FUEL TECHNOLOGY

FUEL: A fuel may be defined as any combustible substance which on burning in

air gives large amount of heat that can be used economically for domestic
and industrial purpose.
Fuel + O2 Products + Heat
(High energy content) (Low energy content)

CLASSIFICATION OF FUELS: Fuels have been classified according to their

a) State of occurrence. b) State of aggregation.
a) According to state of occurrence: According to state of occurrence the
fuels can be classified into primary fuels and secondary fuels.

Primary Fuels or Natural fuels: The fuels that occur in nature as

such are known as primary fuels.
Ex: Wood, coal, peat, petroleum, natural gas etc.

Secondary fuels or Artificial fuels: The fuels that are obtained from
the primary fuels are known as secondary fuels.
Ex: Charcoal, petrol, LPG, water gas, producer gas etc.

b) According to the state of aggregation:

Primary fuels: Secondary fuels:
1. Solid fuels Ex: Wood 1. Solid fuels Ex: Charcoal
2. Liquid fuels Ex: Crude oil 2. Liquid fuels Ex: LPG, Petrol
3. Gaseous fuels Ex: Natural gas 3. Gaseous fuels Ex: Water gas

CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD FUEL:

1. It should have a high calorific value.
2. It should have moderate ignition temperature.
3. It should have low moisture content and non-combustible material.
4. The rate of combustion should be moderate and uniform.
5. It shouldn’t give any offensive odour or undesirable products on burning.
6. On burning the fuel should not give any toxic or poisonous gases like
CO2, H2S, SO2 etc.
7. The combustion of fuel should be moderate.
8. It should be economical, easily available and easy transport.
9. It shouldn’t undergo spontaneous combustion.
10. Less smoke.

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COMPARISON OF SOLID, LIQUID AND GASEOUS FUELS:
Property Solid fuels Liquid fuels Gaseous fuels
Calorific value Least High Highest
Combustion & Slow & not easy Quick & can be Rapid & can be
control to control controlled controlled
Easy through Easy through
Transportation Difficult
pipelines pipelines
Storage Easy Risk High risk
Use in I.C engines Not used Used in large extent Used to less extent
No ash &
More ash & No ash &
Ash & smoke more flue gases are
more smoke less smoke
produced
Thermal efficiency Least High Highest

Calorific Value: Calorific value is defined as the amount of heat liberated when a unit
mass of fuel is burnt completely in presence of air or oxygen.
The efficiency of a fuel is measured by calorific value.

Units of heat:
1. Calorie: “The amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 gram of
water through 1oC (from 15oC to 16oC).”

2. Kilocalorie: “The amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 kg of

water through 1oC (from 15oC to 16oC).”
1 kcal = 1000 cal

3. British Thermal Unit (B.Th.U): “The amount of heat required to raise the
temperature of 1 pound of water through 1oF (from 60oF to 61oF).”
1 B.Th.U = 252 cal = 0.252 kcal

4. Centigrade heat unit (C.H.U): “The amount of heat required to raise the
temperature of 1 pound of water through 1oC (from 15oC to 16oC).”
1 kcal = 2.2 C.H.U = 3.968 B.Th.U

The Calorific value of solid or liquid fuels is expressed as calorie/gram or

kilocalorie/kg or British thermal unit/lb.
The Calorific value of gaseous fuels is expressed as kilocalorie/m3 or
British thermal unit/ft 3.

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 Calorific value is expressed in two ways.
1) Higher calorific value (HCV) or Gross calorific value (GCV).
2) Lower calorific value (LCV) or Net calorific value (NCV).

HCV/GCV: It is the amount of heat liberated when a unit mass of fuel is

burnt completely in presence of air or oxygen and the products of
combustion are cooled to room temperature.
Here it includes the heat liberated during combustion and the latent heat
of steam. Hence its value is always higher than lower calorific value.

