CHAPTER 1 – COMPUTER SYSTEM AND ORGANIZATION

Computer System
• A computer is basically an electronic machine meant for computing. It can be programmed
to take data as input, process it and generate information as output .
● Computer system comes in various forms and sizes such as Desktop, Laptop, Tablet,
Mainframe, Super Computer, Smartphone etc.
• A computer system is ideally combination of Hardware and Software .

Image 1 : COMPUTER SYSTEM AND ORGANIZATION

Basic Structure of Computer System

Block Diagram of Computer System

Image 2 Given below represents the basic structure of computer system. the directed lines
represent the flow of data and signal between the components.

Components of Computer System

A computer System primarily comprises of (Figure above):

1. Input Device

2. Output Device

3. CPU

4. Memory

5. Storage Devices

Input Device
● The devices used for input data into computer system are termed as Input device .
• Input devices converts the input data into digital signal that is understood by computer
system
• Examples: Keyboard, mouse, scanner, touch screen, microphone etc.
● Input data is temporarily stored in primary memory (RAM)

Output devices
• The devices which are responsible for displaying or producing information are termed as

output device.
• Output devices converts digital signals into human understandable form.

• Examples: Monitor, Printer, Speaker, Plotter, Projector etc.

• Output data is temporarily stored in primary memory that can be stored later permanently

in secondary memory.

CPU
• CPU stands for Central Processing Unit referred as brain of computer
• It is responsible for all the processing done and
• It performs arithmetic and logical operation on date as per the instructions given by the
program it fetches from memory
• CPU has three main components

Registers: there are part of CPU and used to store date and instructions during

operation being performed in limited size.

ALU: stands for arithmetic and logical unit that performs all the arithmetic and logical

operations on date as per instructions of a program

CU: stands for Control unit which

• Controls flow of data between memory, input and output devices
• Controls execution of instructions in sequential manner.
Computer Memory

Computer memory as it name implies, used to store data and instructions used for processing .

Types of memory

Computer systems have two types of memory

• Primary memory
• Secondary memory

Primary memory
• It store data and programs temporarily during operation .
• CPU can read and write data directly to and from primary memory.
• It is volatile in nature as its content gets deleted as soon as power supply is turned off
• It is of two types

RAM:

Stands for Random Access Memory, used to store data temporarily during operation being
⮚
performed
It is volatile in nature
⮚
It is considered as main memory of computer system
⮚
The required program and data of any application while being started takes space in RAM.
⮚
It is faster than secondary memory
⮚
ROM

Stands for Read Only Memory, which stores startup programs that loads operating system
⮚
into primary memory.
It is non-volatile in nature
⮚
Content of ROM cannot be modified.
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Catch Memory

It's another type of Primary Memory which is considered as very high speed meory.
⮚
It is placed between CPU and Primary Memory (RAM) referred an catche
⮚
The main purpose of Catch memory is to store the copies of frequently access date of
⮚
primary memory to reduce the time consumed to access that data.

Secondary Memory
• It stores data and programs permanently that can be used in future also .

• It is non-volatile in nature.

• It has larger capacity but slower than primary memory.

• Content of secondary memory can not be accessed directly by CPU.

• Examples: SSD, HDD, CD/DVD, Flash Drive, Memory Card etc.

Unit of Memory
• Byte is unit of memory.

• 8 bits grouped together forms 1 Byte.

• 4 bits grouped together forms 1 nibble and 2 nibbles makes 1 Byte.

Given table shows different measurement units of data

Software
● Software refers to a set of programs that instruct hardware what to do and how to do .
● It comprises of instructions and data to be processed using computer hardware .
● Each software is written for some computational purpose.
● Softwares are intangible.

Need of software

Software acts as an interface between user and hardware.

It makes computer hardware operational and useful.

Types of software

Software can be broadly classified in three categories:

● System software
● Application software
● Programming tools
System Software

It manages computer system by interacting directly with its constituent hardware .

It helps in providing various services to user and resources to other softwares.

Following are different types of System software:

● Operating System
● System Utilities (Utility Software)
● Device Drivers

Operating System

The software that acts as an interface between user and computer hardware .
● It is a System Software
● Every computer system must have at least one operating system installed.
● Windows, Linux, Solaris, MAC OS, Ubuntu, MS DOS are some of the examples of Operating
System
● It helps in performing the core functionalities like accepting input from various input
devices, directing the output to the display, managing the files and directories .
● communicating with hardware, and installing/uninstalling peripheral devices.

