Classification of energy sources

• Based onA usability

· Primary resources :-Primary sources can be used directly, as they appear in

the natural environment: coal, oil, natural gas and wood, nuclear fuels (uranium),
the sun, the wind, tides, mountain lakes, the rivers (from which hydroelectric energy
can be obtained) and the Earth heat that supplies geothermal energy.

· Secondary resources: - They are derived from the transformation of primary

energy sources: for example petrol that derives from the treatment of crude oil and
electric energy obtained from the conversion of mechanical energy (hydroelectric
plants, Aeolian plants), chemical plants (thermoelectric), or nuclear (nuclear
plants). Electric energy is produced by electric plants, i.e. suitable installations that
can transform primary energy (non- transformed) into electric energy.

• Based on transaction

i. Commercial Energy:-The energy sources that are available in the market

for a definite price are known as commercial energy. By far the most important
forms of commercial energy are electricity, coal and refined petroleum products.

ii. Non Commercial Energy:-The energy sources that are not available in the
commercial market for a price are classified as non-commercial energy. Non-
commercial energy sources include fuels such as firewood, cattle dung and
agricultural wastes, which are traditionally gathered, and not bought at a price
and used especially in rural households. These are also called traditional fuels.
Non-commercial energy is often ignored in energy accounting.

• Based on energy storage or cycling time involved

i. Renewable energy (inexhaustible) are mostly biomass based and are
available in unlimited amount in nature. Since these can be renewed over a
relatively short period of time, energy sources that are replenished more rapidly
are termed as renewable. These include firewood or fuel wood from forest, petro
plants, plant biomass ie. agricultural waste like animal dung, solar energy, wing
energy, water energy in the form of hydro- electricity and tidal energy and
geothermal energy etc.
ii. Non-renewable energy (exhaustible) are available in limited amount
and develop over a longer period of time. As a result of unlimited use, they are likely
to be exhausted one day. These include coal, mineral, natural gas and nuclear
power. Coal, petroleum and natural gases are common sources of energy being
organic (biotic) in this origin. They are also called fossil fuels.

• Based on traditional use

i. Conventional energy sources:- The sources of energy which have been
in use for a long time, e.g., coal, petroleum, natural gas and water power.They are
exhaust able except water and cause pollution when used, as they emit smoke
and ash.

ii. Non-conventional energy sources:- The resources which are yet in the
process of development over the past few years. It includes solar, wind, tidal,
biogas, and biomass, geothermal.They are inexhaustible, pollution free, easy to
maintain and less expensive due to local use.

• Availability of renewable energy resources

· Renewable Energy sources are not depleted, and it is distributed over a wide
geographical area, these resources are quickly renewed through natural process

· It won‟t create any environmental pollution problems

· The main advantage of using renewable resource is it is available

throughout the year

· By an one time investment we can drew energy for many decades without
affecting the environment

· These sources of energy are renewable and there is no danger of depletion.

These recur in nature and are in-exhaustible.

· The power plants based on renewable sources of energy don‟t have any
fuel cost and hence negligible running cost.

· Renewable are more site specific and are used for local processing and
application. There is no need for transmission and distribution of power.
· Renewables have low energy density and more or less there is no pollution
or ecological balance problem.

· Most of the devices and plants used with the renewables are simple in
design and construction which are made from local materials, local skills and by
local people. The use of renewable energy can help to save foreign exchange
and generate local employment.

· The rural areas and remote villages can be better served with locally
available renewable sources of energy. There will be huge savings from
transporting fuels or transmitting electricity from long distances.

• Disadvantages of renewable energy

· Low energy density of renewable sources of energy need large sizes of plant
resulting in increased cost of delivered energy.

· Intermittency and lack of dependability are the main disadvantages of

renewable energy sources.

· Low energy density also results in lower operating temperatures and hence
low efficiencies.

· Although renewables are essentially free, there is definite cost effectiveness

associated with its conversion and utilization.

· Much of the construction materials used for renewable energy devices are
themselves very energy intensive.

· The low efficiency of these plants can result in large heat rejections and
hence thermal pollution.

· The renewable energy plants use larger land masses.

 TYPES OF RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES

As we know Renewable energy is the energy produced from sources that do not
deplete or can be replenished. Renewable energy is sustainable as it originates
from sources that are inexhaustible.