LCV/NCV: It is amount of heat liberated when a unit mass of fuel is burnt

completely in the presence of air or oxygen and the product of
combustion are let off completely into air.
It does not include the latent heat of steam. Therefore it is always lesser
than HCV.
LCV = HCV – Latent heat of steam.
LCV = HCV – 0.09 x % H x 587 cal/gram

DULONG’S FORMULA:
The calorific value of fuel can be approximately computed by noting the
amounts of the components of the fuel.
The higher calorific value of fuel constituents are
Carbon 8080 Kcal/Kg
Hydrogen 34500 Kcal/Kg
Sulphur 2240 Kcal/Kg
Oxygen, if present in the fuel, it is in the combined form with hydrogen as H 2O.
The hydrogen in the combined form (known as fixed hydrogen) is not available
for combustion.
So, the amount of hydrogen available for combustion
= Total mass of hydrogen in fuel – Fixed hydrogen
1
= Total mass of hydrogen in fuel – ( ) mass of hydrogen of fuel.
8
(Since 8 parts of oxygen combines with 1 part of hydrogen to form H2O).
Dulong’s formula for calculating the calorific value is given as
𝟏
Grass calorific value (HCV) = 8080C + 34500 (H- 𝟎 ) + 2240S Kcal/kg
𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝟖

Where C, H, O & S represents the % of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and sulphur.

LCV = HCV – 0.09 x % H x 587 cal/gram

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COAL:
Coal is a fossil primary fuel formed by the alteration of vegetable matter in
anaerobic condition of high temperature and pressure in pre- historic era. It contains
the elements of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen with a small amount of nitrogen,
sulphur and non-combustible inorganic materials as impurities.
Various types of coal are recognized on the basis of rank, which is defined as
the degree of coalification from the parent material.

Wood Peat Lignite Bituminous coal Anthracite

Moisture content, volatile matter, H, O, N and S decrease from wood to

anthracite.

Carbon content, calorific value and hardness increase from wood to anthracite.

ANALYSIS OF COAL:

In order to assess the quality of coal, the following two types of

analysis are made.
1. Proximate analysis
2. Ultimate analysis

1. PROXIMATE ANALYSIS:
It involves the determination of moisture content, volatile matter,
ash and fixed carbon of coal. The proximate analysis gives valuable
information regarding commercial classification of fuel i.e its practical
utility.
i. Moisture content:
A known mass of air dried coal sample is heated in an electric hot
air oven at 105-110oC for about 1 hr and cooled to room temperature in
a dessicator. The moisture is removed as water vapour and the process is
repeated till a constant weight is obtained. Its range is 0.5 to 10%.
𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑚𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡
Percentage of moisture content = x 100
𝐼𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛

Significance:

a. Excess moisture is undesirable to coal.

b. Lesser the moisture content better the quality of coal.
c. It also increases the transport cost.

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 ii. Volatile matter:
The above sample is taken and heated at 950 ± 20 oC in the
absence of air for about 7 minutes in an electric muffle furnace. It is
cooled to room temperature and weighed. The loss in weight is noted as
volatile matter.

𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟

Percentage of volatile matter = x 100
𝐼𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛
Significance:

a. A high percentage of volatile matter indicates that a large

proportion of fuel is burnt as vapour and may escape as un burnt.
b. High volatile matter content gives high smoke, long flame and low
calorific value.
c. High volatile matter needs the high volume of furnace.

iii. Ash content:

Coal free from moisture and volatile matter is heated in a crucible
at about 700 ± 50oC in the presence of air for ½ an hour. It undergoes
combustion and results in the formation of ash. The ash is cooled and
weighed.

𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐴𝑠ℎ
Percentage of ash = x 100
𝐼𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛

Significance:
a. High ash content is not desirable, as it does not contribute to the
calorific value.
b. Ash obstruct to the flow of air and heat in furnace.
c. In metallurgical operations ash adds on to the impurities.
d. Lower the ash content, better the quality of fuel.

iv. Fixed carbon:

The percentage of fixed carbon is calculated by subtracting the
sum of moisture content, volatile matter and ash content from 100.
Percentage of fixed carbon=100–(% of moisture+ % of volatile matter+% of ash

Significance:
a. Higher the percentage of fixed carbon, higher the calorific
value.

