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Last Minute Notes – Operating Systems

Last Updated : 23 Jan, 2025

An Operating System (OS) is a system software that manages computer

hardware, software resources, and provides common services for
computer programs. It acts as an interface between the user and the
computer hardware.

Table of Content
Types of Operating System (OS):
Threads
Process
CPU Scheduling Algorithms
Critical Section Problem
Deadlock
Memory Management
Page Replacement Algorithms
Virtual Memory
File Systems
Disk Scheduling

Types of Operating System (OS):

1. Batch OS – A set of similar jobs are stored in the main memory for
execution. A job gets assigned to the CPU, only when the execution
of the previous job completes.
2. Multiprogramming OS – The main memory consists of jobs waiting
for CPU time. The OS selects one of the processes and assigns it to
the CPU. Whenever the executing process needs to wait for any
other operation (like I/O), the OS selects another process from the job
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queue and assigns it to the CPU. This way, the CPU is never kept idle
and the user gets the flavor of getting multiple tasks done at once.
Multi-Tasking/Time-sharing Operating systems: It is a type of
Multiprogramming system with every process running in round
robin manner. Each task is given some time to execute so that all
the tasks work smoothly. Each user gets the time of the CPU as
they use a single system. These systems are also known as
Multitasking Systems. The task can be from a single user or
different users also. The time that each task gets to execute is
called quantum. After this time interval is over OS switches over
to the next task.
3. Multi-Processing Operating System: Multi-Processing Operating
System is a type of Operating System in which more than one CPU is
used for the execution of resources. It betters the throughput of the
System.
4. Multi User Operating Systems: These systems allow multiple users
to be active at the same time. These system can be either
multiprocessor or single processor with interleaving.
5. Distributed Operating System: These types of operating system is a
recent advancement in the world of computer technology and are
being widely accepted all over the world and, that too, at a great
pace. Various autonomous interconnected computers communicate
with each other using a shared communication network. Independent
systems possess their own memory unit and CPU.
6. Network Operating System: These systems run on a server and
provide the capability to manage data, users, groups, security,
applications, and other networking functions. These types of
operating systems allow shared access to files, printers, security,
applications, and other networking functions over a small private
network.
7. Real Time OS – Real-Time OS are usually built for dedicated
systems to accomplish a specific set of tasks within deadlines.

Threads

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A thread is a lightweight process and forms the basic unit of CPU

utilization. A process can perform more than one task at the same time
by including multiple threads.

A thread has its own program counter, register set, and stack
A thread shares resources with other threads of the same process
the code section, the data section, files and signals.

A new thread, or a child process of a given process, can be introduced

by using the fork() system call.

A process with n fork() system calls generates 2n – 1 child

processes.

There are two types of threads:

User threads
Kernel threads

Example: Java thread, POSIX threads. Example : Window Solaris.

Types of Threads

1. Based on the number of threads

There are two types of threads:

(i) Single thread process

(ii) Multi thread process

2. Based on level

There are two types of threads:

(i) User-level threads

(ii) Kernel-level threads

read more about – Threads

Process
A process is a program under execution. The value of program counter
(PC) indicates the address of the next instruction of the process being
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executed. Each process is represented by a Process Control Block (PCB).

Process States Diagram:

Schedulers

The operating system deploys three kinds of schedulers:

Long-term scheduler: It is responsible for the creation and bringing

of new processes into the main memory (New → Ready state
transition).
Medium-term scheduler: The medium-term scheduler acts as the
swapper by doing swap-out (suspending the process from the main
to secondary memory) and swap-in (resuming the process by
bringing it from the secondary to main memory) operations.
Short-term scheduler: The short-term scheduler selects a process
from the ready state to be executed (Ready → Run state transition).

Dispatchers

The dispatcher is responsible for loading the job (selected by the short-
term scheduler) onto the CPU. It performs context switching. Context
switching refers to saving the context of the process which was being
executed by the CPU and loading the context of the new process that is
being scheduled to be executed by the CPU.

CPU Scheduling Algorithms

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Why do we need scheduling? A typical process involves both I/O time

and CPU time. In a uniprogramming system like MS-DOS, time spent
waiting for I/O is wasted and CPU is free during this time. In
multiprogramming systems, one process can use CPU while another is
waiting for I/O. This is possible only with process scheduling.