Renewable energy comes from natural processes that can reliably produce cheap
energy with minimal impact to the environment.

The most popular renewable energy sources currently are:

· Solar energy

· Wind energy

· Hydro energy

· Tidal energy

· Geothermal energy

· Biomass energy

· Hydrogen

1. Solar Energy: The sun is considered to be the most important source of energy.
The energy captured from sun in the form of sunlight is a renewable source of
energy.The energy from sun is available in the form of light and heat.Solar energy
is created by nuclear fusion that takes place in the sun. It is necessary for life on
Earth, and can be harvested for human uses such as electricity. Solar cells convert
sunlight into electricity.Many technologies can harvest solar energy directly for use
in homes, businesses, schools, and hospitals. Some solar energy technologies
include photovoltaic cells and panels, concentrated solar energy, and solar
architecture.

2. Wind Energy: Wind is another source of renewable energy. Wind can be

considered a form of solar energy because the uneven heating and cooling of the
atmosphere cause winds (as well as the rotation of the earth and other
topographical factors). Wind flow can be captured by wind turbines and
converted into electricity.Wind turbines allow us to harness the power of the wind
and turn it into energy. When the wind blows, the turbine's blades spin clockwise,
capturing energy. This triggers the main shaft of the wind turbine, connected to a
gearbox within the nacelle, to spin. The gearbox sends that wind energy to the
generator, converting it to electricity. Electricity then travels to a transformer, where
voltage levels are adjusted to match with the grid. On a smaller scale, windmills
are still used today to pump water on farms.

wind is a clean, free, and readily available.

3. Hydro Energy:Hydroelectric energy or Hydro energy is a form of renewable

energy that uses the power of moving water to generate electricity.Hydroelectric
power is generated by a system where dams are constructed to store water in a
reservoir which, when released, flows through turbines to produce electricity. China
is the largest producer of hydroelectricity. Other top producers of hydropower
around the world include the United States, Brazil, Canada, India, and Russia.
Approximately 71 percent of all of the renewable electricity generated on Earth is
from hydropower.

4. Tidal Energy: There are two types of energy that can be produced by the ocean:
thermal energy from the sun’s heat and mechanical energy from the motion of
tides and waves called tidal energy. Tidal energy is a renewable energy powered
by the natural rise and fall of ocean tides and currents.Tidal energy production is
still in its infancy. The amount of power produced so far has been small. There are
very few commercial-sized tidal power plants operating in the world. The first was
located in La Rance, France. The largest facility is the Sihwa Lake Tidal Power
Station in South Korea.With more than 70 percent of the surface of our planet
covered by ocean, its future looks promising, depending on geographies and
regulatory guidelines.
5. Geothermal energy: Geothermal energy is derived from the heat of the earth.
This heat can be sourced close to the surface or from heated rock and reservoirs
of hot water miles beneath our feet. Geothermal power plants harness these heat
sources to generate electricity.About 2,900 kilometres (1,800 miles) below the
Earth’s crust, or surface, is the hottest part of our planet: the core. A small portion
of the core’s heat comes from the friction and gravitational pull formed when
Earth was created more than 4 billion years ago. However, the vast majority of
Earth’s heat is constantly generated by the decay of radioactive isotopes, such as
potassium-40 and thorium-232.

Heat from the core is constantly radiating outward and warming rocks, water, gas,
and other geological material.If underground rock formations are heated to about
700-1,300° C (1,300-2,400° F), they can become magma. Magma is molten (partly
melted) rock permeated by gas and gas bubbles. Magma exists in the mantle and
lower crust, and sometimes bubbles to the surface as lava.Magma heats nearby
rocks and underground aquifers. Hot water can be released through geysers, hot
springs, steam vents, underwater hydrothermal vents, and mud pots.

These are all sources of geothermal energy. Their heat can be captured and used
directly for heat, or their steam can be used to generate electricity. Geothermal
energy can be used to heat structures such as buildings, parking lots, and
sidewalks.

6. Biomass Energy: Bioenergy is a type of renewable energy derived from biomass

to create heat and electricity or to produce liquid fuels such as ethanol and
biodiesel used for transportation.Biomass is used to fuel electric generators and
other machinery.Biomass refers to any organic matter coming from recently living
plants or animals. Even though bioenergy generates about the same amount of
carbon dioxide as fossil fuels, the replacement plants are grown as biomass to
remove an equal amount of CO2 from the atmosphere, keeping the environmental
impact relatively neutral.

