RESISTOR

By Bargunan Ponnusamy
INSIDE

- Bargunan Ponnusamy
 RESISTOR
A resistor is a basic yet vital electronic component that limits or controls
the flow of electric current in a circuit. It’s a passive device that plays a
key role in managing voltage, current, and signal conditions across
various electrical and electronic systems.

How it Works?
A resistor is a passive component used to oppose or limit current flow
in an electrical circuit. The core principle is Ohm's Law

Where:
V = Voltage across the resistor (Volts)
I = Current through the resistor (Amps)
R = Resistance (Ohms, Ω)

Resistors dissipate electrical energy as heat and are used for voltage
division, biasing, signal conditioning, and protection.

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 TYPES OF RESISTORS
1. Carbon Composition
Structure: Mixture of carbon + binder

Pros: Low cost, good for pulses

Cons: Poor tolerance, high noise

Applications: General purpose, surge protection

2. Metal Film
Structure: Vacuum-deposited metal

Pros: High accuracy, low noise

Cons: Costlier than carbon

Applications: Precision analog circuits

3. Wirewound
Structure: Metal wire wound on ceramic core

Pros: High power, stable

Cons: Inductive at high frequencies

Applications: Power supplies, motor drives

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 TYPES OF RESISTORS
4. Thick/Thin Film (SMD)
Structure: Printed on ceramic substrate

Pros: Compact, cost-effective

Cons: Limited power rating

Applications: Consumer electronics, dense PCBs

5. Foil Resistors
Structure: Etched metal foil

Pros: Extremely precise, low drift

Cons: Expensive

Applications: Instrumentation, medical devices

6. Variable (Potentiometer)
Structure: Movable contact on resistive track

Pros: Adjustable resistance

Cons: Mechanical wear

Applications: User-adjustable settings

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KEY PARAMETERS

Important Derived Values

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 FREQUENCY BEHAVIOR
High Frequency Effects
Resistors behave ideally only at low frequencies. At high frequencies:

Rule of Thumb:
Use non-inductive resistors or surface mount resistors for RF and
GHz applications.

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 HOW TO CHOOSE A RESISTOR
When selecting a resistor, consider the following:

Derating Rule:
Reduce power rating by 50% for every 25°C above 70°C ambient.

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 PURPOSE / APPLICATION IN CIRCUITS
Essential Circuit Applications

Function Description Real-Time Example

Used to scale down voltages to Battery voltage monitor: Divides

Voltage Divider 12V battery voltage to ~3.3V for
desired levels.
ADC input on a microcontroller.
Ensures a logic input defaults to I2C bus line: 4.7kΩ pull-up resistors
Pull-up / Pull-
a known state (HIGH or LOW) used on SDA and SCL lines to
down
when floating. ensure proper logic levels.

Protects LEDs and ICs by LED indicator: 330Ω resistor used

Current Limiting restricting the current flowing to limit current from a 5V source to
through them. an LED (5V → LED + R).

Feedback Sets gain in amplifiers or Op-amp amplifier: 10kΩ and 1kΩ

resistors in feedback loop for a gain
Network determines filter behavior.
of 11 in an audio preamp.

Load Prevents signal reflections on Ethernet PHY: 49.9Ω resistors used

to match 50Ω impedance of
Termination high-speed transmission lines.
differential data lines.
Protects switches or relays from Relay driver circuit: 100Ω resistor
Snubber
voltage spikes caused by with 100nF capacitor across relay
Circuits
inductive loads. coil to suppress transients.
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 CURRENT LIMITING RESISTOR
A Current Limiting Resistor is used in circuits to restrict the current flowing
to a specific component, protecting it from excessive current that could
cause damage or failure.
Purpose:
Protect LEDs, ICs, transistors, and sensors from overcurrent
Control current flow to safe levels
Stabilize circuit operation in resistive and reactive loads
Key Formula:
For a current-limiting resistor in series with a load:

Where:
R = Required resistor value (Ω)
​= Source voltage
= Voltage drop across the load (e.g., LED forward voltage)
​ = Target current through the load

Application
Application Typical Current Range Resistor Power Rating

LEDs 5 mA – 20 mA 0.125W – 0.25W

Microcontroller Inputs <1 mA 0.125W

Base Resistor for 1 mA – 10 mA 0.125W

T i t
Inrush Current Limiting Depends on load 0.5W – 5W (higher transient)

Design Considerations:
Never undersize the resistor power rating. Always allow at least a 2× safety
margin.
For inrush current limiting, use higher wattage resistors or NTC thermistors.
For fast switching circuits, account for resistor-induced delay or voltage drop
Series resistor in op-amp inputs for current limiting.
Current limiting for analog sensors to prevent overdriving input pins.
Protection in USB, power rails, and high-side switches.