Process Scheduling: Below are different times with respect to a

process.

Arrival Time – Time at which the process arrives in the ready queue.
Completion Time – Time at which process completes its execution.
Burst Time – Time required by a process for CPU execution.
Turn Around Time – Time Difference between completion time and
arrival time.

Turn Around Time = Completion Time – Arrival Time

Waiting Time (WT) – Time Difference between turn around time

and burst time.

Waiting Time = Turn Around Time – Burst Time

Objectives of Process Scheduling Algorithm:

Max CPU utilization (Keep CPU as busy as possible)

Fair allocation of CPU.
Max throughput (Number of processes that complete their execution
per time unit)
Min turnaround time (Time taken by a process to finish execution)
Min waiting time (Time for which a process waits in ready queue)
Min response time (Time when a process produces first response)

Different CPU Scheduling Algorithms:

1. First Come First Serve (FCFS): First Come, First Serve (FCFS) is one
of the simplest types of CPU scheduling algorithms. It is exactly what it

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sounds like: processes are attended to in the order in which they arrive
in the ready queue, much like customers lining up at a grocery store.

It is a non pre-emptive algorithm.

Processes are assigned to the CPU based on their arrival times. If
two or more processes have the same arrival times, then the
processes are assigned based on their process ids.
It is free from starvation

2. Shortest Job First (SJF): Shortest Job First (SJF) or Shortest Job Next
(SJN) is a scheduling process that selects the waiting process with the
smallest execution time to execute next.

It is a non-pre-emptive algorithm.
If all the processes have the same burst times, SJF behaves as FCFS.
In SJF, the burst times of all the processes should be known prior
execution.
It minimizes the average response time of the processes.
There is a chance of starvation.

3. Shortest Remaining Time First (SRTF): It is preemptive mode of SJF

algorithm in which jobs are scheduled according to the shortest
remaining time.

It is a pre-emptive algorithm.
Processes are assigned to the CPU based on their shortest remaining
burst times.
If all the processes have the same arrival times, SRTF behaves as SJF.
It minimizes the average turnaround time of the processes.
If shorter processes keep on arriving, then the longer processes may
starve.

4. Round Robin (RR) Scheduling: It is a method used by operating

systems to manage the execution time of multiple processes that are
competing for CPU attention.

RR scheduling is a pre-emptive FCFS based on the concept of time

quantum or time slice.

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If the time quantum is too small, then the number of context

switches (overhead) will increase and the average response time will
decrease.
If the time quantum is too large, then the number of context switches
(overhead) will decrease and the average response time will
increase.
If the time quantum is greater than the burst times of all the
processes, RR scheduling behaves as FCFS.

5. Priority Based scheduling: In this scheduling, processes are

scheduled according to their priorities, i.e., highest priority process is
schedule first. If priorities of two processes match, then scheduling is
according to the arrival time.

Priority scheduling can either be pre-emptive or non-pre-emptive.

In pre-emptive priority scheduling, a process is voluntarily pre-
empted whenever a higher priority process arrives.
In non-pre-emptive priority scheduling, the scheduler picks up the
highest priority process.
If all the processes have equal priority, then priority scheduling
behaves as FCFS.

6. Highest Response Ratio Next (HRRN): In this scheduling, processes

with highest response ratio is scheduled. This algorithm avoids
starvation.

It is a non pre-emptive algorithm.

Processes are assigned to the CPU based on their highest response
ratio.
Response ratio is calculated as:

Response Ratio = WT
BT
+BT
​

It is free from starvation.

It favors the shorter jobs and limits the waiting time of the longer
jobs.

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Some useful facts about Scheduling Algorithms:

1. FCFS can cause long waiting times, especially when the first job
takes too much CPU time.
2. Both SJF and Shortest Remaining time first algorithms may cause
starvation. Consider a situation when a long process is there in the
ready queue and shorter processes keep coming.
3. If time quantum for Round Robin scheduling is very large, then it
behaves same as FCFS scheduling.
4. SJF is optimal in terms of average waiting time for a given set of
processes. SJF gives minimum average waiting time, but problems
with SJF is how to know/predict the time of next job.

read more about – CPU Scheduling Algorithms

Critical Section Problem

1. Critical Section – The portion of the code in the program where
shared variables are accessed and/or updated.
2. Remainder Section – The remaining portion of the program
excluding the Critical Section.
3. Race around Condition – The final output of the code depends on
the order in which the variables are accessed. This is termed as the
race around condition.

