not

1
2
-> Supernetting :- The process of combining two or more nework to get a single
network is called supernetting.

-> It improve flexibility if IP address allotment.

-> Supernet Maks:- 1- No. of 1's in the supernet mask indicate the fixed part.
2- No. of 0's indicate the variable part.

-> Supernet ID -> First IP address always.

-> No. of 1's in the supernet mask is always less than NID bits
supernet borrow bit from NID part.

-> Table
Address Class A Class B Class C
1- 255.0.0.0 subnet mask supernet mask supernet mask
2- 255.255.0.0 subnet mask subnet mask supernet mask
3- 255.255.255.0 subnet mask subnet mask subnet mask

-> Most likely to occur

 May or may not detect 4 bit

r= Redundant bits
->Putting bit on the
CH- Flow control outgoing link.

-> from one point to another

window size=1

ACK tells the next

expected frame.
= Td/(Total time)
 -> Bandwidth of link is also known as
Data rate or Transmission rate or Bit rate of transmission
-> Stop and wait ARQ= Stop and Wait + Time out + sequence No.(Data) + Sequence No.(ACK)

efficiency

min seq no. req= (1+2a)*2 - > (1+2a)

min seq no. req= (1+2a)+1

-> In GB-N here N is window sender size

and N+1 is seq no.

N= Window sender size

in formula.

-> OSI has 7 Layer while TCP has 4 Layer 1

CH- IPv4 Header IP is a packet stream protoccol

-> Payload is data at data link layer

65,515
65,535 (Including header)
Total

-> Out of order data can reach to destination

2
Destination rearrange the data acc to offset
Fragmentation is done by intermediatry devices such as router & reassembly of fragmented datagram is done only after
reaching the destination.
datagram
from buffer
OSPF- 89

ICMP will eliminate first among all

CH- Routing The idea is to use flooding to distribute the link

state pkts to all routers
exept for incoming one

Implemented by
RIP
Use Bellman Ford algo

OSPF
(graph)
& apply Dijisktra algo to find shortest path

Disadvantage:- Infinite Looping

(Heavy traffic)
->soln:- give seq no. to pkt & don't
-> In routing Routing table is updated till (n-1) times3for n node in Network. forward pkt second time arrival
CH- TCP TCP is Byte stream protocol
TCP is connection oriented
every Byte is associated with 1 seq no.

S.F is 4
-> TCP Protocol
HTTP, FTP
SMTP, POP

-> UDP
Protocol
DNS, SNMP, seq no. is always in inc. order
RIP, DHCP -> seq no. can be 4GB if data size more than that
wrap around come it reuse the seq no. for extra
Time taken to
data
Wrap Around

(client & server)

when data is transfer

from source to destina

Probe segment help

to avoid deadlock
1B of probe segment seq
(1GB) no. never be consume
In general max window size is 65,535 But
Max window size can be psble by
using scale option is 1GB

-> out order pkt accepted

-> Connection establishment is 3 way handshaking

-> Connnection termination is 4 way handshaking -> ARP not only use b/w computer only to find MAC
4 But also can use b/w host & router and vice versa.
- Lost ACK Type 1- Automatically corrected Lost Ack 2- Lost Ack is corrected by Resending the the Segment
It is inefficient

send AWS 0 or no ack

until buffer is half full or
total full

Close the connection

-> TOT at DLL is is (2*RTT)

-> If U consider
only data

-> If U consider segment then

-> TCP is connection oriented & UDP is conntectionless TH= No. of seg/2
-> UDP data size is 65,535 - (UDP H=8 + IP H=20)=65,507 (time taken to Till this t data is transfer rate is M after
5 empty the Bucket) this t is it will be M=r.
CH- MAC -> Broadcast MAC address:- FF:FF:FF:FF:FF:FF

-> Random
Access
Protocol

1- Aloha
2- CSMA
CA & CD
both

15

(Tf)

1/2

(Tf)
Channel
But station might sense the carrier free when it actually not

(1-Persistent)

P-Persistnt
uses the
=> adv. of both

CSMA/CD

-> Vulnerable time for CSMA is Propagation time ->In P-P. with prob. P, the station send its frame. & with prob. (1-P) station
6 beginning of the next time slot & check the line again
W8 for the
 In CSMA/CD no need for ACK coz If collision is not detected then frame is definitely rcvd by the receiver

frame

Process
coz if collision not occur then all
frame
recvd. No
need to
resend

-> Last CRC of 4B is part of Tailer

which is attached to DLL
46B-1500B
T

8B including both
Preamble & SFD

(coz server need priority (coz ethernet has high prob. of

but ethernet believe on equality) collision)

(Also same for

slotted Aloha)
-> For Data Min is 46B & Max is 1,500B
-> For Frame Min is 64B & Max is 1,518B 7 Data+(DLL_Header -- PL_Header)=>46+(26-8)=64B
Min for Frame->
 (fix particular host) the channel (anyone from N host)
(Cleaning the channel after collision)

-> If the primary station

fails system goes down.
coz of Poll msgs

CH-

-> POP:- Post Office Protocol use to pull the mail & IMAP:- Internet Mail Access Protocol also use to pull the mail
-> With the help of SMTP & POP we can only send the text msgs.
-> MIME(Multiprurpse Internet Mail Extension) Use to convert text data to non text data and vice-versa

-> Stateless:- Means it does not maintain the information of the user
-> In-band:- means Control & Data move in one single connection Out-band means control & data move in
different connection
-> msg from receiving server to web browser is done
8 through HTTP
CH- Switching -> The process of forwarding the pkts from one port to another port is called as switching

It is done at physical layer -> No Congestion prblm

During data transfer.

-> may cause

congestion during
connection
establishment

(3) (2)

3
M=message
Mh h=header size
-> Efficiency of pkt switching is better than circuit -> Optimum pkt size:- p= p=payload/
x-1 pkt data size
-> Total no. of pkt=M/p b=bandwidth(b/s)
x=No. of hopes
-> Packet size(P)= p+h

Some points from Application layer protocol

-> Persistent:- Means It does not getting log out implicitely after timeout or explicitely it will log out only
-> POP does not allow Partial download but IMAP allow partial download
-> IP add. are not static it can change -> DNS uses Recursive or Iterative Queries Queries response pair in
both are 4
-> SNMP & DHCP use UDP & Telnet use TCP
-> All real time multimedia use UDP

-> ARP work at NL & it is a comm. protocol use to find the MAC add. of a device from its IP add.
use between Host to Host, Host to Router, Router to Router or Router to Host. ARP reply is Unicast & ARP req
is Multicast
-> When TTL is 0, Router will discard the pkt and send the ICMP msg to source.

-> Stop & Wait ARQ solve error control:- Keeping a copy of sent frames until it receive ack from reciever
-> Stop & Wait ARQ Flow control:- Keeping a copy of sent frames until it receive ack from reciever
-> In pure Aloha val of G is 1/2 that means: To achieve max throughput 1 half frame should be gnerated in
one frame transmission time. OR 1 frame should generated in 2 frame transmission time.