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 CURRENT LIMITING RESISTOR
Application:
Protecting an LED from overcurrent
using a series resistor.

Parameters:
Supply Voltage = 5V
LED Forward Voltage = 2V
Desired Current = 10mA

Calculation:

Power Dissipation:

LED with & without Resistor:

Result:
Use a 300Ω, 0.25W resistor. This ensures the LED receives the correct
current without damage.
Choose a resistor with at least 0.125W (1/8W) rating for safety

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 VOLTAGE DIVIDER FOR ADC INPUT
A Voltage Divider is a simple circuit using two resistors to scale down a
higher input voltage to a lower level that is safe for the ADC (Analog-to-
Digital Converter) of a microcontroller.
Purpose:
To reduce a voltage source (e.g., 12V battery) to a voltage suitable for
ADC input (usually <3.3V or <5V depending on the microcontroller).
To safely monitor higher voltages using an ADC that has limited input
voltage range.

Voltage Divider Formula:

Where:
Vin​= Input voltage (e.g., 12V battery)
Vout​= Output voltage to ADC (must be < ADC max input, typically <3.3V)
R1 = Resistor connected from Vin​to Vout
R2​= Resistor connected from Vout​to Ground

Important Design Tips:

Always ensure the voltage across the ADC pin is below the absolute
maximum input (usually slightly less than the supply voltage, e.g.,
<3.3V for a 3.3V MCU).
Use precision resistors (1% or better) for accurate voltage scaling.
Consider adding a low-pass filter (capacitor in parallel with R2) to
reduce ADC noise:
Cutoff Frequency ≈ 723 Hz (Low-pass filter)
Ensure input impedance of the ADC is significantly higher than the
resistor network to avoid measurement errors.
Check ADC datasheet guidelines for recommended source
impedance.

When to Use a Voltage Divider for ADC Input:

Battery voltage monitoring
Sensor signal scaling
General-purpose voltage sensing in microcontroller systems

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 VOLTAGE DIVIDER FOR ADC INPUT
Application:
Scaling 12V battery voltage to <3.3V
for microcontroller ADC.

Parameters:
Max battery voltage = 12V
Desired ADC input = ≤3.3V
Choose R1 = 6.8kΩ, find R2

Calculation:

Result:
Use 6.8kΩ (R1) and 2.2kΩ (R2) to safely scale 12V down to ~3.3V for the
ADC.

6.8kΩ

~3.3V
2.2kΩ

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 PULL-UP RESISTOR ON I2C LINE
In an I²C bus system, pull-up resistors are essential components that
ensure the data (SDA) and clock (SCL) lines return to a logic HIGH level
when no device is actively pulling them LOW.
Why Pull-Up Resistors Are Needed on I²C:
I²C is an open-drain (open-collector) bus: devices can pull the lines
LOW, but cannot drive them HIGH.
Without pull-up resistors, the lines would float and logic levels would be
undefined.
Pull-up resistors define the idle (HIGH) state and enable proper logic
transitions.

Basic I²C Pull-Up Configuration:

Each I²C line:
SDA (Serial Data)
SCL (Serial Clock)
has a resistor connected from the line to Vcc (typically 3.3V or 5V).

