
k2
0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.70 1.00 2.00 5.00 9.00 Pinned
0.10 0.59 0.62 0.64 0.66 0.67 0.69 0.71 0.73 0.75 0.76 0.77
0.20 0.62 0.65 0.68 0.69 0.71 0.73 0.74 0.77 0.79 0.80 0.81
0.30 0.64 0.68 0.70 0.72 0.73 0.75 0.77 0.80 0.82 0.83 0.84
0.40 0.66 0.69 0.72 0.74 0.75 0.77 0.79 0.82 0.84 0.85 0.86
0.50 0.67 0.71 0.73 0.75 0.76 0.78 0.80 0.83 0.86 0.86 0.87
0.70 0.69 0.73 0.75 0.77 0.78 0.80 0.82 0.85 0.88 0.89 0.90
1.00 0.71 0.74 0.77 0.79 0.80 0.82 0.84 0.88 0.90 0.91 0.92
2.00 0.73 0.77 0.80 0.82 0.83 0.85 0.88 0.91 0.93 0.94 0.95
5.00 0.75 0.79 0.82 0.84 0.86 0.88 0.90 0.93 0.96 0.97 0.98
9.00 0.76 0.80 0.83 0.85 0.86 0.89 0.91 0.94 0.97 0.98 0.99
Pinned 0.77 0.81 0.84 0.86 0.87 0.90 0.92 0.95 0.98 0.99 1.00

Limiting slenderness ratio-short or slender columns

EC2 places an upper limit on the slenderness ratio of a single member below which second order effects may be
ignored. This limit is given by:
λ min = 20 × A × B × C / n (9.4)
where
A = 1 /(1 + 0.2φ ef )
B = 1 + 2w
C = 1.7 − rm
φ ef = effective creep ratio (if not known A can be taken as 0.7)
w = As f yd /( Ac f cd ) (if not known B can be taken as 1.1)
f yd = the design yield strength of the reinforcement
f cd = the design compressive strength of the concrete
As = the total area of longitudinal reinforcement
n = N Ed /( Ac f cd )
N Ed = the design ultimate axial load in the column
rm = M 01 / M 02 (if rm not known then C can be taken as 0.7)
M 01 , M 02 are first order moments at the end of the column with M 02 ≥ M 01

The following conditions apply to the value of C:

(a) If the end moments, M 01 and M 02 , give rise to tension on the same side of the column rm should be taken
as positive from which it follows that C ≤ 1.7 .
(b) If the converse to (a) is true, i.e. the column is in a state of double curvature, then rm should be taken as
negative from which it follows that C > 1.7 .
(c) For braced members in which the first order moments arise only from transverse loads or imperfections; C
can be taken as 0.7.
(d) For unbraced members; C can be taken as 0.7.
For an unbraced column an approximation to the limiting value of λ will be given by:
λmin = 20 × A × B × C / n = 20 × 0.7 × 1.1× 2.7 / N Ed /( Ac f cd )
= 41.6 / N Ed /( Ac f cd )
For a braced column the minimum limiting value of λ will be given by taking C = 1.7 :
λmin = 20 × A × B × C / n = 20 × 0.7 × 1.1× 1.7 / N Ed /( Ac f cd )
= 26.2 / N Ed /( Ac f cd )

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CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER IX

The limiting value of λ for a braced column will depend on the relative value of the column’s end moments that
will normally act in the same clockwise or anti-clockwise direction as in case (b) above. If these moments are of
approximately equal value then rm = −1, C = 1.7 + 1 = 2.7 and a typical, approximate limit on λ will be given
by:
λ min = 20 × A × B × C / n = 20 × 0.7 × 1.1 × 1.7 / N Ed /( Ac f cd )
= 26.2 / N Ed /( Ac f cd )
If the actual slenderness ratio is less than the calculated value of λ min then the column can be treated as short.
Otherwise the column must be treated as slender and second order effects must be accounted for in the design of
the column.

Example 9.1 Short or slender column

Determine if the column in the braced frame shown in figure 9.2 is short or slender. The concrete strength
f ck = 25 N / mm 2 , and ultimate axial load = 1280 KN .
300
300
Length=4.0m each side

Beam 500

700
Length=6.0m Length=4.0m
400
h col =3.0m

300
Y Y

Beam

Note: the beams are continuous

in both direction
Fig.9.2 Column end support details

It can be seen that the column will have the highest slenderness ratio for bending about YY where h = 300mm
and also the end restraints are the less stiff 300 × 500 beams.