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 2. ULTIMATE ANALYSIS:
This analysis also known as elemental analysis. It includes the
analysis of percentages of C, H, N, S, O and Ash content in coal.
a. Carbon and Hydrogen:
A known weight of coal is taken in a combustion tube and burnt by
passing air which is free from moisture and carbon dioxide.
The carbon changes into CO2 and hydrogen into H2O.
C + O2 CO2
2H + ½ O2 H2O
The vapours of CO2 and H2O are then passed through KOH and CaCl2.
The CO2 is absorbed by KOH while H2O is absorbed by CaCl2.
The weight of KOH and CaCl2 tubes increases due to absorption which is
measured.
2 KOH + CO2 K2CO3 + H2O
CaCl2 + 7 H2O CaCl2 .7H2O

Weight gain in KOH tube 12

% of Carbon = x 100
Weight of coal taken 44

Weight gain in KOH tube 2

% of Hydrogen = x x 100
Weight of coal taken 18

Significance:
1. Higher the percentage of carbon and hydrogen, higher the calorific
value.
2. Higher the percentage of carbon reduces the size of combustion
chamber.

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 b. Nitrogen:
It is determined by Kjeldhar’s method, in which the nitrogen of coal is
converted to ammonia which is then estimated.
 A known weight of coal is heated with a mixture of CuSO4
(catalyst) and conc. H2SO4 in a Kjeldhar’s flask for few hours till
the solution becomes clear.
 Nitrogen present in the coal is converted into ammonium
sulphate.
 The contents are transferred into another flask which contains
excess amount of NaOH.
 Ammonia gas is liberated.
 Ammonia gas is absorbed by known volume of standard acid
solution.
 The unused acid is then determined by titrating with standard
solution of NaOH (back titration).
 From the volume of acid used for the absorption of liberated
ammonia, the percentage of nitrogen can be calculated.
Nitrogen + H2SO4 (NH4)2SO4
(NH4)2SO4 + 2NaOH 2NH3 + Na2SO4 +2H2O
2NH3 + H2SO4 (NH4)2SO4

Volume of acid consumed by ammonia

% of Nitrogen = x N of acid x 1.4
Weight of coal taken

Significance: It has no contribution to calorific value, hence its presence

in coal is undesirable.

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 c. Sulphur:
 Sulphur is determined from the washings obtained from the
known mass of coal, used in bomb calorimeter (for determination
of a calorific value).
 During this determination, S is converted in to Sulfate.
 The washings are treated with BaCl2 to give BaSO4, a precipitate.
 This precipitate is filtered, washed and heated to constant weight.
Weight of BaSO4 32
% of Sulphur = x x 100
Weight of coal taken 233

Significance:
1. Although it contributes to the calorific value of coal it is undesirable,
because it emits SO2, SO3 and H2S gases on burning, which pollute
the atmosphere.
2. Presence of S in coke used in iron metallurgy effects the quality of
steel.
d. Ash: It is determined in the same way as proximate analysis.

e. Oxygen: It is determined by the formula

% of Oxygen = 100 - % of (C + H + N + S + Ash)

Significance:
1. It lowers the calorific value as it is usually associated with moisture.
2. Lesser the oxygen content, better the quality of coal.
3. With 1% increase of oxygen in coal reduces its calorific value by
1.7%.