How to Calculate I²C Pull-Up Resistor Value:

The pull-up resistor value must satisfy:
1. Rise Time Requirements (depends on bus capacitance)
2. Sinking Current Capability of the devices
How to Calculate I²C Pull-Up Resistor Value:
τ=R×C
Where:
τ\tauτ = RC time constant (~ 0.3 × max rise time allowed)
R = Pull-up resistor (Ω)
C = Bus capacitance (pF)

I²C Timing Reference:

Speed Mode Max Rise Time (tr) Typical Pull-Up Resistor

Standard (100 kHz) 1000 ns 4.7 kΩ to 10 kΩ

Fast (400 kHz) 300 ns 2.2 kΩ to 4.7 kΩ

Fast+ (1 MHz) 120 ns 1 kΩ to 2.2 kΩ

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 PULL-UP RESISTOR ON I2C LINE
Key Design Considerations:
Lower resistor values → Faster rise times but higher current
consumption.
Higher resistor values→ Slower rise times, less current drain, but
possible signal integrity issues.
Maximum current sinking per I²C spec is 3mA:
Example:
If Vcc = 3.3V, and R = 1kΩ→ →
Current = 3.3mA Too high for
typical I²C drivers.
✔️Recommended minimum: R ≥ 1.1kΩ for 3.3V systems.
Consider total bus capacitance, trace length, and number of devices.

Parameters:
Vcc = 3.3V
Recommended Pull-up = 4.7kΩ
Bus capacitance = ~100pF
I2C clock speed = 100kHz

Check Rise Time:

Result:
Rise time is well within I2C spec (1000ns @ 100kHz).
Use 4.7kΩ pull-ups on both SDA and SCL lines.

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 OP-AMP FEEDBACK RESISTOR
The Op-Amp Feedback Resistor is a critical component that controls the
gain, bandwidth, and stability of operational amplifier circuits. It is
typically placed in the feedback path to regulate how much of the output
signal is returned to the input.

Purpose of Feedback Resistor:

Sets voltage gain of the Op-Amp circuit.
Stabilizes the amplifier.
Shapes the frequency response (in filters).
Controls input/output impedance characteristics.

Key Configurations:
1. Non-Inverting Amplifier
Gain Formula:

Where:
Rf = Feedback resistor (from output to inverting input)
Rin​= Resistor from inverting input to ground
Example:
Rf=10kΩ, Rin​=1kΩ

2. Inverting Amplifier
Gain Formula:

The negative sign indicates 180° phase inversion.

Example:
Rf=10kΩ, Rin​=2kΩ

3. Voltage Follower (Buffer):

Feedback resistor is replaced with a direct connection (zero
resistance).
Gain = 1 (Unity Gain)
Purpose: Impedance matching, signal buffering.

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 OP-AMP FEEDBACK RESISTOR
Purpose of Feedback Resistor:
Parameter Recommended Range

Feedback Resistor (R_f) 1kΩ – 100kΩ (typical)

Input Resistor (R_in) 1kΩ – 10kΩ (typical)

Resistor Tolerance 1% or better for precision

Noise Sensitivity Lower resistor values preferred

Power Handling Standard 1/8W or 1/4W resistors

Practical Design Considerations:

Higher resistor values → Increase thermal noise, input offset currents
may cause errors.
Lower resistor values → Draw more current, increase power
consumption.
Use precision resistors (1% or 0.1%) for accurate and stable gain.
For high-speed Op-Amps, keep resistor values low (1kΩ – 10kΩ) to
minimize parasitic effects.

Common Applications:
Signal Amplification: Audio preamps, sensor signal processing.
Active Filters: Low-pass, high-pass, band-pass.
Voltage Scaling: Precision voltage references.
Oscillator Circuits: Involving feedback control loops.

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 OP-AMP FEEDBACK RESISTOR
Application:
Designing a gain = 10 non-inverting amplifier.

Parameters:
Vcc = 3.3V
Recommended Pull-up = 4.7kΩ
Bus capacitance = ~100pF
I2C clock speed = 100kHz

Calculation:

Result:
Use R1 = 1kΩ, R2 = 9kΩ.
This provides a voltage gain of 10× in audio preamps or signal
conditioning circuits.

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 SIGNAL LINE TERMINATION
Signal Line Termination is a technique used to prevent signal reflections
in high-speed or long PCB trace designs, especially when the trace
length is electrically significant relative to the signal’s wavelength.

Why Terminate Signal Lines?

When a signal travels along a PCB trace (transmission line), if the trace is
not properly terminated, part of the signal can reflect back towards the
source, causing:
Data errors
Signal integrity problems
Increased EMI

When Is Termination Needed?

