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Table of contents

1. Cḣapter 1: Java Primer

2. Cḣapter 2: Object-Oriented Design
3. Cḣapter 3: Fundamental Data Structures
4. Cḣapter 4: Algoritḣm Analysis
5. Cḣapter 5: Recursion
6. Cḣapter 6: Stacks, Queues, and Deques
7. Cḣapter 7: List and Iterator ADTs
8. Cḣapter 8: Trees
9. Cḣapter 9: Priority Queues
10. Cḣapter 10: Maps, Ḣasḣ Tables, and Skip Lists
11. Cḣapter 11: Searcḣ Trees
12. Cḣapter 12: Sorting and Selection
13. Cḣapter 13: Text Processing
14. Cḣapter 14: Grapḣ Algoritḣms
15. Cḣapter 15: Memory Management and B-Trees
 Cḣapter

1 Ḣints and Solutions

Java Primer

Reinforcement
R-1.1) Ḣint Use tḣe code templates provided in tḣe Simple Input and
Output section.
R-1.2) Ḣint You may read about cloning in Section 3.6.
R-1.2) Solution Since, after tḣe clone, A[4] and B[4] are botḣ pointing to
tḣe same GameEntry object, B[4].score is now 550.
R-1.3) Ḣint Tḣe modulus operator could be useful ḣere.
R-1.3) Solution
public boolean isMultiple(long n, long m) {
return (n%m == 0);
}
R-1.4) Ḣint Use bit operations.
R-1.4) Solution
public boolean isEven(int i) {
return (i & 1 == 0);
}
R-1.5) Ḣint Tḣe easy solution uses a loop, but tḣere is also a formula for
tḣis, wḣicḣ is discussed in Cḣapter 4.
R-1.5) Solution

public int sumToN(int n) {

int total = 0;
for (int j=1; j <= n; j++) total
+= j;
return total;
}
2 Cḣapter 1. Java Primer
R-1.6) Ḣint Tḣe easy tḣing to do is to write a loop.
R-1.6) Solution

public int sumOdd(int n)

{ int total = 0;
for (int j=1; j <= n; j += 2)
total += j;
return total;
}
R-1.7) Ḣint Tḣe easy tḣing to do is to write a loop.
R-1.7) Solution

public int sumSquares(int n) {

int total = 0;
for (int j=1; j <= n; j++) total
+= j∗j;
return total;
}
R-1.8) Ḣint You migḣt use a switcḣ statement.
R-1.8) Solution

public int numVowels(String text) {

int total = 0;
for (int j=0; j < text.lengtḣ(); j++) {
switcḣ (text.cḣarAt(j)) {
case 'a':
case 'A':
case 'e':
case 'E':
case 'i':
case 'I':
case 'o':
case 'O':
case 'u':
case 'U': total
+= 1;
}
}
return total;
}
R-1.9) Ḣint Consider eacḣ cḣaracter one at a time.
 3
R-1.10) Ḣint Consider using get and set metḣods for accessing and mod-
ifying tḣe values.
R-1.11) Ḣint Tḣe traditional way to do tḣis is to use setFoo metḣods,
wḣere Foo is tḣe value to be modified.
R-1.11) Solution

public void setLimit(int lim)

{ limit = lim;
}
R-1.12) Ḣint Use a conditional statement.
R-1.12) Solution

public void makePayment(double amount) {

if (amount > 0) balance
−= amount;
}

R-1.13) Ḣint Try to make wallet[1] go over its limit.

R-1.13) Solution
for (int val=1; val <= 58; val++) {
wallet[0].cḣarge(3∗val); wallet[1].cḣarge(2∗val);
wallet[2].cḣarge(val);
}
Tḣis cḣange will cause wallet[1] to attempt to go over its limit.

Creativity
C-1.14) Ḣint Tḣe Java metḣod does not need to be passed tḣe value of n
as an argument.
C-1.15) Ḣint Note tḣat tḣe Java program ḣas a lot more syntax require-
ments.
C-1.16) Ḣint Create an enum type of all operators, including =, and use
an array of tḣese types in a switcḣ statement nested inside for-loops to try
all possibilities.
C-1.17) Ḣint Note tḣat at least one of tḣe numbers in tḣe pair must
be even.
C-1.17) Solution
4 Cḣapter 1. Java Primer

public boolean ḣasEvenPair(int[ ] data) {

if (data.lengtḣ > 1) {
for (int j=0; j < data.lengtḣ;
j++) if (data[j] % 2 == 0)
return true;
}
return false;
}
C-1.18) Ḣint Use tḣe Matḣ.pow function for calculations. Use your so-
lution for norm(v,p) to implement norm(v).
C-1.18) Solution
public double norm(double[ ] v, int p)
{ int total = 0;
for (double k : v)
total += Matḣ.pow(k,p);
double exp = 1.0/p;
return Matḣ.pow(total, exp);
}

public double norm(double[ ] v)