Effective column height l 0

I col = 400 × 300 3 / 12 = 900 × 10 6 mm 4
I beam = 300 × 500 3 / 12 = 3125 × 10 6 mm 4
I col / l col 900 × 10 6 / 3.0 × 10 3
k1 = k 2 = = = 0.096 ≅ 0.1
∑ (2 I beam / l beam ) 2(2 × 3125 × 10 6 / 4.0 × 10 3 )
From table 9.2 effective column height l 0 = Fl = 0.59 × 3.0 = 1.77 m

Slenderness ratio λ
I   bh 3 / 12  h 300
Radius of gyration, i =  col  =   = = = 86.6mm
 Acol   bh  3.464 3.464
Slenderness ratio λ = l 0 / i = 1.77 × 10 3 / 86.6 = 20.4
For a braced column the minimum limiting value of λ will be given by
λ min = 26.2 / N Ed /( Ac f cd )
where

Page 4 of 14
CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER IX

N Ed /( Ac f cd ) = 1280 × 10 3 /(400 × 300 × 25 / 1.5) = 0.64

thus
λ min = 26.2 / 0.64 = 32.7 (> 20.4)
Hence, compared with the minimum limiting value of λ the column is short and second order moment effects
would not have to be taken into account.

9.3 Reinforcement details

The rules governing the minimum and maximum amounts of reinforcement in a load bearing column are as
follows.

Longitudinal steel
1. A minimum of four bars is required in a rectangular column (one bar in each corner) and six bars in a circular
column. Bar diameter should not be less than 12mm.
2. The minimum area of steel is given by
0.10 N Ed
As = ≥ 0.002 Ac
0.87 f yk
3. The maximum area of steel, at laps is given by
As ,max
< 0.08
Ac
where As is the total area of longitudinal steel and Ac is the cross-sectional area of the column.
As ,max
Otherwise, in regions away from laps: < 0.04 .
Ac

Links
1
1. Minimum size = × size of the compression bar but not less than 6mm.
4
2. Maximum spacing should not exceed the lesser of 20 × size of the smallest compression bar or the least
lateral dimension of the column or 400mm. This spacing should be reduced by a factor of 0.60.
(a) for a distance equal to the larger lateral dimension of the column above and below a beam or slab, and
(b) at lapped joints of longitudinal bars > 14mm diameter.
3. Where the direction of the longitudinal reinforcement changes, the spacing of the links should be calculated,
while taking account of the lateral forces involved. If the change in direction is less than or equal to 1 in 12
no calculation is necessary.
4. Every longitudinal bar placed in a corner should be held by transverse reinforcement.
5. No compression bar should be further than 150mm from a restrained bar.

9.4 Short columns resisting moments and axial forces

The area of longitudinal steel for these columns is determined by:
1. using design charts
2. a solution of the design equations
3. an approximate method
Design charts are usually used for columns having a rectangular or circular cross-section and a symmetrical
arrangement of reinforcement.
The basic equations or the approximate method can be used when an unsymmetrical arrangement of reinforcement
is required, or when the cross-section is non-rectangular.
Whichever design method is used, a column should not be designed for a moment less than N Ed × emin , where
emin has the greater value of h / 30 or 20mm. This is to allow for tolerance in construction. The dimension h is
overall size of the column cross-section in the plane of bending.

Design charts
The basic equations derived for a rectangular section as shown in figure 9.3 and with a rectangular stress block are:

Page 5 of 14
CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER IX

N Ed = Fcc + Fsc + Fs
(9.5)
= 0.567 f ck bs + f sc As′ + f s As
h s h   h
M Ed = Fcc  −  + Fsc  − d ′  − Fs  d −  (9.6)
2 2 2   2
N Ed = design ultimate axial load
M Ed = design ultimate moment
s = the depth of the stress block = 0.8 x
As′ = the area of longitudinal reinforcement in the more highly compressed face
As = the area of reinforcement in the other face
f sc = the stress in reinforcement As′
f s = the stress in reinforcement As , negative when tensile.
b
0.0035 0.567fck
d'
Fsc
s/2
A's x s=0.8x
d sc Fcc
h neutral
As axis

s Fs

Section Strain Stress block

Fig.9.3 Column section

These equations are not suitable for direct solution and the design of a column with symmetrical reinforcement in
each face is best carried out using design chart as illustrated in figure 9.4.

Fig.9.4 Typical column design chart

Page 6 of 14
CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER IX

Example 9.2 Column design using design charts

Figure 9.5 shows a frame of a heavily loaded industrial structure for which the centre columns along line PQ are to
be designed in this example. The frames at 4m centres, are braced against lateral forces, and support the following
floor loads:
Permanent action g k = 10 KN / m 2
Variable action q k = 15 KN / m 2
Characteristic material strengths are f ck = 25 N / mm 2 for the concrete and f yk = 500 N / mm 2 for the steel.