High-speed signals (rise times < 1-2 ns)
Long trace lengths relative to signal wavelength
Interfaces like DDR, SPI, UART, Ethernet, CAN, PCIe, HDMI, USB, RF signals

Types of Signal Termination

Termination Type Configuration Use Case

Parallel Termination Resistor to ground or Vcc at DDR, SDRAM, some clock

receiver lines

Series Termination Resistor in series near driver Point-to-point, short traces

Pull-up and pull-down resistor

Thevenin Termination Bidirectional buses
combo

AC Termination Resistor + capacitor to ground RF, clock lines

End-Termination Resistor equal to trace Ethernet, PCIe, differential

(Matched) impedance signals

Example: Series Termination Calculation

Trace impedance: 50 Ω
Driver output impedance: 20 Ω
Required series resistor: 50Ω−20Ω=30Ω50Ω - 20Ω = 30Ω50Ω−20Ω=30Ω
✔️ Place the 30Ω resistor close to the driver.

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 SIGNAL LINE TERMINATION
Typical Termination Values
Signal Type Termination Resistor

Single-ended (TTL/CMOS) 33Ω – 100Ω

Differential (Ethernet, USB) 49.9Ω – 100Ω per line

High-speed clocks 33Ω – 50Ω

RF lines (50Ω traces) 50Ω matched termination

Practical Tips:
Always match the termination resistor to the trace impedance.
Place series resistors near the driver to absorb reflections.
For differential signals (e.g., Ethernet, CAN), terminate at the receiver
with resistors equal to the differential impedance (commonly 100Ω).
Use simulation tools (SI/PI analysis) for critical high-speed designs.
Check interface-specific standards (e.g., PCIe, HDMI) for required
termination details.

Application:
Matching impedance of 50Ω transmission line in RF design.

Parameters:
Characteristic impedance (Z₀) = 50Ω
Terminating resistor = 50Ω

Result:
Place a 50Ω resistor at the receiving end of the coaxial or differential line
(e.g., Ethernet, RF antenna) to prevent reflections and ensure clean signal
reception.

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 SNUBBER RESISTOR IN RELAY DRIVER
When driving inductive loads like relays, turning off the switch (transistor
or MOSFET) can generate high-voltage spikes due to the collapsing
magnetic field.
A snubber resistor (often used with a capacitor) helps to absorb or
dissipate this energy to protect the switching device.

Why Use a Snubber Resistor?

Limits voltage spikes across switching transistors.
Protecting a transistor from inductive kickback.
Reduces EMI (Electromagnetic Interference).
Protects against arcing across the switch contacts.
Improves relay life and system reliability.

Typical Snubber Circuit Configurations:

1. RC Snubber: Resistor and capacitor in series across the relay coil.
2. RCD Snubber: Adds a diode for more precise energy dissipation.
3. Freewheeling Diode (Standard Protection): A diode placed across
the relay coil to provide a path for the coil current when switching off
(most common).

👉 Note: A diode is usually sufficient, but a snubber is added for faster

switching or reduced EMI.

Snubber Resistor Calculation Example:

Relay Coil Inductance: 1 mH
Operating Current: 0.5 A
Target Time Constant (τ): 10 μs

Step 1: Select Snubber Capacitor: Choose C = 100 nF

Step 2: Calculate Snubber Resistor

✔️ Choose a 100Ω, 0.5W resistor in series with the 100nF capacitor.

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 SNUBBER RESISTOR IN RELAY DRIVER
Snubber Resistor Calculation Example:
A flyback diode (fast recovery preferred) is often enough for basic
protection.
RC snubbers are used for faster switching or reduced relay contact
bounce.
Snubbers may increase power loss, so sizing them properly is
essential.
For high-speed or sensitive circuits, simulate the switching behavior.

Comparison: Snubber vs. Diode

Protection Type Voltage Spike Suppression Switching Speed Impact Power Dissipation

Flyback Diode Very effective Slower switching Minimal

RC Snubber Effective Faster switching Moderate

Parameters:
Vcc = 12V
Relay coil inductance = 1mH
Target RC time constant = ~1ms
Choose C = 100nF → Find R
Calculation:

But for better damping

Result:
Use 100Ω + 100nF RC snubber across the relay coil or transistor collector
to suppress high-voltage spikes.

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