System Utilities
● System Utilities are Softwares used to maintain computer systems to work more smoothly.
efficiently and effectively.
● It helps in improving the performance of computer
● It helps in providing security from virus
● It helps in managing and freeing disk space and providing data backups
● Disk defragmentation, formatting, system restore are some utilities inbuilt in Operating
System.

Device Driver
● Device Drivers are programs that help functioning a hardware device with computer
system
● It acts as an interface between the device and operating system.
● Overall control interpretation, operation and management of a device at the hardware
level is handled by device drivers.

Programming Tools

Programming tools refers to the tools used to write instructions, convert high level to machine
language and develop softwares for computer systems.

Following are the programming tools used

• Programming languages

• Language translators
• Program development tools

Programming Languages:
• Programming languages are used to write instructions which are applied by a computer system
to get desired results.
• Programming languages are developed to simplify coding for computers.

Programming language can be classified in two categories:

● Low level language
● High level language

Low level language

These are machine dependent language that includes

• Machine language

• Assembly language

Machine language
● It uses binary code i.e 0s and 1s to write instructions for computer systems.
● It is directly understood by computer system and hence no intermediate software is
required to execute them
● It is difficult to use machine language as one has to remember all operational codes and
machine addresses
● It is difficult to find errors in the code written in machine language

Assembly language
• Assembly language uses English like words to write instructions for computer systems.

• It is platform dependent means code written for a particular CPU cannot be used for another
CPU.

High Level Language

• High level languages use English like words using its own grammar (set of rules) to write
instructions.
• It is platform independent and simple to write code.

• Translators (compilers) are needed to translate high level language into machine language.

Examples: C++, Java, Python, C# etc.

Language Translators
● Language translators are used to convert instructions written in assembly or high level
language to machine language.
● The code converted into machine language is called object code.
● Different translators for different languages are used for conversion .

There are three types of language translators:

● Assembler
● Compiler
● Interpreter

Assembler
● The translator used to convert the code written in assembly language to machine language
is called assembler.
● Each assembler can understand a specific microprocessor instruction set only and hence
the machine code is not portable.

Compiler
● Compiler converts source code written in high level language into machine code .
● If the code does not follow all syntactic rules of the language, the compiler generates
errors.
● Once source code is translated successfully, the compiler is not needed further .

Interpreter
● Interpreter converts source code written in high level language into machine code line
● Interpreter is always needed whenever a source code is to be executed .

Difference between Compiler and Interpreter

Program Development Tools

Program development tools are also referred as integrated Development Environment which

provides all resources needed for software development, it consist of

● Text editor
● Debugger
● Compiler
● GUI Editor etc.

Examples: Python IDLE, Netbeans, Eclipse, Visual Studio, Atom

Application Software
● Software which is developed for a particular type of application such as drawing .
presentation, documentation, calculation etc.
● It is used by user to accomplish their task
● It always runs on the top of the system software.

There are two main categories of application software:

● General purpose software
● Customized software

General purpose software

● These are application software designed for generic applications such as Spreadsheets,
Photoshop, and Chrome etc.
● These are developed to meet the requirement of mass users in mind without any
geographical barrier.

Customized software
● These are application software designed to meet the requirements of individuals or
organizations.
● Examples: school management software, hospital management, inventory management
payroll etc.

Operating system
● The software that acts as an interface between user and computer hardware .
● It is a System Software.
● Every computer system must have at least one operating system installed.
● Windows, Linux, Solaris, MAC OS, Ubuntu, MS DOS are some of the examples of Operating
System
● It helps in performing the core functionalities like accepting input from various input
devices, directing the output to the display, managing the files and directories communicating
with hardware, and installing/uninstalling peripheral devices.

Functions of Operating System

● Functions of an Operating system can be broadly categorized as
● Communication Management
● Resource Management
● Process Management
● File Management
● Memory Management
Communication Management

Establishes communication between different peripheral devices like printer, mouse keyboard,
monitor etc. The Operating System uses special programs called drivers to identify these devices
and their properties, to interact with them.

Resource Management

Here resource management refers to managing allocation and priority of different resources such
as memory. CPU time, files, Input/output devices etc., to the various processes to get an optimum
performance from the system. All these are discussed below:

Process Management

it refers to managing, controlling and scheduling different operations being executed in the CPU . It
decides which process gets the processor and for how long.