4.0m
Plan
P
3rd floor

3.0m
2nd floor

beams 300 700dp

3.0m
1st floor

400
ground 3.0m
floor 300 400 columns

Q
6.0m 4.0m

Section through the frame

Fig.9.5 Columns in an industrial structure
1.35G k + 1.5 Q k

1.35G k + 1.5 Q k

1st 1.35G k + 1.5 Q k 1.35G k

Floor
A B C

(a) Critical loading arrangement for centre columns at 1st floor

k column

144 6=864kN 54 4=216kN

+432 -432 +72 -72
A C A C
B kNm B
kAB kBC
2 k column 2

(b) Substitute frame (c) Fixed end moments

Fig.9.6 Substitute frame for column design example

Page 7 of 14
CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER IX

Maximum ultimate load at each floor = 4.0(1.35 g k + 1.5q k ) per meter length of beam
= 4(1.35 × 10 + 1.5 × 15)
= 144 KN / m
Minimum ultimate load at each floor = 4.0 × 1.35 g k per meter length of beam
= 4.0 × 1.35 × 10
= 54 KN / m per metre length of beam
Consider first the design of the centre column at the underside (u.s.) of the first floor. The critical arrangement of
load that will cause the maximum moment in the column is shown in figure 9.6a.

Column loads
Second and third floors = 2 × 144 × 10 / 2 = 1440 KN
First floor = 144 × 6 / 2 + 54 × 4 / 2 = 540 KN
Column self-weight, say 2 × 14 = 28 KN
N Ed = 2008 KN
Similar arrangement of load will give the axial load in the column at the underside (u.s.) and top side (t.s.) of each
floor level and these values of N Ed are shown in table 9.3.
Table 9.3
N Ed M Ed N Ed M Ed As f yk
Floor As (mm 2 )
(KN ) (KNm) bhf ck bh 2 f ck bhf ck
3rd u.s. 540 82.6 0.18 0.07 0 240
2nd t.s. 734 68.4 0.24 0.06 0 240
+ 540
2nd u.s. 1274 68.4 0.42 0.06 0 240
1st t.s. 1468 68.4 0.49 0.06 0.10 600
+ 540
1st u.s. 2008 68.4 0.67 0.06 0.30 1800

Column moments
The loading arrangement and the substitute frame for determining the column moments at the first and second
floors are shown in figure 9.6c.
Member stiffness are
k AB 1 bh 3 1 0.3 × 0.7 3
= × = × = 0.71 × 10 −3
2 2 12 L AB 2 12 × 6
k BC 1 bh 3 1 0.3 × 0.7 3
= × = × = 1.07 × 10 −3
2 2 12 LBC 2 12 × 4
0.3 × 0.4 3
k col = = 0.53 × 10 −3
12 × 3.0
therefore
∑ k = (0.71 + 1.07 + 2 × 0.53)10 −3
= 2.84 × 10 −3
and
k col 0.53
distribution factor for the column = = = 0.19
∑ k 2.84
Fixed end moments at B are
144 × 6 2
F.E. M . BA = = 432 KNm
12
54 × 4 2
F.E. M . BC = = 72 KNm
12
Thus
Page 8 of 14
CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER IX

Column moment M Ed = 0.19(432 − 72) = 68.4 KNm

At the 3rd floor
∑ k = (0.71 + 1.07 + 0.53)10 −3
= 2.31 × 10 −3
and
0.53
Column moment M Ed = (432 − 72) = 82.6 KNm
2.31
The areas of reinforcement in table 9.3 are determined by using the design chart of figure 9.4. Sections through the
column are shown figure 9.7.
400 300 H8 at 300 H8 at 300

4H25 4H16
(a) Ground to 1st Floor (b) 1st to 3rd Floor
Fig.9.7 Column section in design example

Cover for the reinforcement is taken as 50mm and d 2 / h = 80 / 400 = 0.2 . The minimum area of reinforcement
allowed in the section is given by:
As = 0.002bh = 0.002 × 300 × 400 = 240mm 2
and the maximum area is
As = 0.08bh = 0.008 × 300 × 400 = 9600mm 2
and the reinforcement provided is within these limits.

9.5 Design equations for a non-symmetrical section

Some members are required to resist axial forces combined with large moments. In these cases the usual design
charts cannot be applied. A rigorous design for a rectangular section as shown in figure 9.8 involves the following
iterative procedure:
NEd : Normal to the section

0.567fck
d' fsc A's
e
A's x s
h/2 d neutral 0.567f ck bs
axis

h/2 As
d2 fs As
b

Section Stress block

Fig.9.8 Column with a non-symmetrical arrangement of reinforcement

1. Select a depth of neutral axis, x (for this design method where the moments are relatively large, x would
generally be less than h).
2. Determine the steel strains ε sc and ε s from the strain distribution.
3. Determine the steel stresses f sc and f s from the equations relating to the stress-strain curve for the reinforcing
bars.
Page 9 of 14
CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER IX

4. Taking moments about the centroid of As

 h 
N Ed  e + − d 2  = 0.567 f ck bs (d − s / 2) + f sc As′ (d − d ′) (9.7)
 2 
where s = 0.8 x
This equation can be solved to give a value for As′
5. As is then determined from the equilibrium of the axial forces, that is
N Ed = 0.567 f ck bs + f sc As′ + f s As (9.8)
6. Further values of x may be selected and steps (1) to (5) repeated until a minimum value for As′ + As is
obtained.
The term f sc in the equations may be modified to ( f sc − 0.567 f ck ) to allow for the area of concrete displaced by
the reinforcement As′ . Stress f s has a negative sign whenever it is tensile.