Biomass contains energy first derived from the sun. Plants absorb the sun’s energy
throughphotosynthesis, and convert carbon dioxide and water
into nutrients (carbohydrates).
Biomass is organic, meaning it is made of material that comes from living
organisms, such as plants and animals. The most common biomass materials
used for energy are plants, wood, and waste.The energy from these organisms can
be transformed into usable energy through direct and indirect means. Biomass
can be burned to create heat (direct), converted into electricity (direct), or
processed into biofuel (indirect).

7. Hydrogen: Hydrogen has emerged as an important part of the clean energy mix
needed to ensure a sustainable future.Hydrogen is the simplest (comprised of one
proton and one electron) and the most abundant element in the universe, yet it
does not occur naturally as a gas on earth. Instead, it is found in organic
compounds (hydrocarbons such as gasoline, natural gas, methanol, and
propane) and water (H2O). Hydrogen can also be produced under certain
conditions by some algae and bacteria using sunlight as an energy
source.Hydrogen is a clean fuel that, when consumed in a fuel cell, produces only
water, electricity, and heat. Hydrogen and fuel cells can play an important role in
our national energy strategy, with the potential for use in a broad range of
applications, across virtually all sectors—transportation, commercial, industrial,
residential, and portable.

8. Limitations of Renewable Energy Resources

1. High-Cost Installation

Although green energy is an excellent strategy to lessen the consequences of

climate change and address the health issues that millions of people experience,
it has a high initial cost. Setting up wind farms and other sources of renewable
energy is expensive. However, substantial tax breaks and other incentives
encourage the production of green energy and lower prices. Compared to
conventional generators, solar and wind energy are already less expensive to
install and maintain.

2. Unreliable Source of Energy Because of Weather Restrictions

The unreliability of renewable energy is one of its main drawbacks. While fossil fuels
can be used whenever they are needed, renewable technologies rely on the
environment and other conditions to function. In light of this, not all renewable
energy sources, including solar power, have been fully adopted. However,
innovations in energy storage and a sharp decline in the cost of renewable energy
appear to make it more profitable than fossil fuel energy.

3. Low Energy Output

Solar and wind farms require a lot more acreage to produce the same quantity of
green energy as conventional fossil fuel-based plants. Higher efficiency levels are
anticipated from non-renewable sources; but, due to the urgently needed
efficiency improvements and ambitious carbon reduction goals, investments in
the renewable industry are essential.

4. The Energy Storage Challenge

Energy needs and energy generation are not always matched perfectly with
renewable energy. The times of day when the sun shines the least—early morning
and late evening—are when most energy is used. Although investments in
renewable technology and energy storage are making them more affordable
every year, green energy storage is still quite expensive.

5. Geographical Constraints

Production of green energy can also be impacted by geographic considerations.

The efficiency of solar panels in Alaska will never match that of solar panels in
Colorado or Nevada. On the other hand, Alaska has a far higher concentration of
geothermal energy than the east coast does, and biomass made of organic
materials is widely used to heat homes and greenhouses.
 Photovoltaic Cell Concepts

1. Introduction: Solar power is an indefinitely renewable source of energy as the

sun has been radiating an estimated 5000 trillion kWh of energy for billions of years
and will continue to do so for the next 4 billion years. Solar energy is a form of
energy which is used in power cookers, water heaters etc. The primary disadvantage
of solar power is that it cannot be produced in the absence of sunlight. This limitation
is overcome by the use of solar cells that convert solar energy into electrical energy.
Solar Energy is defined as the radiating light and heat from the sun that is harnessed
using devices like heaters, solar cookers, and photovoltaic cells to convert it to other
forms of energy such as electrical energy and heat.In this section, we will learn about
the photovoltaic cell, its advantages, and disadvantages.

Definition:A photovoltaic (PV) cell is an energy harvesting technology, that

converts solar energy into useful electricity through a process called the photovoltaic
effect. There are several different types of PV cells which all use semiconductors to
interact with incoming photons from the Sun in order to generate an electric current.