PETROLEUM:
The term petroleum means ‘rock oil’. It is also known as crude oil or
mineral oil. Petroleum is dark greenish brown viscous oil found deep in earth’s
crust. It is mainly composed of various hydrocarbons along with small amounts
of organic compounds. The petroleum is usually found floating upon the salt
water layers in the earth’s crust.
The calorific value of petroleum is about 40,000 kJ/kg.
The average composition of petroleum is
Carbon – 79.5 to 81% Hydrocarbons - 11.5 to 14.8%
Sulphur – 0.1 to 3.5% Nitrogen and oxygen – 0.1 to 0.5%
Ash – 0.1%

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EXTRACTION OR MINING OF PETROLEUM:
It is done by making holes in the earth’s crust and by sending pipes up
to the oil layer. Oil usually pushes out due to the hydrostatic pressure of
natural gas. Otherwise it is pumped out mechanically by airlift pump.
Airlift pump consists of
two co-axial pipes passed up to
the base of the oil bed.
Compressed air is forced through
the outer pipe where the oil
comes out through the inner
pipe. The oil is passed to refinery
through pipes.

Mining of crude oil & use of air lift

pump

REFINING OF PETROLEUM:
Petroleum is separated into various fractions by fractional distillation
and finally converted into desired products. The whole process is known as
refining of petroleum and plant used for this purpose is known as oil refinery.
The refining process includes three steps. They are
1. Separation of water by Cottrell’s process.
2. Removal of harmful Sulphur compounds.
3. Fractional distillation.
1. Separation of water by Cottrell’s process:
The crude oil from the oil well is a stable emulsion of oil and salt water.
The oil is separated from water by passing the crude oil between two highly
charged electrodes. Due to this the small water droplets form large water
droplets, which separates out from the oil.

2. Removal of harmful Sulphur compounds:

The oil is treated with copper oxide. Copper oxide reacts with Sulphur
compounds to form copper sulphide, a solid precipitate that can be filtered.

3. Fractional distillation:
The crude oil is then heated to above 400 C in an iron retort, where by
all the volatile constituents except the residue is evaporated. The hot vapours
are then passed up through the fractionating column. The fractionating column

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 is a tall cylindrical tower containing a number of horizontal stainless steel trays
at short distances. Each tray is provided with a small chimney covered with a
loose cap.
As the vapours go up they become gradually cooler and fractional
condensation takes place at different trays. The oils with higher boiling fraction
condense first and the oil with lower boiling fractions condenses step by step.

Main Fractions obtained by the Distillation of Petroleum

App. boiling
Fraction Composition Uses
point range (°C)

Uncondensed
<30 C1-C4 Domestic fuel (LPG)
gases

Petroleum ether 30-70 C5-C7 As a solvent

As fuel of IC engines, solvent

Gasoline or Petrol 40-120 C5-C9
and in dry cleaning

Naphtha or As solvent for paints and

120-180 C9-C10
solvent spirit varnishes and in dry cleaning

As an illuminant, jet engine

Kerosene oil 180-250 C13-C16
fuel and for making oil gas

Diesel engine fuel, carbureting

Diesel oil 250-320 C13-C19
of water gas

Used for getting gasoline by

Heavy oil 3 20-400 C17-C30
cracking

Residue
Used for making roads and
• Asphalt >400 C30 and above
water proofing roofs. as fuel
• Petroleum coke

Fractional Distillation

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SYNTHETIC PETROL:
Petrol is synthesized by any of the three following methods.

1. Polymerization
2. Bergius process
3. Fischer-Tropsch process
1. Polymerization:
The gases (olefins and alkanes) obtained as by-product from cracking of
heavy oil on polymerization gives higher hydrocarbons, resembling gasoline
called polymer gasoline.

i. Thermal polymerization: Gases are polymerized at 500-600oC and

70-350 kg/cm2 pressure.
ii. Catalytic polymerization: It is carried out by using catalyst like
phosphoric acid and at low temperature of 150-200oC

2. BERGIUS PROCESS:
This method is proposed by Bergius in Germany

In this process, low ash coal is powdered well and made into paste with
heavy oil. This paste is mixed with catalyst ( tin or nickel oleate) and heated
with hydrogen under a pressure of 200-250 atm. and 450°C for about 1.5 hour.
The gases obtained are condensed and subjected to fractional distillation to get
uncondensed gases, petrol, middle oil and heavy oil. Heavy oil is recycled to
prepare paste and the middle oil is cracked to get more petrol.