Example 9.3 Column section with an unsymmetrical arrangement of reinforcement

The column section shown in figure 9.9 resists an axial load of 1100kN and a moment of 230kNm at the ultimate
limit state. Determine the areas of reinforcement required if the characteristic material strengths are
f yk = 500 N / mm 2 and f ck = 25 N / mm 2 .
300
0.0035

d '=80
A's x
neutral
400

340

axis sc
As
d 2=60
s
Section Strains
Fig.9.9 Unsymmetrical column design example
1. Select a depth of neutral axis, x = 190mm .
2. From the strain diagram
0.0035 0.0035
steel strain ε sc = ( x − d ′) = (190 − 80) = 0.00203
x 190
and
0.0035 0.0035
steel strain ε s = (d − x) = (340 − 190) = 0.00276
x 190
3. From the stress-strain curve and the relevant equations of section 5.1 yield strain, ε y = 0.00217 for grade 500
steel
ε s > 0.00217; therefore f s = 500 / 1.15 = 435 N / mm 2
and
ε sc < 0.00217; therefore f sc = E s ε sc = 200 × 10 3 × 0.00203 = 406 N / mm 2 , compression.
4. In equation 9.7
 h 
N Ed  e + − d 2  = 0.567 f ck bs (d − s / 2) + f sc As′ (d − d ′)
 2 
M 230 × 10 6
e = Ed = = 209mm
N Ed 1100 × 10 3
s = 0.8 x = 0.8 × 190 = 152mm
To allow for the area of concrete displaced
f sc becomes 406 − 0.567 f ck = 406 − 0.567 × 25 = 392 N / mm 2
and from equation 9.7

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CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER IX

1100 × 10 3 (209 + 140) − 0.567 × 25 × 300 × 152(340 − 152 / 2)

As′ =
392(340 − 80)
= 2093mm 2
5. From equation 9.8
N Ed = 0.567 f ck bs + f sc As′ + f s As
(0.567 × 25 × 300 × 152) + (392 × 2093) − (1100 × 10 3 )
As =
435
2
= 843mm
Thus
As′ + As = 2093 + 843 = 2936mm 2 for x = 190mm
6. Values of As′ + As calculated for other depths of neutral axis, x, are plotted in figure 9.10. From this figure the
minimum area of reinforcement required occurs with x ≈ 210mm . Using this depth of neutral axis, step 2 to
5 are repeated giving
ε sc = 0.00217, ε s = 0.00217
f sc = f yk / γ m = 435 N / mm 2 and f s = 435 N / mm 2 tension
so that
As′ = 1837 mm 2 and As = 891mm 2
(Alternatively separate values of As′ and As as calculated for each value of x could have also have been
plotted against x and their values read from the graph at x = 210mm .) This area would be provided with
As′ = three H25 plus two H20 bars
= 2098mm 2
and
As = one H25 plus two H20 bars
= 2098mm 2

A's + As

3000
2900
2800
2700
180 190 200 210 220 230
Depth of neutral axis, x
Fig.9.10 Design chart for unsymmetrical column example

9.6 Design of slender columns

A column is classified as slender if the slenderness ratio about either axis exceeds the value of λmin . If λ ≤ λmin
then the column may be classified as short and the slenderness effect may be neglected.
A slender column with λ > λmin must be designed for an additional moment caused by its curvature at ultimate
conditions.
The ‘nominal curvature’ method in EC2
The expressions given in EC2 for the additional moments were derived by studying the moments/curvature behaviour for
a member subject to bending plus axial load. The equations for calculating the design moments are only applicable
to columns of a rectangular or circular section with symmetrical reinforcement.
A slender column should be designed for an ultimate axial load ( N Ed ) plus an increased moment given by
M t = N Ed etot
where

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CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER IX

etot = e0 + ea + e2
e0 is an equivalent first-order eccentricity
ea is an accidental eccentricity which accounts for geometric imperfections in the column
e2 is the second-order eccentricity.

 The equivalent eccentricity e0 is given by the greater of

0.6e02 + 0.4e01 or 0.4e02
where e01 and e02 are the first-order eccentricities at the two ends of the column as described above, and e02 is
greater than e01 .
 The accidental eccentricity ea is given by the equation
l
ea = v 0
2
where l 0 is the effective column height about the axis considered and
1 1
v= >
100 l 200
where l is the height of the column in meter. A conservative estimate of ea can be given by:
l 1 l0 l
ea = v 0 = × = 0
2 200 2 400
 The second-order eccentricity e2 is an estimate of the deflection of the column at failure and is given by the
equation
K1 K 2 l 02 f yk
e2 =
π 2 × 103500d
where
 f yk λ 
K1 = 1 +  0.35 + − φef ≥ 1
 200 150 
λ = slenderness ratio
φef = effective creep ratio
N ud − N Ed
K2 = ≤ 1.0 (9.9)
N ud − N bal
where N ud is the ultimate axial load such that
N ud = 0.567 f ck Ac + 0.87 f yk Asc
and N bal is the axial load at balanced failure and may be taken as approximately N bal = 0.29 f ck Ac for
symmetrical reinforcement.
In order to calculate K 2 , the area As of the column reinforcement must be known and hence a trial-and-error
approach is necessary, taking an initial conservative value of K 2 = 1.0 . Values of K 2 are marked on the column
design charts as shown in figure 9.4.