A solution for the critical section problem must satisfy the following
three conditions:

1. Mutual Exclusion – If a process Pi is executing in its critical section,

then no other process is allowed to enter into the critical section.
2. Progress – If no process is executing in the critical section, then the
decision of a process to enter a critical section cannot be made by
any other process that is executing in its remainder section. The
selection of the process cannot be postponed indefinitely.
3. Bounded Waiting – There exists a bound on the number of times
other processes can enter into the critical section after a process has
made request to access the critical section and before the requested
is granted.

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Synchronization Tools: A Semaphore is an integer variable that is

accessed only through two atomic operations, wait () and signal (). An
atomic operation is executed in a single CPU time slice without any pre-
emption. Semaphores are of two types:

1. Counting Semaphore – A counting semaphore is an integer variable

whose value can range over an unrestricted domain.
2. Mutex – A mutex provides mutual exclusion, either producer or
consumer can have the key (mutex) and proceed with their work. As
long as the buffer is filled by producer, the consumer needs to wait,
and vice versa. At any point of time, only one thread can work with
the entire buffer. The concept can be generalized using semaphore.
Misconception: There is an ambiguity between binary semaphore
and mutex. We might have come across that a mutex is binary
semaphore. But they are not! The purpose of mutex and semaphore
are different. May be, due to similarity in their implementation a
mutex would be referred as binary semaphore.

read more about – Critical Section Problem

Deadlock
A situation where a set of processes are blocked because each process
is holding a resource and waiting for another resource acquired by some
other process. Deadlock can arise if following four conditions hold
simultaneously (Necessary Conditions):

Mutual Exclusion – One or more than one resource are non-sharable

(Only one process can use at a time).
Hold and Wait – A process is holding at least one resource and
waiting for resources.
No Preemption – A resource cannot be taken from a process unless
the process releases the resource.
Circular Wait – A set of processes are waiting for each other in
circular form.

Deadlock handling

There are three ways to handle deadlock

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1. Deadlock prevention

To ensure the system never enters a deadlock state, at least one of the
conditions for deadlock must be prevented:

Mutual Exclusion: This condition cannot be removed because some

resources (non-shareable resources) must be exclusively allocated to
one process at a time.
Hold and Wait: This condition can be avoided using the following
strategies:
Allocate all required resources to a process before it starts
execution. However, this approach might lead to low
resource utilization.
Force a process to release all its held resources before
requesting new ones. However, this might cause starvation
(a process waiting indefinitely).
Pre-emption:
If a process P1P1P1 requests a resource RRR that is held by
another process P2P2P2:
If P2P2P2 is still running, P1P1P1 will have to
wait.
Otherwise, the resource RRR can be taken (pre-
empted) from P2P2P2 and allocated to P1P1P1.
Circular Wait: This condition can be avoided using the following
method:
Assign a unique number to each resource (assuming there is
only one instance of each resource).
Ensure processes request resources in a strict order, either
increasing or decreasing based on the assigned numbers.

2. Deadlock Avoidance

The Deadlock Avoidance Algorithm prevents deadlocks by monitoring

resource usage and resolving conflicts before they occur, like rolling
back processes or reallocating resources. It minimizes deadlocks but
doesn’t fully guarantee their prevention. The two key techniques are:

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1. Process Initiation Denial: Blocks processes that might cause

deadlock.
2. Resource Allocation Denial: Rejects resource requests that could
lead to deadlock.

Banker’s Algorithm

The Banker’s Algorithm is a resource allocation and deadlock avoidance

algorithm used in operating systems. It ensures that the system remains
in a safe state by simulating the allocation of resources to processes
without running into a deadlock.

The following Data structures are used to implement the Banker’s

Algorithm:

1. Available: It is a 1-D array of size ‘m’ indicating the number of

available resources of each type. Available[ j ] = k means there
are ‘k’ instances of resource type R j.

2. Max: It is a 2-d array of size ‘ n*m’ that defines the maximum

demand of each process in a system. Max[ i, j ] = k means
process Pi may request at most ‘k’ instances of resource type Rj.

3.Allocated: It is a 2-d array of size ‘n*m’ that defines the number

of resources of each type currently allocated to each process.
Allocation[ i, j ] = k means process Pi is currently
allocated ‘k’ instances of resource type Rj.