Memory Management

it refers to dynamically allocating memory to the process to be executed and released when not
needed.

File Management

It refers to managing all the files and folders in secondary memory. Creating, deleting, moving.
Copying or renaming are some common tasks performed on files.

OS User Interface

OS User Interface refers to a medium through which a user can interact with an Operating System .

Following are the commonly used interfaces of OS:

● Character (Command) user interface - used as medium to exchange information between
user and machine
● Graphical user interface - uses different graphics like icons, images, buttons, menus are
used to interact with operating system
● Touch based interface - Mostly built for smartphones and tablets.
● Voice based interface - allows users to interact with the system by human voice.
● Gesture based interface - refers to interaction with a system using different human
gestures like waving, tilting, eye motion and shaking.

BOOLEAN LOGIC

Boolean Logic

Boolean Logic is a concept that involves binary variables and operations. It focuses on the values
true and false (1 and 0). It was developed by the English Mathematician and logician George Boole.
Boolean Algebra comprises of following:
1. Boolean Expression

2. Boolean Variable

Boolean Variable

A boolean variable is a variable that holds boolean values True/ False or 1/0.

Boolean Expression

A boolean expression is an expression that consists of a combination of boolean variables, boolean

values and boolean operators. A boolean expression evaluates to either True or False.

Boolean Operators

Boolean operators perform operations on operands (Boolean Variables/Values). The boolean

operators are: AND, OR and NOT.

AND operator - It evaluates to True(1) if all inputs are True(1), otherwise False(0). It is represented
by the dot operator (.)

Example : A.B may be read A AND B

OR operator - It evaluates to True(1) if any of the inputs is True(1), otherwise False(0). It is

represented by the + operator.

Example: A + B may be read as A OR B.

NOT operator - It evaluates to True(1) when the condition is False, and returns False(0) when the
condition is True(1).

Example: A' may be read as A complement.

Ā may be read as A complement.

Truth Table

A truth table is a representation of all possible combinations of the input variables and the
corresponding output values.

The number of rows in a truth table are 2n, where n is no. of input variables.

Logic Gates

A logic gate is a device that performs a Boolean Function. One or more inputs in the form of 1/0
are provided to get the specific output governed by a logic. Examples of Logic Gates are: AND, OR,
NOT, NOR, NAND and XOR.
NAND and NOR are called Universal Gates, as they can implement any Boolean expression.
Logic Circuits

A logic circuit is an electronic circuit which performs logical operations on the input boolean
variables, and transforms them into the output using a combination of Logic Gates .

Examples of a circuit diagram are:

 Number System

There are many possible ways to represent numbers. A number system provides a consistent and
unique method to represent the numbers.

Positional Number System

A positional number system is one way of writing numbers. It has unique symbols for 0 through (b
– 1 ),

where b is the base (also known as radix) of the system. These symbols are called digits.

Some popular positional number systems are:

1. Binary - base 2

2. Octal - base 8

3. Decimal - base 10

4. Hexadecimal - base 16

Decimal Number System

A decimal number uses base-10 for representing numbers. The numbers 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 and
9 are the digits present in the system.

For example,534 can be represented as

534 = 5 x 102+ 3 x 101 + 4 x 100

123.238 can be represented as

123.238 = 1 x 102 + 2 x 101 + 3 x 100 + 2 x 10-1 + 3 x 10-2 + 8 x 10-3

Binary Number System

The binary number system uses only two symbols, 0 and 1. Each numeral is known as a binary digit
or a

bit. It is also known as the base-2 numeral system, where the positional digits are powers of 2.

For example, (110101)2.

The maximum possible sequence of binary numbers that can be created using a sequence of n -bits
is 2n

Octal Number System

Octal system, or the base-8 system uses 8 unique symbols, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7. The place
values in the octal system are powers of 8. We can use 3-bit binary numbers to represent the octal
digits, since 23 = 8.

For example, an octal number (532.67)8 can be represented in the decimal number system as
(532.67)8 = 5 x 82 + 3 x 81 + 2 x 80 + 6 x 8-1 + 7 x 8-2

Hexadecimal Number System

The hexadecimal number system uses 16 unique symbols, 0-9 and A-F for representation of
numbers. The place values in the hexadecimal system are powers of 16.
Number System Conversions

Decimal Number System to Binary Number System Conversion

1) Convert decimal number 75 to binary number.