Example 9.4 Design of a slender column

A non-sway (braced) column of 300 × 450 cross-section resists, at the ultimate limit state, an axial load of 1700kN
and end moments of 70 kN m and 10 kN m causing double curvature about the minor axis YY as shown in figure
9.11. The column's effective heights are l ey = 6.75m and l ez = 8.0m and the characteristic material strengths
f ck = 25 N / mm 2 and f yk = 500 N / mm 2 . The effective creep ratio φef = 0.87 .
Eccentricities are

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CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER IX

M 1 10 × 10 3
e01 = = = 5.9mm
N Ed 1700
M 2 − 70 × 10 3
e02 = = = −41.2mm
N Ed 1700
where e02 is negative since the column is bent in double curvature.
Z

b=450 NEd = 1700kN

M 2 =70kNm
M
'
d=60

d=240
h=300

Y Y

M 1 =10kNm
Z

(a) Section b) Axial load and initial moments

Fig 9.11 Slender column example

The limiting slenderness ratio can be calculated from equation 9.4 where:
A = 1 /(1 + 0.2φef ) = 1 /(1 + (0.2 × 0.87)) = 0.85
B = the default value of 1.1
C = 1.7 − M 01 / M 02 = 1.7 − (−10 / 70) = 1.84
34.41
∴ λmin = 20 × A × B × C / n = 20 × 0.85 × 1.1× 1.84 / n =
n
N Ed 1700 × 10 3
n= = = 0.89
Ac f cd (300 × 450) × 0.567 × 25
34.41
∴ λmin = = 36.47
0.89
Actual slenderness ratios are
ley 6.75
λy = = × 3.46 = 77.85 > 36.47
iy 0.3
lez 8.0
λz = = × 3.46 = 61.55 > 36.47
i z 0.45
Therefore the column is slender, and λ y is critical.
Equivalent eccentricity = 0.6e02 + 0.4e01 ≥ 0.4e02
0.6e02 + 0.4e01 = 0.6 × 41.2 + 0.4 × (−5.9) = 22.35mm
0.4e02 = 0.4 × 41.2 = 16.47mm
Therefore equivalent eccentricity e0 = 22.35mm .
Taking v as 1 / 200 the accidental eccentricity is
ley 1 6750
ea = v = × = 16.88mm
2 200 2
The second-order eccentricity is
K1 K 2 l02 f yk
e2 = 2
π × 103500d
where

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CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER IX

 f yk λ  25 77.85 
K1 = 1 +  0.35 + − φef = 1 +  0.35 + −  × 0.87
 200 150   200 150 
= 0.96 (≥ 1)
K1 K 2 l02 f yk 1× 1× 6750 2 × 500
∴ e2 = = = 92.92mm
π 2 × 103500d π 2 × 103500 × 240
with K 2 = 1.0 for the initial value.
For the first iteration the total eccentricity is
etot = e0 + ea + e2 = 22.35 + 16.88 + 92.92 = 132.15mm
and the total moment is
M t = N Ed etot = 1700 × 132.15 × 10 −3 = 225kNm
N Ed 1700 × 10 3
= = 0.504
bhf ck 450 × 300 × 25
Mt 225 × 10 6
= = 0.222
bh 2 f ck 450 × 300 2 × 25
From the design chart of figure 9.4
As f yk
= 0.80 and K 2 = 0.78
bhf ck
This new value of K 2 is used to calculate e2 and hence M t for the second iteration. The design chart is again
used to determine As f yk / bhf ck and a new value of K 2 as shown in table 9.4.

Table 9.4
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
Mt As f yk
K2 Mt bh 2 f ck bhf ck K2
1.0 225 0.222 0.80 0.78
0.78 190 0.187 0.6 0.73

The iterations are continued until the value of K 2 in columns (1) and (5) of the table are in reasonable agreement,
which in this design occurs after two iterations. So that the steel area required is
0.6bhf ck 0.6 × 450 × 300 × 25
As = = = 4050mm 2
f yk 500
and K 2 = 0.74 .
As a check on the final value of K 2 interpolated from the design chart:
N bal = 0.29 f ck Ac
= 0.29 × 25 × 300 × 450 × 10 −3
= 978kN
N Ed = 0.567 f ck Ac + 0.87 f yk As
= (0.567 × 25 × 300 × 450 + 0.87 × 500 × 4050)10 −3
= 3675kN

N ud − N Ed 3675 − 1700
K2 = = = 0.73 (≤ 1.0)
N ud − N bal 3675 − 978
which agrees with the final value in column 5 of table 9.4.