4. Need: It is a 2-d array of size ‘n*m’ that indicates the remaining

resource need of each process. Need [ i, j ] = k means
process Pi currently needs ‘k’ instances of resource type Rj Need [
i, j ] = Max [ i, j ] – Allocation [ i, j ].

3. Deadlock Detection and Recovery

Detection: A cycle in the resource allocation graph represents deadlock

only when resources are of single-instance type. If the resources are of
multiple instance type, then the safety algorithm is used to detect
deadlock.

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Recovery: A system can recover from deadlock through adoption of the

following mechanisms:

Process termination
Resource Pre-emption

4. Deadlock Ignorance

In the Deadlock ignorance method the OS acts like the deadlock never
occurs and completely ignores it even if the deadlock occurs. This
method only applies if the deadlock occurs very rarely. The algorithm is
very simple. It says, ” if the deadlock occurs, simply reboot the system
and act like the deadlock never occurred.” That’s why the algorithm is
called the Ostrich Algorithm.

read more about – Deadlock

Memory Management
In multiprogramming system, the task of subdividing the memory
among the various processes is called memory management. The task
of the memory management unit is the efficient utilization of memory
and minimize the internal and external fragmentation.

Why Memory Management is Required?

Allocate and de-allocate memory before and after process execution.

To keep track of used memory space by processes.
To minimize fragmentation issues.
To proper utilization of main memory.
To maintain data integrity while executing of process.

Logical and Physical Address Space

Logical Address Space: An address generated by the CPU is known

as a “Logical Address”. It is also known as a Virtual address. Logical
address space can be defined as the size of the process. A logical
address can be changed.

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Physical Address Space: An address seen by the memory unit (i.e.

the one loaded into the memory address register of the memory) is
commonly known as a “Physical Address”. A Physical address is also
known as a Real address.

Static and Dynamic Loading

Loading a process into the main memory is done by a loader. There are
two different types of loading :

Static Loading: Static Loading is basically loading the entire program

into a fixed address. It requires more memory space.

Dynamic Loading: The entire program and all data of a process must
be in physical memory for the process to execute. So, the size of a
process is limited to the size of physical memory. To gain proper
memory utilization, dynamic loading is used. In dynamic loading, a
routine is not loaded until it is called.

Memory Management Techniques

(a) Single Partition Allocation Schemes – The memory is divided into

two parts. One part is kept to be used by the OS and the other is kept to
be used by the users.
(b) Multiple Partition Schemes –

1. Fixed Partition – The memory is divided into fixed size partitions.

2. Variable Partition – The memory is divided into variable sized
partitions.

Variable partition allocation schemes:

1. First Fit – The arriving process is allotted the first hole of memory in
which it fits completely.
2. Best Fit – The arriving process is allotted the hole of memory in
which it fits the best by leaving the minimum memory empty.
3. Worst Fit – The arriving process is allotted the hole of memory in
which it leaves the maximum gap.

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Note:

Best fit does not necessarily give the best results for memory
allocation.
The cause of external fragmentation is the condition in Fixed
partitioning and Variable partitioning saying that entire process
should be allocated in a contiguous memory location. Therefore
Paging is used.

Paging

The physical memory is divided into equal sized frames. The main
memory is divided into fixed size pages. The size of a physical memory
frame is equal to the size of a virtual memory frame.

Segmentation

Segmentation is implemented to give users view of memory. The logical

address space is a collection of segments. Segmentation can be
implemented with or without the use of paging.

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read more about – Memory Management Techniques

Page Fault: A page fault is a type of interrupt, raised by the hardware

when a running program accesses a memory page that is mapped into
the virtual address space, but not loaded in main/virtual memory.

Page Replacement Algorithms

1. First In First Out (FIFO)

This is the simplest page replacement algorithm. In this algorithm,

operating system keeps track of all pages in the memory in a queue,
oldest page is in the front of the queue. When a page needs to be
replaced page in the front of the queue is selected for removal.

For example, consider page reference string 1, 3, 0, 3, 5, 6 and 3 page

slots.

Initially, all slots are empty, so when 1, 3, 0 came they are

allocated to the empty slots —> 3 Page Faults.
When 3 comes, it is already in memory so —> 0 Page Faults.
Then 5 comes, it is not available in memory so it replaces the
oldest page slot i.e 1. —> 1 Page Fault.
Finally, 6 comes, it is also not available in memory so it
replaces the oldest page slot i.e 3 —> 6 Page Fault.