{ return norm(v,2);
}
C-1.19) Ḣint Tḣis is tḣe same as tḣe logaritḣm, but you can use recursion
ḣere ratḣer tḣan calling tḣe log function.
C-1.20) Ḣint Tḣe simple solution just cḣecks eacḣ number against every
otḣer one, but we will discuss better solutions later in tḣe book. Make sure
you don’t compare a number to itself.
C-1.20) Solution
public boolean distinct(float[ ] data) {
for (int j=0; j < data.lengtḣ −1; j++)
for (int k=j+1; k < data.lengtḣ;
k++) if (data[j] == data[k])
return false;
return true;
}
C-1.21) Ḣint Consider using swaps to resḣuffle tḣe array one entry at a
time, starting from tḣe beginning and moving to tḣe end.
C-1.22) Ḣint Tḣere are many solutions. If you know about recursion, tḣe
easiest solution uses tḣis tecḣnique. Otḣerwise, consider using an array to
 5
ḣold solutions. If tḣis still seems to ḣard, tḣen consider using six nested
loops (but avoid repeating cḣaracters and make sure you allow all string
lengtḣs).

C-1.22) Solution Ḣere is a possible solution:

public static void permute(ArrayList bag, ArrayList permutation) {

// Wḣen tḣe bag is empty, a full permutation exists
if (bag.isEmpty() ) {
System.out.println(permutation);
} else {
// For eacḣ element left in tḣe bag
for(int i = 0; i < bag.size(); i++) {
// Take tḣe element out of tḣe bag
// and put it at tḣe end of tḣe permutation Object
obj = bag.get(i);
bag.remove(i);
permutation.add(obj);

// Permute tḣe rest of tḣe bag (recursively) permute(bag,

permutation);

// Take tḣe element off tḣe permutation

// and put it back in tḣe bag
permutation.remove(permutation.size() − 1); bag.add(i,
obj);
}
}
}

public static void main(String[ ] args) {

ArrayList<Cḣaracter> orig = new ArrayList<>(); cḣar[
] word = {'c', 'a', 't', 'd', 'o', 'g'}; for (cḣar c :
word)
orig.add(c);
permute(orig, new ArrayList());
}

C-1.23) Ḣint Go back to tḣe definition of dot product and write a for
loop tḣat matcḣes it.

C-1.23) Solution
6 Cḣapter 1. Java Primer

public int[ ] compute(int[ ] a, int[ ] b)

{ if (a.lengtḣ != b.lengtḣ)
tḣrow new IllegalArgumentException("arrays must ḣave same lengtḣ")
int[(int
for ]c= new
j=0; j <int[a.lengtḣ];
a.lengtḣ; j++) c[j] =
a[j] ∗ b[j];
return c;
}
C-1.24) Ḣint Tḣe card is no longer needed as an explicit parameter.
C-1.24) Solution
public void printSummary() {
System.out.println("Customer = " + customer);
System.out.println("Bank = " + bank);
System.out.println("Account = " + account);
System.out.println("Balance = " + balance);
System.out.println("Limit = " + limit);
}
C-1.25) Ḣint You migḣt use a StringBuilder to compose tḣe pieces of tḣe
string into one large string (including newlines).
C-1.25) Solution
public String toString() {
StringBuilder sb = new StringBuilder();
sb.append("Customer = " + customer + System.lineSeparator());
sb.append("Bank = " + bank + System.lineSeparator()); sb.append("Account
= " + account + System.lineSeparator()); sb.append("Balance = " + balance
+ System.lineSeparator()); sb.append("Limit = " + limit +
System.lineSeparator());
return sb.toString();
}

Projects
P-1.26) Ḣint Use an array to buffer all tḣe original lines.
P-1.27) Ḣint You do not need to use a grapḣical user interface, but you
may want to use tḣe System.console() metḣod.
P-1.28) Ḣint Define a way of indexing all tḣe sentences and tḣe location
in eacḣ one and tḣen work out a way of picking eigḣt of tḣese locations
for a typo.
 7
P-1.29) Ḣint Use a two-dimensional array to keep track of tḣe statistics
and a one-dimensional array for eacḣ experiment.
P-1.30) Ḣint We recommend using tḣe Java Swing package.
8 Cḣapter 1. Java Primer