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CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER X

CHAPTER X. DESIGN OF FOUNDATIONS

10.1 Introduction
A building is generally composed of a superstructure above the ground and a substructure which forms the
foundations below ground.
The foundations transfer and spread the loads from a structure’s columns and walls into the ground. The safe
bearing capacity of the soil must not be exceeded otherwise excessive settlement may occur, resulting in damage to
the building and its service facilities. Foundation failure can also affect the overall stability of a structure so that it
is liable to slide, to lift vertically or even overturn.

(a) (b)
Fig.10.1 Foundation failures: (a) sliding failure; (b) overturning failure
Foundation types
There are many types of foundations which are commonly used, namely strip, pad and raft. The foundations may
bear directly on the ground or be supported on piles. The choice of foundation type will largely depend upon (1)
ground conditions (i.e. strength and type of soil) and (2) type of structure (i.e. layout and level of loading).
Pad footings are usually square or rectangular slabs and used to support a single column (Fig. 10.2). The pad may
be constructed using mass concrete or reinforced concrete depending on the relative size of the loading. Continuous
strip footings are used to support loadbearing walls or under a line of closely spaced columns (Fig. 10.3). Strip
footings are designed as pad footings in the transverse direction and in the longitudinal direction as an inverted
continuous beam subject to the ground bearing pressure.
N N N N
= = =
A B C D

Elevation

Plan

(a) (b) (a) (b)

Fig.10.2 Pad footing: Fig.10.3 Strip footing: (a) footing supporting columns;
(a) plan; (b) elevation (b) footing supporting wall

Where the ground conditions are relatively poor, a raft foundation may be necessary in order to distribute the loads
from the walls and columns over a large area. In its simplest form this may consist of a flat slab, possibly
strengthened by upstand or downstand beams for the more heavily loaded structures (Fig. 10.4).

(a) (b) (c)

Plan Typical sections through raft foundations

Fig.10.4 Raft foundations. Typical sections through raft foundations:

(a) flat slab; (b) flat slab and downstand; (c) flat slab and upstand
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CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER X

Where the ground conditions are so poor that it is not practical to use strip or pad footings but better quality soil is
present at lower depths, the use of pile foundations should be considered (Fig. 10.5).

Soft strata

Hard strata

Fig.10.5 Piled foundations.

The piles may be made of precast reinforced concrete, prestressed concrete or in-situ reinforced concrete. Loads are
transmitted from the piles to the surrounding strata by end bearing and/or friction. End bearing piles derive most of
their carrying capacity from the penetration resistance of the soil at the toe of the pile, while friction piles rely on
the adhesion or friction between the sides of the pile and the soil.

Foundation design
Foundation failure may arise as a result of (a) allowable bearing capacity of the soil being exceeded, or (b) bending
and/or shear failure of the base.
The first condition allows the plan-area of the base to be calculated, being equal to the design load divided by the
bearing capacity of the soil, i.e.
design load
Ground pressure = < bearing capacity of soil
plan area
Since the settlement of the structure occurs during its working life, the design loadings to be considered when
calculating the size of the base should be taken as those for the serviceability limit state (i.e. 1.0Gk + 1.0Qk ). The
calculations to determine the thickness of the base and the bending and shear reinforcement should, however, be
based on ultimate loads (i.e. 1.35Gk + 1.5Qk ).

10.2 Pad footings

The footing for a single column may be made square in plan, but where there is a large moment acting about one
axis it may be more economical to have a rectangular base.
Assuming there is a linear distribution the bearing pressures across the base will take one of the three forms shown
in figure 10.6, according to the relative magnitudes of the axial load N and moment M acting on the base.

1. In figure 10.6(a) there is no moment and the pressure is uniform

N
p= (10.1)
BD
2. With a moment M acting as shown, the pressures are given by the equation for axial load plus bending. This is
provided there is positive contact between the base and the ground along the complete length D of the footing, as
shown 10.6(b) so that
N My
p= ±
BD I
where I is the second moment area of the base about the axis of bending and y is the distance from the axis to where
the pressure is being calculated.