Belady’s anomaly: Belady’s anomaly proves that it is possible to have

more page faults when increasing the number of page frames while
using the First in First Out (FIFO) page replacement algorithm.
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For example, if we consider reference string 3 2 1 0 3

2 4 3 2 1 0 4 and 3 slots, we get 9 total page
faults, but if we increase slots to 4, we get 10 page faults.

2. Optimal Page replacement

In this algorithm, pages are replaced which are not used for the longest
duration of time in the future.

Let us consider page reference string 7 0 1 2 0 3 0 4 2 3 0 3 2 and 4

page slots.

Initially, all slots are empty, so when 7 0 1 2 are allocated to the

empty slots —> 4 Page faults.
0 is already there so —> 0 Page fault.
When 3 came it will take the place of 7 because it is not used for
the longest duration of time in the future.—> 1 Page fault.
0 is already there so —> 0 Page fault.
4 will takes place of 1 —> 1 Page Fault.
Now for the further page reference string —> 0 Page fault
because they are already available in the memory.

Optimal page replacement is perfect, but not possible in practice as an

operating system cannot know future requests. The use of Optimal
Page replacement is to set up a benchmark so that other replacement
algorithms can be analyzed against it.

3. Least Recently Used (LRU)

In this algorithm, the page will be replaced which is least recently used.

Let say the page reference string 7 0 1 2 0 3 0 4 2 3 0 3 2 .

Initially, we have 4-page slots empty. Initially, all slots are empty,
so when 7 0 1 2 are allocated to the empty slots —> 4 Page
faults.
0 is already their so —> 0 Page fault.
When 3 came it will take the place of 7 because it is least recently
used —> 1 Page fault.
0 is already in memory so —> 0 Page fault. 4 will takes place of 1
—> 1 Page Fault.
Now for the further page reference string —> 0 Page fault
because they are already available in the memory.
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4. Most Recently Used (MRU)

In this algorithm, page will be replaced which has been used recently.
Belady’s anomaly can occur in this algorithm.

Example: Consider the page reference string 7, 0, 1, 2, 0, 3, 0, 4, 2, 3, 0,

3, 2, 3 with 4-page frames. Find number of page faults using MRU Page
Replacement Algorithm.

Initially, all slots are empty, so when 7 0 1 2 are allocated to

the empty slots —> 4 Page faults
0 is already their so–> 0 page fault
when 3 comes it will take place of 0 because it is most recently
used —> 1 Page fault
when 0 comes it will take place of 3 —> 1 Page fault
when 4 comes it will take place of 0 —> 1 Page fault
2 is already in memory so —> 0 Page fault
when 3 comes it will take place of 2 —> 1 Page fault
when 0 comes it will take place of 3 —> 1 Page fault
when 3 comes it will take place of 0 —> 1 Page fault
when 2 comes it will take place of 3 —> 1 Page fault
when 3 comes it will take place of 2 —> 1 Page fault

read more about – Page Replacement Algorithms

Virtual Memory
Virtual memory is a memory management technique used by operating
systems to give the appearance of a large, continuous block of memory
to applications, even if the physical memory (RAM) is limited. It allows
larger applications to run on systems with less RAM.

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Demand Paging

Demand paging is a memory management technique used in operating

systems where a page (a fixed-size block of memory) is only loaded into
the computer’s RAM when it is needed, or “demanded” by a process.

How Demand Paging Works:

1. When a Program Starts: Initially, only a part of the program (some

pages) is loaded into RAM. The rest of the program is stored on the
hard drive (secondary memory).
2. When a Page is Needed: If the program needs a page that is not
currently in RAM, a page fault occurs. This means the operating
system must fetch the required page from the hard drive and load it
into RAM.
3. Efficient Memory Use: With demand paging, only the parts of the
program that are actively used are in memory, which makes better
use of RAM. This allows the system to run large programs without
needing all of their data loaded into memory at once.

read more about – Demand Paging

Thrashing

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Thrashing is a situation in which the operating system spends more

time swapping data between RAM (main memory) and the hard drive
(secondary memory) than actually executing processes. This happens
when there isn’t enough physical memory (RAM) to handle the current
workload, causing the system to constantly swap pages in and out of
memory.