The yield of the gasoline is about 60% of the coal used.

Bergius process

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 3. FISCHER -TROPSCH PROCESS:
The process was invented by Franz Fischer and Hans Tropsch.

In this process, first coal is converted into coke. Then, coke is heated and steam
is passed over it to produce water gas.

Water gas is first purified by passing through Fe2O3 (to remove H2S) and then
into a mixture of Fe2O3 and Na2CO3 (to remove organic sulphur compounds).

Fischer –Tropsch process

The purified gas is compressed to 5-25 atm. and then passed through a
converter maintained at about 200-300°C. The converter is packed with a
catalyst consisting of a mixture of Cobalt (100 parts), Thorium (5 parts),
Magnesia (8 parts) and Kieselguhr earth (200 parts). A mixture of saturated and
unsaturated hydrocarbons are formed.

The out coming hot gases from the exothermic reaction are passed to a cooler,
where liquid resembling crude oil is obtained.

The crude oil thus obtained is passed to fractionating column to get gasoline
and heavy oil. The heavy oil fraction is subjected to cracking to get more
gasoline.

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Fuels for internal combustion engines: In an IC engine, a mixture of fuel and air is
ignited in acylinder either by means of an electric spark (petrol engine) or by
compressing the air (diesel engine). The gases evolved under high pressure force the
piston down, thus proving the stroke.

PETROL KNOCKING:

During combustion of petrol in internal combustion engines the following

changes occur.
 The vapour is mixed with air (Suction Stroke).
 The petrol air mixture is compressed (Compression Stroke).
 The mixture is ignited by the spark plug (Power stroke).
 The gases produced by the combustion reaction expand (Exhaust stroke).
The ratio of the gaseous volume in the cylinder at the end of the suction
stroke to the volume at the end of the compression stroke of the piston is
known as compression ratio.
The efficiency of IC engine increases with the increase in compression ratio,
which is dependent on the nature of the constituents present in the gasoline
used. In certain circumstances, due to some active hydrocarbons in fuel, the
rate of oxidation becomes so great that the last portion of the oil and air
mixture ignites instantaneously, producing a sound called “knock” in
engine.
The pre ignition of fuel in the cylinder ahead of the spark plug is called petrol
knocking.
The quality (anti knocking property) of fuel is explained by octane number.
DIESEL KNOCKING:
Diesel engines are compression engines. In diesel engines there is no spark
plug. The fuel is made up of straight chain hydrocarbons with a boiling
point around 100-360oC. In the suction stroke only air is drawn into the
cylinder. In the compression stroke air is highly compressed till its
temperature reaches to 500oC. Now the fuel is injected as a spray into the
engine. The diesel vapourises, attains self ignition temperature and burns. If
vapourisation and combustion are instantaneous fuel burns smoothly and
efficiently.
But usually there is a time lag between vapourisation and
combustion processes, called diesel lag (ignition delay). This causes
accumulation of diesel in the vapour state and the whole mixture of diesel
vapour and air gets ignited with explosion. This is called diesel knocking.
The ignition property of diesel is explained be cetane number.

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 Adverse effects of knocking:
1. It produces an undesirable rattling sound.
2. It results in decrease in efficiency.
3. It increases fuel consumption.
4. It causes mechanical damage to the engine parts and spark plug.

Prevention of knocking:
 A suitable change in engine may be made to have optimum combustion
ratio.
 High octane number fuels for petrol engines and high cetane number
fuels for diesel engines are preferred.
 Anti knocking agents may be added.

ANTIKNOCKING AGENTS:
These are the substances which are added in minor quantities to gasoline
(petrol) in order to reduce knocking in I.C. Engines.
Ex: TEL - Tetra Ethyl led.
TML - Tetra Methyl led.
MTBE - Methyl Tertiary Butyl Ether.
Functioning of TEL:
TEL is converted into a cloud of finely divided lead oxide particles in the
cylinder and these particles react with any hydrocarbon peroxide molecules
formed, thereby slowing down the chain oxidation reaction and thus decreasing
the chances of any early detonation.
However the deposit of lead oxide is harmful to the engine life. To remove
lead oxide a small amount of ethylene dibromide is added to the petrol.
Ethylene dibromide removes lead oxide as lead bromide along with exhaust
gases.
The presence of sulphur compounds in the petrol reduces the
effectiveness of TEL.