History: A photovoltaic (PV) cell, also known as a solar cell, is an electronic

component that generates when exposed to photons, or particles of light. This
conversion is called the, which was discovered in 1839 by French physicist Edmond
Becquerel1. It was not until the 1960s that photovoltaic cells found their first
practical application in satellite technology. Solar panels, which are made up of PV
cell modules, began arriving on rooftops at the end of the 1980s. Photovoltaic
capacity has been growing steadily since the start of the 21st century, led by the
construction of huge solar farms.

Fig. 1 Solar Panel

2. Photovoltaic Cell Module Working:

The Photovoltaic cell is the semiconductor device that converts the light into
electrical energy. The voltage induces by the PV cell depends on the intensity of
light incident on it. The name Photovoltaic is because of their voltage producing
capability. Photovoltaic cells consist of two or more layers of semiconductors with
one layer containing positive charge and the other negative charge lined adjacent to
each other.Sunlight, consisting of small packets of energy termed as photons, strikes
the cell, where it is either reflected, transmitted or absorbed.When the photons are
absorbed by the negative layer of the photovoltaic cell, the energy of the photon gets
transferred to an electron in an atom of the cell.With the increase in energy, the
electron escapes the outer shell of the atom. The freed electron naturally migrates to
the positive layer creating a potential difference between the positive and the
negative layer. When the two layers are connected to an external circuit, the electron
flows through the circuit, creating a current.The electrons of the semiconductor
material are joined together by the covalent bond. The electromagnetic radiations
are made of small energy particles called photons. When the photons are incident on
the semiconductor material, then the electrons become energised and starts
emitting.The energised electron is known as the Photoelectrons. And the
phenomenon of emission of electrons is known as the photoelectric effect. The
working of the Photovoltaic cell depends on the photoelectric effect.

Working of PV cell

The light incident on the semiconductor material may be pass or reflected through
it. The PV cell is made of the semiconductor material which is neither a complete
conductor nor an insulator. This property of semiconductor material makes it more
efficient for converting the light energy into electric energy.

When the semiconductor material absorbs light, the electrons of the material starts
emitting. This happens because the light consists small energise particles called
photons. When the electrons absorb the photons, they become energised and starts
moving into the material. Because of the effect of an electric field, the particles move
only in the one direction and develops current. The semiconductor materials have
the metallic electrodes through which the current goes out of it.
Consider the figure below shows the PV cell made of silicon and the resistive load
is connected across it. The PV cell consists the P and N-type layer of semiconductor
material. These layers are joined together to form the PN junction.

Fig.2. PV Cell with load resistance

3. Construction of Photovoltaic Cell

The semiconductor materials like arsenide, indium, cadmium, silicon, selenium and
gallium are used for making the PV cells. Mostly silicon and selenium are used for
making the cell.Consider the figure below shows the constructions of the silicon
photovoltaic cell. The upper surface of the cell is made of the thin layer of the p-type
material so that the light can easily enter into the material. The metal rings are placed
around p-type and n-type material which acts as their positive and negative output
terminals respectively.

Fig.3 PV Cell Construction

The multi-crystalline or monocrystalline semiconductor material make the single
unit of the PV cell. The mono-crystal cell is cut from the volume of the
semiconductor material. The multicell are obtained from the material which has
many sides.The output voltage and current obtained from the single unit of the cell
is very less. The magnitude of the output voltage is 0.6V, and that of the current is
0.8A. The different combinations of cells are used for increasing the output
efficiency. There are three possible ways of combining the PV cells.

Series Combination of PV Cells:

If more than two cells are connected in series with each other, then the output current
of the cell remains same, and their input voltage becomes doubles. The graph below
shows the output characteristic of the PV cells when connected in series.

Fig.4 PV Cell Characteristics for series combination

Parallel Combination of PV cells

In the parallel combination of the cells, the voltage remains same, and the magnitude
of current becomes double. The characteristic curve of the parallel combination of
cells is represented below.
 Fig.5 PV Cell Characteristics for parallel combination
Series-Parallel Combination of PV cells

In the series-parallel combination of cells the magnitude of both the voltage

and current increases. Thereby, the solar panels are made by using the
series-parallel combination of the cells.

Fig.6 PV Cell Characteristics for series-parallel combination

4. Advantages of Photovoltaic Cells:

1.Environmental Sustainability: Photovoltaic cells generate clean and green energy

as no harmful gases such as COx, NOx etc are emitted. Also, they produce no noise
pollution which makes them ideal for application in residential areas.