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CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER X

Breadth of footing = B Eccentricity (e)=M/N

N N N

M M

D D Y/3 e
Centroid
p2
p p1 p

Y
e=0 e ≤ D/6 e > D/6
N N 6M 2N
p= p= ± p=
B× D B × D B × D2 B ×Y
D 
where: Y = 3 − e 
2 
(a) (b) (c)
Fig.10.6 Pad-footing- pressure distributions

Substituting for I = BD 3 / 12 and y = D / 2 , the maximum pressure is

N 6M
p1 = + (10.2)
BD BD 2
and the minimum pressure is
N 6M
p2 = − (10.3)
BD BD 2
There is positive contact along the base if p 2 from equation 10.3 is positive.
When pressure p 2 just equals zero
N 6M
− =0
BD BD 2
or
M D
=
N 6
So that for p 2 always to be positive, M / N − or the effective eccentricity, e − must never be greater than D / 6 .
In these cases the eccentricity of loading is said to be within the ‘middle third’ of the base.
3. When the eccentricity, e is greater than D / 6 there is no longer a positive pressure along the length D and the
pressure diagram is triangular as shown in figure 10.6(c). Balancing the downward load and the upward pressures
1
pBY = N
2
therefore
2N
maximum pressure p =
BY
where Y is the length of positive contact. The centroid of the pressure diagram must coincide with the eccentricity
of loading in order for the load and reaction to be equal and opposite. Thus
Y D
= −e
3 2
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CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER X

or
D 
Y = 3 − e 
2 
therefore in the case of e > D / 6
2N
maximum pressure p = (10.4)
3 B ( D / 2 − e)
Requirements
A typical arrangement of the reinforcement in a pad footing is shown in figure 10.7. With a square base the
reinforcement to resist bending should be distributed uniformly across the full width of the footing. For a
rectangular base the reinforcement in the short direction should be distributed with a closer spacing in the region
under and near the column, to allow for the fact that the transverse moments must be greater nearer the column. It
is recommended that at least teo-thirds of the reinforcement in the short direction should be concentrated in a band
width of (c + 3d ) where c is the column dimension in the long direction and d is the effective depth. If the footing
should be subjected to a large overturning moment so that there is only partial bearing, or if there is a resultant
uplift force, then reinforcement may also be required in the top face.
Dowels or slarter bars should extend from the footing into the column in order to provide continuity to the
reinforcement. These dowels should be embedded into the footing and extend into the columns a full lap length.
Sometimes a 75mm length of the column is constructed in the same concrete pour as the footing so as to form a
'kicker' or support for the column’s shutters. In these cases the dowel’s lap length should be measured from the top
of the kicker.
The critical sections through the base for checking shear, punching shear and bending are shown in figurc 10.8. The
shearing force and bending moments are caused by the ultimate loads from the column and the weight of the base
should not be included in these calculations.
The thickness of the base is often goverened by the requirements for shear resistance.
Dowels

lap length

d h
h

D
Maximum
shear 2.0d Punching shear perimeter
= column perimeter +4pd

B As Shear

Bending 1.0d

Fig.10.7 Pad footing reinforcement details Fig.10.8 Critical sections for design

The principal steps in the design calculations are as follows:

1. Calculate the plan size of the footing using the permissible bearing pressure and the critical loading arrangement
for the serviceability limit state.
2. Calculate the bearing pressures associated with the critical loading arrangement at the ultimate limit state.
3. Assume a suitable value for the thickness (h) and effective depth (d). Check that the shear force at the column
face is less than 0.5v1 f cd ud = 0.5v1 ( f ck / 1.5)ud where u is the perimeter of the column and v1 is the strength
reduction factor, v1 = 0.6(1 − f ck / 250) .
4. Carry out a preliminary check for punching shear to ensure that the footing thickness gives a pundhing shear
which is within the likely range of acceptable performance.
5. Detennine the reinforcement required to resist bending.
6. Make a final check for the punching shear
7. Check the shear force at the critical sections.
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CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER X

8. Where applicable, both foundations and the structure should be checked for overall stability at the ultimate limit
state.
9. Reinforcement to resist bending in the bottom of the base should extend at least a full tension anchorage length
beyond the critical section for bending.

Example Design of a pad footing

The footing (figure 10.9) is required to resist characteristic axial loads of 1000 kN permanent and 350kN variable
from a 400mm square column. The safe bearing pressure on the soil is 200 KN / m 2 and the characteristic material
strengths are f ck = 30 N / mm 2 and f yk = 500 N / mm 2 .
Assume a footing weight of 150kN so that the total permanent load is 1150kN.
400 sq

d=520
h=600

12H16@225 e.w.
2.8m. sq

Fig.10.9 Pad footing example

1. For the serviceability limit state
Total design axial load = 1.0Gk + 1.0Qk = 1150 + 350 = 1500 KN
1500
Required base area = = 7.5m 2
200
Provide a base 2.8m square = 7.8m 2
2. For the ultimate limit state
Column design axial load, N Ed = 1.35Gk + 1.5Qk
= 1.35 × 1000 + 1.5 × 350 = 1875KN
1875
Earth pressure = 2
= 239 KN / m 2
2.8
3. Assume a 600mm thick footing and with the footing constructed on a blinding layer of concrete the minimum
cover is taken as 50mm. Therefore take mean effective depth = d = 520mm .
At the column face
  f ck  f ck
Maximum shear resistance, VRd ,max = 0.5ud 0.61 − 
  250  1.5
  30  30
= 0.5(4 × 400) × 520 × 0.61 −  × 10 −3
  250  1.5
= 4393KN (> N Ed = 1875 KN )
4. Punching shear
The critical section for checking punching shear is at a distance 2d as shown in figure 10.8.
Critical perimeter = column perimeter + 4πd
= 4 × 400 + 4π × 520 = 8134mm
Area within perimeter = (400 + 4d ) 2 − (4 − π )(2.0d ) 2
= (400 + 4 × 520) 2 − (4 − π )(2. × 520) 2
= 5.22 × 10 6 mm 2
Therefore
Punching shear force VEd = 239(2.8 2 − 5.22) = 626 KN
Page 5 of 7
CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER X