Leaded Petrol: The petrol containing TEL or TML as anti knocking agents is called
leaded petrol
Unleaded Petrol: The petrol, which contains anti knocking agent other than lead, is
known as unleaded petrol.
Ex: MTBE is used, as an antiknocking agent in place of TEL or TML

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Chemical structure and knocking:

 The straight chain (normal) hydrocarbons knock severely in petrol

engines, so they have lowest octane number.
 The knocking tendency of n-alkanes increases with increase of the length
of the carbon chain. i.e. the anti knocking properties (octane number)
decreases with increase of the length of the carbon chain.
Paraffin n-butane n-pentane n-hexane n-heptane
Octane number 90 60 30 0

 Branched chain paraffins have lower tendency to knock, so they have

high anti knock properties (octane number) than normal chain paraffins.
Further, the resistance to knock increases with the number of branches
and their position.
Hydrocarbon n-heptane 2-methyl hexane 2,2-dimethyl pentane
Octane number 0 55 80

 Knocking tendency decreases with increase in the number of carbon-

carbon double bonds in the hydrocarbon fuel. Thus, olefins have higher
anti knocking properties (octane number) than the corresponding
paraffins. Further the anti knocking tendency increases as the position
of the double bond approaches the center of chain.
 The knocking tendency decreases with increase in the compactness of
the molecule. So the octane number of cycloparaffins (Napthalenes) is
higher than n-alkanes, branched alkanes and alkenes.
 Aromatic hydrocarbons such as benzene and toluene have less knocking
tendency than napthalenes, so their octane numbers are highest.

To sum up,

Straight chain paraffins  Knocking tendency decreases as

we move down.
Branched- chain paraffins
 Anti knocking property of fuel
Olefines increases as we move

Cycloparaffins downwards.
 Octane number of fuel increases
(Napthalenes) aromatics.
as we move downwards.

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OCTANE NUMBER:

 This was proposed by Graham Edger in 1926.

 The anti knock value of fuel is expressed in terms of octane number.
 n - heptane knocks very badly, so its anti knock value is taken as zero.
 Iso – octane gives very little knocking, so its anti knock value is taken as
100.
 The octane number of a given liquid is the percentage by volume of iso octane
in a mixture of iso octane and n-heptane that gives the same knocking
properties as the fuel under test.
 The octane number of petrol is 74.

CETANE NUMBER:

 The suitability of a diesel fuel is explained by its cetane number.

 α – methyl naphthalene, which ignites slowly is given a rating of zero.
 Cetane (C16 H34), which ignites rapidly is given a rating of 100.
 The cetane number of a given liquid is the percentage by volume of cetane in a
mixture of cetane and α – methyl naphthalene that gives the same ignition
properties as the fuel under test.
 Diesel engines require a fuel of cetane number greater than 45.
 The cetane number of a diesel fuel can be raised by the addition of small
quantity of certain pre ignition dopes like ethyl nitrite, isoamyl nitrite,
acetone peroxide etc.

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GASEOUS FUELS:
NATURAL GAS:
 It is obtained by the alteration of vegetable and organic matter in the pre
historic era.
 It is a fossil fuel.
 Its composition is CH4 – 70-90%, C2H6 – 5-10% and H2 – 3%.
 The calorific value varies from 12,000 to 14,000 k.cal/m3.
 If lower hydrocarbons like methane, ethane is present, the natural gas is
known as dry gas or lean gas.
 If higher hydrocarbons are present along with natural gas, it is known as
wet gas or rich gas.
 Harmful H2S gas if present in natural gas, it is removes by scrubbing
with 2-amino ethanol.
Uses:
a. It is a very good domestic fuel.
b. It is used as a raw material for the manufacture of carbon black and
hydrogen (for ammonia and other chemicals).
c. Synthetic proteins are obtained by the microbiological fermentation of
methane.