Techniques to handle Thrashing

read more about – Virtual Memory

File Systems
A file system is a method an operating system uses to store, organize,
and manage files and directories on a storage device.

File Directories

The collection of files is a file directory. The directory contains

information about the files, including attributes, location, and
ownership. Much of this information, especially that is concerned with
storage, is managed by the operating system.

Below are information contained in a device directory.

Name
Type
Address
Current length
Maximum length
Date last accessed
Date last updated
Owner id
Protection information

The operation performed on the directory are:

Search for a file

Create a file
Delete a file
List a directory
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Rename a file
Traverse the file system

File Allocation Methods

There are several types of file allocation methods. These are mentioned
below.

Continuous Allocation: A single continuous set of blocks is allocated to

a file at the time of file creation. Thus, this is a pre-allocation strategy,
using variable size portions. The file allocation table needs just a single
entry for each file, showing the starting block and the length of the file.

Linked Allocation(Non-contiguous allocation): Allocation is on an

individual block basis. Each block contains a pointer to the next block in
the chain. Again the file table needs just a single entry for each file,
showing the starting block and the length of the file. Although pre-
allocation is possible, it is more common simply to allocate blocks as
needed. Any free block can be added to the chain.

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Indexed Allocation: Allocation is on an individual block basis. Each

block contains a pointer to the next block in the chain. Again the file
table needs just a single entry for each file, showing the starting block
and the length of the file. Although pre-allocation is possible, it is more
common simply to allocate blocks as needed. Any free block can be
added to the chain.

read more about – File Systems

Disk Scheduling
Disk scheduling algorithms are crucial in managing how data is read
from and written to a computer’s hard disk. These algorithms help
determine the order in which disk read and write requests are
processed, significantly impacting the speed and efficiency of data
access. Common disk scheduling methods include First-Come, First-
Served (FCFS), Shortest Seek Time First (SSTF), SCAN, C-SCAN, LOOK,

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and C-LOOK. By understanding and implementing these algorithms, we

can optimize system performance and ensure faster data retrieval.

Disk scheduling Algorithms

Different Disk scheduling Algorithms are:

FCFS (First Come First Serve): FCFS is the simplest of all Disk
Scheduling Algorithms. In FCFS, the requests are addressed in the
order they arrive in the disk queue.

SSTF (Shortest Seek Time First): In SSTF (Shortest Seek Time

First), requests having the shortest seek time are executed first. So,
the seek time of every request is calculated in advance in the queue
and then they are scheduled according to their calculated seek time.
As a result, the request near the disk arm will get executed first.
SSTF is certainly an improvement over FCFS as it decreases the
average response time and increases the throughput of the system.

SCAN: In the SCAN algorithm the disk arm moves in a particular

direction and services the requests coming in its path and after
reaching the end of the disk, it reverses its direction and again
services the request arriving in its path. So, this algorithm works as
an elevator and is hence also known as an elevator algorithm. As a
result, the requests at the midrange are serviced more and those
arriving behind the disk arm will have to wait.

C-SCAN: In the SCAN algorithm, the disk arm again scans the path
that has been scanned, after reversing its direction. So, it may be
possible that too many requests are waiting at the other end or there
may be zero or few requests pending at the scanned area.

LOOK: LOOK Algorithm is similar to the SCAN disk scheduling

algorithm except for the difference that the disk arm in spite of going
to the end of the disk goes only to the last request to be serviced in
front of the head and then reverses its direction from there only. Thus

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it prevents the extra delay which occurred due to unnecessary

traversal to the end of the disk.

C-LOOK: As LOOK is similar to the SCAN algorithm, in a similar

way, C-LOOK is similar to the CSCAN disk scheduling algorithm. In
CLOOK, the disk arm in spite of going to the end goes only to the last
request to be serviced in front of the head and then from there goes
to the other end’s last request. Thus, it also prevents the extra delay
which occurred due to unnecessary traversal to the end of the disk.

LIFO (Last-In First-Out): In LIFO (Last In, First Out) algorithm, the
newest jobs are serviced before the existing ones i.e. in order of
requests that get serviced the job that is newest or last entered is
serviced first, and then the rest in the same order.

Comparison Among the Disk Scheduling Algorithms

read more about – Disk scheduling algorithms

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