2.Economically Viable:The operation and maintenance costs of cells are very low.
The cost of solar panels incurred is only the initial cost i.e., purchase and installation.

3.Accessible: Solar panels are easy to set up and can be made accessible in remote
locations or sparsely inhabited areas at a lesser cost as compared to conventional
transmission lines. They are easy to install without any interference with the
residential lifestyle.

4.Renewable: Energy is free and abundant in nature.

5.Cost: Solar panels have no mechanically moving parts except in some highly
advanced sunlight tracking mechanical bases. Consequently, the solar panel price
for maintenance and repair is negligible.

5. Disadvantages of Photovoltaic Cells:

1.The efficiency of solar panels is low compared to other renewable sources of

energy.

2.Energy from the sun is intermittent and unpredictable and can only be harnessed
in the presence of sunlight. Also, the power generated gets reduced during cloudy
weather.

3.Long-range transmission of solar energy is inefficient and difficult to carry. The

current produced is DC in nature and the conversion of DC current to AC current
involves the use of additional equipment such as inverters.

4.Photovoltaic panels are fragile and can be damaged relatively easily. Additional
insurance costs are required to ensure a safeguard of the investments.
6. PV module, panel and array

Photovoltaic cells are connected electrically in series and/or parallel circuits to

produce higher voltages, currents and power levels. Photovoltaic modules consist of
PV cell circuits sealed in an environmentally protective laminate, and are the
fundamental building blocks of PV systems. Photovoltaic panels include one or more
PV modules assembled as a pre-wired, field-installable unit. A photovoltaic array is
the complete power-generating unit, consisting of any number of PV modules and
panels.

Fig.7 PV Cell, Module, panel and Array

The performance of PV modules and arrays are generally rated according to their
maximum DC power output (watts) under Standard Test Conditions (STC). Standard
Test Conditions are defined by a module (cell) operating temperature of 25o C (77o
F), and incident solar irradiance level of 1000 W/m2 and under Air Mass 1.5 spectral
distribution. Since these conditions are not always typical of how PV modules and
arrays operate in the field, actual performance is usually 85 to 90 percent of the STC
rating.

Today’s photovoltaic modules are extremely safe and reliable products, with
minimal failure rates and projected service lifetimes of 20 to 30 years. Most major
manufacturers offer warranties of 20 or more years for maintaining a high percentage
of initial rated power output.

7. I-V characteristics:

The I-V characteristics curve usually defines the PV cell performance. A combined
performance of all the solar cell in a module defines a I-V characteristics of a PV
module and similarly it also defines I-V characteristics of a string. The following
figure shows the I-V characteristics curve, P-V characteristics curve and datasheet
of a PV module: –

The vertical axis denotes the current (I) while the horizontal axis denotes the voltage
(V). Following terms are defined to understand the I-V characteristics curve: –
 Fig.8 Characteristics of PV Cell

Short circuit current (ISC) – It is the maximum current that can flow through a cell
when the voltage across the solar cell is zero (0) (i.e., when the solar cell is short
circuited). It is denoted by ISC.

Open circuit voltage (VOC) – It is the maximum voltage a solar cell can produce
when no load is connected to it (i.e., measures with a multimeter across the open
ends of the wires). It is denoted by VOC.

In a typical 545 Wp module, the short circuit current (ISC) is 18.47 Amps and Open
circuit voltage (VOC) is 37.7 V, both measured at standard test condition (STC).
The power output from the solar module is the product of current and voltage at a
particular instant on the I-V characteristics curve. The highest power output is
realised at a particular point on the I-V characteristics curve which is known as
Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT) and the respective current and voltage are
known as Current at maximum power (IMPP) voltage at maximum power (VMPP).
Typically, the I-V characteristics curve is drawn at one sun radiation (1000 W/m2)
however, variation in solar radiation value predominantly changes the current output
from the solar panel and subsequently the power output. The output voltage from
solar panel is highly dependent on the operating temperature of the solar cells. With
increase in temperature the open circuit voltage (VOC) of cells reduces which is
defined as temperature co-efficient of solar panel.

8. Efficiency:Efficiency is the comparison of energy output to energy input of a

given system. For solar photovoltaic (PV) cells, this means the ratio of useful
electrical energy they produce to the amount of solar energy incident on the cell
under standardized testing conditions. Although some experimental solar cells have
achieved efficiencies of close to 50%, most commercial cells are below 30%.