LPG (Liquified Petroleum Gas):

 It is obtained as a by-product during the cracking of heavy oil or from
natural gas.
 LPG is dehydrated, desulphurised and traces of odorus organic sulphides
(mercaptanes) are added to give warning of gas leakage.
 LPG consists of hydrocarbons of volatility that they can exist as gas
under atmospheric conditions, but can be liquefied under pressure.
 The main constituents of LPG are n-butane, isobutene, butylenes and
propane with little propylene or ethane.
 Its calorific value is about 27,800 k.cal/m3.

Uses: a. It is used as domestic or industrial fuel.

b. LPG is mainly used as motor fuel.

CNG (Compressed Natural Gas):

 Natural gas is compressed to 1000 atmospheric pressure to obtain CNG.
 It mainly consists of methane, ethane, propane, nitrogen and CO.
 Its calorific value is 900 k.cal/m3.

Uses:
a. Mainly used as motor fuel, emits less pollution.
b. It does not contain any leas or benzene molecules which can damage the
spark plug.
c. Vehicle maintenance cost is low compared to other conventional motor
fuels.
d. It does not release carbon and sulphur particles.

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BIOFUELS:
The fuels which are derived from biomass are known as biofuels.
Biomass includes wood, sea wastes, cattle dung, agricultural wastes and
crop residues such as rice husk. The biomass consists of carbon
compounds which can be used as a source of energy. Biomass can be
used to produce renewable electricity, thermal energy or transportation
fuels (biofuels).
Ex: Biogas, bio ethanol, biodiesel.

BIOGAS:
It is produced by anaerobic digestion of biological matter.
The cheapest biogas is gobar gas which is produced by the anaerobic
fermentation of cattle dung.
The gobar gas plant consists of
a. A digester constructed of masonry (concrete) work, dug and built
usually below ground level.
b. A gas holder made up of steel is placed on top of the digester.
c. Two small tanks constructed on either sides of the digester, one
for the preparation of slurry and other for collection of digested
slurry.
d. Pipe lines.

A mixture of animal dung and water in equal proportions is fed

into the digester through inlet pipe. Anaerobic bacteria present in the
dung, digest this slurry forming mainly methane and CO2. The optimum
temperature for this fermentation is 34-48oC. The gas generated is
collected in a steel gas holder.

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 The average composition of gobar gas is
CH4 – 55% H2 – 7.4% CO2 – 35%,
N2- 2.6% H2S- Traces
The grass calorific value is 5,300 K.Cal/m3
Advantages:
1. It is very economical
2. It has all the advantages of gaseous fuels.
3. It does not contain the poisonous gas, carbon monoxide as ingredient.
4. It can provide flame temperature up to 540oC, with proper burners.
5. The digested slurry can be used as manure.
Limitation: It is necessary to have the gas stove/lamp within 10 meters of the plant.
Applications: It is used as domestic fuel in many villages.
It is also used for lighting and power purposes.

BIO DIESEL:
Biodiesel is a diesel like liquid obtained from materials of biological origin
like liquids accumulated in plants and algae or from hydrocarbons
produced by some plants and algae.
Production: It consists of following steps.

1. Production of rapeseed oil by crushing rapeseed.

2. Heating of rapeseed oil with methanol at 50oC in the presence of
sodium hydroxide results in the formation of glycerol and methyl
ester (biodiesel).

3. The glycerol is allowed to settle and methyl ester is purified and used
as biodiesel.
i.e biodiesel is produced from vegetable oil by transesterification reaction.

Advantages of rapeseed oil as a biodiesel:

a. It is non toxic and 98% biodegradable.
b. The raw material is renewable and energy yield is high
c. Its contribution to green house effect is less than that of diesel.

Fuel Technology Page 19