2) Convert decimal number 142.67 to a binary number.

Decimal Number System to Octal Number System Conversion

1) Convert decimal number 104 to octal number.

2) Convert decimal number 563.93 to octal number.

Decimal Number System to Hexadecimal Number System Conversion

1) Convert decimal number 600 to hexadecimal number.

Binary Number System to Decimal Number System Conversion

1) Convert Binary Number 101101 into Decimal Number.

2) Convert Binary Number 110101.010 into Decimal Number.

Octal Number System to Decimal Number System Conversion

1) Convert Octal Number 156 into Decimal Number.

2) Convert Octal Number 78.12172 into Decimal Number.

Hexadecimal Number System to Decimal Number System Conversion

1) Convert Hexadecimal Number 0.87 into Decimal Number.

Binary Number System to Hexadecimal Number System

1) Convert binary number 1000110101110 to hexadecimal number .

2) Convert Binary number 10010111101101 into Hexadecimal Number.

3) Convert Binary number 101100100.100111 into Hexadecimal Number.

Hexadecimal Number System to Binary Number System

1) Convert Hexadecimal Number 7B316 to Binary Equivalent Number.

Hence the equivalent binary number is (01111011001100010110)

2) Convert Hexadecimal Number D2.92AB to Binary equivalent Number.

Hence the equivalent binary number is (11010010.1001001010101011)2

Binary Number System to Octal Number System

1)Convert binary number 1011011010 to octal number.

Octal Number System to Binary Number System

1) Convert Octal Number 767 to Binary Equivalent Number.

Hence the equivalent binary number is (111110111)2

2) Convert Octal Number 4716.15 to Binary Equivalent Number.

= (100111001110.001101)

Hexadecimal Number System to Octal Number System

1) Convert Hexadecimal Number 4B2A into Octal Number.

2) Convert Hexadecimal Number FE6 into Octal Number.

Octal
Number System to Hexadecimal Number System

1) Convert Octal Number 2106 into Hexadecimal Number.

2) Convert Octal Number 765 into Hexadecimal Number.

 Encoding Schemes

Encoding is defined as the process to convert data from one form to another . Computers only
understand binary language. There is a need to convert popularly used languages by humans into
machine understandable format. Textual characters (letters, numbers and symbols) are assigned
unique numerical codes. Some of the popular encoding schemes are ASCII, ISCII and Unicode .

ASCII
● ASCII stands for American Standard Code for Information Interchange.

● It was developed in the United States of America by American Standards Association (ASA).

● It is used to represent textual information in computers.

● ASCII uses 7-bits for encoding.

● A maximum of 128 characters may be encoded. Out of these 128 characters, only 95 are
printable

including the digits 0-9, lowercase and uppercase characters a-z A-Z and punctuation marks. The

rest of the characters are Control Characters.

ISCII
● ISCII stands for Indian Script Code for Information Interchange (ISCII).

● ISCII is an extended version of the ASCII code and uses 8 bits for encoding .

● It was developed by the Bureau of Indian Standards, India.

● It represents various languages from India.

● Some of the supported scripts are Devanagari (Hindi, Marathi, Sanskrit, Konkani), Gujarati,

Kannada, Punjabi, Malayalam, Telugu, Tamil, Oriya, Bengali-Assamese etc.

Unicode
● Unicode Standard is developed and managed by the Unicode Consortium, which is a non -profit

organization composed of members from Software Development companies such as Apple,

Adobe,

Google, IBM, Microsoft etc.

● It aims to provide a universal platform for encoding characters of various languages from the
world.
● It assigns a unique Code Point to every character, independent of the CPU
architecture/platform, or

the underlying software.

● Unicode covers most writing scripts across the world. As of now, over 161 scripts are included in

the latest version of Unicode.

● Unicode defines two mapping methods: the Unicode Transformation Format (UTF) encodings,
and

the Universal Coded Character Set (UCS) encodings.

● Various versions of UTF are UTF-8, UTF-16, UTF-32.

● All UTF encodings map code points to a unique sequence of bytes.

● UTF-8 uses 8-bits or 16-bits or 24-bits or 32-bits for each code point.

● UTF-16 uses 16-bits or 32-bits for each code point.

● UTF-32 uses 32-bits for each code point.