Solar-cell efficiency refers to the portion of energy in the form of sunlight that can
be converted via photovoltaics into electricity by the solar cell.

The efficiency of the solar cells used in a photovoltaic system, in combination with
latitude and climate, determines the annual energy output of the system. For
example, a solar panel with 20% efficiency and an area of 1 m2 will produce 200
kWh/yr at Standard Test Conditions if exposed to the Standard Test Condition solar
irradiance value of 1000 W/m2 for 2.74 hours a day. Usually solar panels are
exposed to sunlight for longer than this in a given day, but the solar irradiance is less
than 1000 W/m2 for most of the day. A solar panel can produce more when the sun
is high in the sky and will produce less in cloudy conditions or when the sun is low
in the sky, usually the sun is lower in the sky in the winter.

The efficiency of a solar cell is determined as the fraction of incident power which is
converted to electricity and is defined as:

Where:
Voc is the open-circuit voltage;
Isc is the short-circuit current;
FF is the fill factor and
η is the efficiency.

The input power for efficiency calculations is 1 kW/m2 or 100 mW/cm2. Thus the input
power for a 100 × 100 mm2 cell is 10 W and for a 156 × 156 mm2 cell is 24.3 W

Summary

We have discussed following topics as in chapter-9.

✓ Introduction to Photovoltaic cell.

✓ PV cell working.

✓ PV cell construction

✓ PV cell, module and array

✓ Advantages and disadvantages of PV cell technology

✓ I-V characteristics of PV cell

✓ Efficiency of PV cell

Practice Questions

Q1How do solar cells work?

A solar panel works by allowing particles of light, or photons, to knock electrons

free from atoms, generating a flow of electricity.

Q2What is the principle of solar cells?

Silicon crystals are laminated into p-type and n-type layers, stacked on top of each
other. Light striking the crystals induces the “photovoltaic effect,” which generates
electricity.
Q3State true or false: Solar energy is a renewable form of energy.

TRUE.

Q4What does the solar cell include?

Solar cell consists of a crystalline silicon solar panel which is a series of

interconnected silicon cells joined together to form a circuit.

Q5Can solar power from photovoltaic cells be harnessed in the absence of

sunlight?

No, it can be only harnessed in the presence of sunlight.

BASIC PRINCIPLE OF SPV CONVERSION

2.1) PHOTOVOLTAIC EFFECT:

• Photovoltaic effect is a process in which two dissimilar materials in close contact produce
an electrical charge when struck by light or any other radiant energy.
• When light strikes crystals such as silicon or germanium (p-n junction) in which electrons
are usually not free to move from n-region to p-region due to the potential barrier, the light
provides the energy (e.m.f.) needed to free some electrons from the bound condition
depending on the absorption of solar energy (Figure 2.1).

Figure 2.1 Generation of emf across junction to move the charge carriers.

• Free electrons cross the junction between two dissimilar crystals more easily in one
direction than in the other, giving one side of the junction a negative charge, and this results
 in a negative voltage with respect to the other side, as in the case of a battery in which one
electrode has negative voltage with respect to the other.
• The photovoltaic effect can continue to provide voltage and current as long as light falls
on the junction of two materials.
2.2) BASIC PRINCIPLE OF SPV CONVERSION:

• Solar power is the production of electricity directly from sunlight. The solar photovoltaic
(PV) power is produced using photovoltaic effect so that when sunlight strikes a solar
voltaic cell, it releases electrons from the p-n junction of the cell and pushes these electrons
across a potential barrier or electric field at the junction.
• These electrons then travel through an external circuit to return to their usual state and in
this process create electric power.
• The photovoltaic effect is the basic physical process through which a PV or solar cell
converts sunlight into electricity. Sunlight is composed of energy packets called photons.
• These photons contain different amounts of energy that correspond to different
wavelengths of the solar spectrum. When photons strike a PV cell, they may be reflected,
absorbed or can pass through the p-n junction. The absorbed photons in the p-n junction
generate electricity.

Figure 2.2 Photon generating pairs of electron and hole to move electric current in the external circuit.