VEd
Punching shear stress v Ed =
perimeter × d
626 × 10 3
= = 0.15 N / mm 2
8134 × 520
This ultimate shear stress is not excessive,(see table 8.1) therefore h = 600mm will be a suitable estimate.
5. Bending reinforcement-see figure 10.10(a).
At the column face which is the critical section
1.2
M Ed = (239 × 2.8 × 1.2) × = 482 KNm
2
1.2 m 0.68 m 1.0d=0.52 m
2.8 m

(a) Bending (b) Shear

Fig.10.10 Critical sections
For the concrete
M bal = 0.167 f ck bd 2
= 0.167 × 30 × 2800 × 520 2 × 10 −6 = 3793KNm (> 482)
M Ed
As =
0.87 f yk z
M Ed 482 × 10 6
= = 0.021
bd 2 f ck 2800 × 520 2 × 30
From the lever arm equation
z = d [0.5 + (0.25 − K / 1.134) ] = d [0.5 + (0.25 − 0.021 / 1.134) ] = 0.98d > 0.95d
Therefore adopt upper limit of 0.95d and lever arm z = 0.95d = 0.95 × 520 = 494mm :
M Ed 482 × 10 6
As = = = 2243mm 2
0.87 f yk z 0.87 × 500 × 494
Provide twelve H16 bars at 225mm centres, As = 2412mm 2 . Therefore
100 As 100 × 2412
= = 0.165 (> 0.15 - see table 7.6)
bd 2800 × 520
That is, the minimum steel area requirement is satisfied.
Maximum bar size
The steel stress should be calculated under the action of the quasi-permanent loading which can be estimated fron
the equation,
f yk (Gk + 0.3Qk )
fs =
1.15(1.35Gk + 1.5Qk )
500(1000 + 0.3 × 350)
= = 256 N / mm 2
1.15(1.35 × 1000 + 1.5 × 350)
Therefore from table below the maximum allowable bar size is 16mm. hence, minimum area and bar size
requirements as specified by the code for the pueposes of crack control are met.

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CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER X

Table 10.1 Maximum bardiameters (0.3mm crack width)

Steel stress ( N / mm 2 ) Maximum bar size (mm)
160 32
200 25
240 16
280 12
320 10
360 8
400 6
450 5

6. Final check of punching shear

The shear resistance of the concrete without shear reinforcement can be obtained from table 8.1 where ρ1 can be
taken as the average of the steel ratios in both directions;
As 2412
ρ1 = = = 0.0017 (= 0.17% < 0.25%)
bd 2800 × 520
hence from table 8.1 v Rd ,c = 0.4 N / mm 2 .
Table 8.1 Shear resistance of slabs without shear reinforcement v Rd ,c N / mm 2 (Class C30/35 concrete)
Effective depth, d (mm)
ρ1 = As / bd
≤ 200 225 250 300 350 400 500 600 750
0.25% 0.54 0.52 0.50 0.47 0.45 0.43 0.40 0.38 0.36
0.50% 0.59 0.57 0.56 0.54 0.52 0.51 0.48 0.47 0.45
0.75% 0.68 0.66 0.64 0.62 0.59 0.58 0.55 0.53 0.51
1.00% 0.75 0.72 0.71 0.68 0.65 0.64 0.61 0.59 0.57
1.25% 0.80 0.78 0.76 0.73 0.71 0.69 0.66 0.63 0.61
1.50% 0.85 0.83 0.81 0.78 0.75 0.73 0.70 0.67 0.65
2.00% 0.94 0.91 0.89 0.85 0.82 0.80 0.77 0.74 0.71

Therefore the shear resistance of the concrete, VRd ,c is given by:

VRd ,c = v Rd ,c ud = 0.40 × 8134 × 520 × 10 −3 = 1691 KN (> VEd = 626 KN )
7. Maximum Shear Force – see figure 10.10 (b)
At the critical section for shear, 1.0d from the column face:
Design shear VEd = 239 × 2.8 × 0.68 = 455 KN
As before, v Rd ,c = 0.40 N / mm 2
∴ VRd ,c = v Rd ,c bd
= 0.40 × 2800 × 520 × 10 −3 = 582 KN (> VEd = 455 KN )
Therefore no shear reinforcement is required.

Page 7 of 7