• A solar cell is essentially a p-n junction with a large surface area. The n-type material is
kept thin to allow light to pass through it and strike the p-n junction. The light travels in
packets of energy called photons. The generation of electric current takes place inside the
depletion zone of the p-n junction.
• The depletion zone as explained previously is the area around the p-n junction where
ROHINI College of Engineering and Technology EE 8703 Renewable Energy System the
electrons from the n-region diffuse into the holes of the p-region. When a photon of light
 is absorbed by one of these atoms in n-region of silicon, it will dislodge an electron from
any atom, thereby creating a free electron and hole pair.
• The free electron and hole pair has sufficient energy to jump out of the depletion zone. If
a wire is connected from the cathode at n-type silicon to an anode of p- type silicon,
electrons flow through the wire.
• The electron is attracted to the positive charge of p-type material and travels through the
external load (bulb or resistance), thereby creating a flow of electric current. The hole
created by the dislodged electron is attracted to the negative charge of the n-type material
and travels to back electrical contact. As the electron reaches the p-type silicon from the
back electrical contact, it combines with the hole, thereby restoring the electrical
neutrality(Figure 2.2)

TYPES OF SOLAR PV SYSTEMS

1.) PV Direct System

These are the simple most of solar PV systems, with the fewest components: the Solar Panels and
the load. Because they don’t have batteries and are not hooked up to the grid, they only power the
loads when the sun is shining. They are appropriate for a few applications e.g. water pumping or
attic ventilation fan.

2.) Off-Grid System

Also referred to as stand-alone systems, it is designed to be independent of the power grid.

Batteries are used to store energy when the sun is not an available during cloudy days or at night.
This type of system will require regular attention to battery electrolyte levels and terminal
corrosion.
 Figure 3.1 Off- Grid Solar

Features of Off-Grid Solar

• Independence from the utility grid

• Not subject to the terms/policies of the utility company
• Rate increases, blackouts, or brownouts do not apply
• In remote areas, it is cost effective than extending a grid
• Encourages energy efficiency
• Batteries require maintenance and has limited life
• More components means more complexity
• Batteries decrease system efficiency
• It is more expensive than a grid-direct system
• When the batteries are fully charged, potential power from the PV array is not utilized
• If the PV system fails, back-up electricity is required to run load
• Most off-grid systems use a backup generator for non-sunny days. They are expensive,
noisy, dirty, and require fuel and regular maintenance

3.)Grid Tied System

These are most common type of PV systems. They are also known as on-grid, grid-tied, grid-
intertied, or grid-direct systems. They generate solar electricity and route it to the loads and to the
grid, offsetting some of electricity usage. System components comprised of the PV array and
inverter. Grid-connected system is similar to regular electric powered system except that some or
all of the electricity comes from the sun. The drawback of these battery less systems is that they
provide no outage protection—when the utility grid fails, these systems cannot operate.)
 Figure 3.2 Grid -tied Solar without Battery Backup

Features of Grid -tied Solar System

• Increased design flexibility because the system does not have to power all of the home’s
loads
• It is less expensive compared to stand-alone or grid-tied with battery backup systems
• It requires the least amount of maintenance
• If the system produces more than the loads need, then the extra energy is exchanged with
the utility grid
• Grid-direct systems have a higher efficiency because batteries are not part of the system
• Higher voltage means smaller wire size
• Electricity costs are fixed for the life of your system
• There is no power to the home when the grid goes down
• Paperwork requirements for interconnection, incentives, and rebates

4.)Grid-tied with battery-backup system

This type is very similar to an off-grid system in design and components, but adds the utility grid,
which reduces the need for the system to provide all the energy all the time.
 Figure 3.3 Grid -tied Solar with Battery Backup

Features of Grid -tied Solar System with Battery Backup

• Designated loads have power when the grid goes down

• If the system produces more than the home needs, then the extra energy is sold back to the
utility- not lost as in a stand-alone systems after the batteries get full on a sunny day
• Batteries require maintenance
• Requires rewiring circuits from main service panel to a separate subpanel
• More components mean more complexity
• Batteries decrease system performance because of their efficiency losses
• More expensive than a grid-direct system
• Typically only provides modest backup – usually not all of the loads are backed up
• Requires paperwork for interconnection, incentives, and rebates

5.)Hybrid System

Hybrid system tries to combine multiple sources of power to maximize availability of power. It
may source energy from sun, wind or diesel generator and back it up with battery.

Features of Hybrid System

• Multiple sources of generation allows for complementary sources and backup. For
instance, when it is sunny out the PV array will charge the battery; if it is cloudy and windy,
a wind turbine can charge the batteries
• Array size and battery bank capacity can typically be reduced and not having to oversize
for periods of no sun
• More complex system design and installation
• Multiple power sources can increase upfront expenses
• Wind turbines and generators require regular maintenance
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Electronic Circuits - SMPS

The topics discussed till now represent different sections of power supply unit. All these
sections together make the Linear Power Supply. This is the conventional method of
obtaining DC out of the input AC supply.

Linear Power Supply

The Linear Power Supply (LPS) is the regulated power supply which dissipates much heat
in the series resistor to regulate the output voltage which has low ripple and low noise.
This LPS has many applications.

A linear power supply requires larger semiconductor devices to regulate the output
voltage and generates more heat resulting in lower energy efficiency. Linear power
supplies have transient response times up to 100 times faster than the others, which is
very important in certain specialized areas.

Advantages of LPS

The power supply is continuous.

The circuitry is simple.

These are reliable systems.

This system dynamically responds to load changes.

The circuit resistances are changed to regulate the output voltage.

As the components operate in linear region, the noise is low.

The ripple is very low in the output voltage.

Disadvantages of LPS

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The transformers used are heavier and large.

The heat dissipation is more.

The efficiency of linear power supply is 40 to 50%

Power is wasted in the form of heat in LPS circuits.

Single output voltage is obtained.

We have already gone through different parts of a Linear Power supply. The block
diagram of a Linear Power Supply is as shown in the following figure.

In spite of the above disadvantages, Linear Power Supplies are widely used in low-noise
amplifiers, test equipment, control circuits. In addition, they are also used in data
acquisition and signal processing.

All the power supply systems that needs simple regulation and where efficiency is not a
concern, the LPS circuits are used. As the electrical noise is lower, the LPS is used in
powering sensitive analog circuitry. But to overcome the disadvantages of Linear Power
Supply system, the Switched Mode Power Supply (SMPS) is used.

Switched Mode Power Supply (SMPS)

The disadvantages of LPS such as lower efficiency, the need for large value of capacitors
to reduce ripples and heavy and costly transformers etc. are overcome by the
implementation of Switched Mode Power Supplies.

The working of SMPS is simply understood by knowing that the transistor used in LPS is
used to control the voltage drop while the transistor in SMPS is used as a controlled
switch.

Working

The working of SMPS can be understood by the following figure.

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Let us try to understand what happens at each stage of SMPS circuit.

Input Stage

The AC input supply signal 50 Hz is given directly to the rectifier and filter circuit
combination without using any transformer. This output will have many variations and
the capacitance value of the capacitor should be higher to handle the input fluctuations.
This unregulated dc is given to the central switching section of SMPS.

Switching Section

A fast switching device such as a Power transistor or a MOSFET is employed in this

section, which switches ON and OFF according to the variations and this output is given
to the primary of the transformer present in this section. The transformer used here are
much smaller and lighter ones unlike the ones used for 60 Hz supply. These are much
efficient and hence the power conversion ratio is higher.

Output Stage

The output signal from the switching section is again rectified and filtered, to get the
required DC voltage. This is a regulated output voltage which is then given to the control
circuit, which is a feedback circuit. The final output is obtained after considering the
feedback signal.

Control Unit

This unit is the feedback circuit which has many sections. Let us have a clear
understanding about this from The following figure.

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The above figure explains the inner parts of a control unit. The output sensor senses the
signal and joins it to the control unit. The signal is isolated from the other section so that
any sudden spikes should not affect the circuitry. A reference voltage is given as one
input along with the signal to the error amplifier which is a comparator that compares
the signal with the required signal level.

By controlling the chopping frequency the final voltage level is maintained. This is
controlled by comparing the inputs given to the error amplifier, whose output helps to
decide whether to increase or decrease the chopping frequency. The PWM oscillator
produces a standard PWM wave fixed frequency.

We can get a better idea on the complete functioning of SMPS by having a look at the
following figure.

The SMPS is mostly used where switching of voltages is not at all a problem and where
efficiency of the system really matters. There are few points which are to be noted
regarding SMPS. They are

SMPS circuit is operated by switching and hence the voltages vary continuously.

The switching device is operated in saturation or cut off mode.

The output voltage is controlled by the switching time of the feedback circuitry.

Switching time is adjusted by adjusting the duty cycle.

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