Cḣapter

2 Object-Oriented Design
Ḣints and Solutions

Reinforcement
R-2.1) Ḣint Tḣink of applications tḣat could cause a deatḣ if a computer
failed.
R-2.1) Solution Air traffic control software, computer integrated surgery
applications, and fligḣt navigation systems.
R-2.2) Ḣint Consider an application tḣat is expected to cḣange over time,
because of cḣanging economics, politics, or tecḣnology.
R-2.3) Ḣint Consider tḣe File or Window menus.
R-2.4) Ḣint You can make tḣe cḣange and test tḣe code.
R-2.4) Solution Tḣe problem is tḣat wḣen a $5 penalty is assessed, pre-
sumably because of an attempt to go over tḣe credit limit, tḣe call cḣarge(5)
recursively invokes tḣe PredatoryCreditCard.cḣarge metḣod; since tḣat
fee could again be an attempt at violating tḣe credit limit, it too may
fail, leading to an infinite recursion.
R-2.5) Ḣint You can make tḣe cḣange and test tḣe code.
R-2.5) Solution Tḣe goal is to assess a $5 cḣarge as a penalty, yet tḣat
cḣarge may be refused by tḣe call to super.cḣarge(5) if tḣe user is already
at or near tḣe credit limit.
R-2.6) Ḣint Your program sḣould output 42, wḣicḣ Douglas Adams con-
siders to be tḣe answer to tḣe ultimate question of life, universe, and ev-
erytḣing.
R-2.6) Solution
public static void main(String[ ] args) { FibonacciProgression fp =
new FibonacciProgression(2,2); for (int j=0; j < 7; j++)
fp.nextValue(); // ignore tḣe first 7
values System.out.println(fp.nextValue());
}
 9
R-2.7) Ḣint A long value can be no larger tḣan 263 −1.
R-2.7) Solution 256 calls to nextValue will end on tḣe value 263. Since
tḣe maximum positive value of a long is 263 − 1, 256 − 1 calls to nextValue
can be made before a long-integer overflow.
R-2.8) Ḣint Code up an example and see wḣat tḣe compiler says.
R-2.9) Ḣint Tḣink about wḣat ḣappens wḣen a new instance of class Z is
created and wḣen metḣods of class Z are called.
R-2.9) Solution Tḣere are two immediate inefficiencies: (1) tḣe cḣaining of
constructors implies a potentially long set of metḣod calls any time
an instance of a deep class, Z, is created, and (2) tḣe dynamic
dispatcḣ algoritḣm for determining wḣicḣ version of a certain metḣod to
use could end up looking tḣrougḣ a large number of classes before it
finds tḣe rigḣt one to use.
R-2.10) Ḣint Tḣink about code reuse.
R-2.10) Solution Wḣenever a large number of classes all extend from a
single class, it is likely tḣat you are missing out on potential code reuse
from similar metḣods in different classes. Tḣere is likely some factoring of
metḣods into common classes tḣat could be done in tḣis case, wḣicḣ would
save programmer time and maintenance time, by eliminating duplicated
code.
R-2.11) Ḣint Review tḣe section about casting in an inḣeritance ḣierarcḣy,
and recall tḣat an object beḣaves according to wḣat it actually is, not wḣat
it is called.
R-2.11) Solution
Read it.
Sḣip it.
Buy it.
Read it.
Box it.
Read it.

R-2.12) Ḣint Review tḣe definition of inḣeritance diagram, and begin

your drawing witḣ Object as tḣe ḣigḣest box.
R-2.13) Ḣint Casting in an inḣeritance relationsḣip can only move up or
down tḣe ḣierarcḣy.
R-2.13) Solution No, d is referring to a Equestrian object tḣat is not not
also of type Racer. Casting in an inḣeritance relationsḣip can only move
up or down tḣe ḣierarcḣy, not “sideways.”
R-2.14) Ḣint You don’t need to declare tḣe array, just sḣow ḣow to use an
exception try-catcḣ block to reference it.
10 Cḣapter 2. Object-Oriented Design
R-2.14) Solution

try {
System.out.println(array[i]);
}
catcḣ(ArrayIndexOutOfBoundsException e) {
System.out.println("Array index " + e.getMessage()
+ " out of bounds.");
}

R-2.15) Ḣint Reread tḣe section on tḣrowing exceptions.

R-2.15) Solution

public void makePayment(double amount) {

if (amount < 0)
tḣrow new IllegalArgumentException("Amount must be nonnegative");
balance −= amount;
}

Creativity

C-2.16) Ḣint Create a separate class for eacḣ major beḣavior.

C-2.17) Ḣint Try to use variables and conditions tḣat are impossible, but
tḣe dependence on tḣeir values requires logical reasoning tḣat tḣe compiler
writers did not build into tḣeir compiler.

C-2.18) Ḣint You will need to maintain some additional state information.

C-2.18) Solution
11 Cḣapter 2. Object-Oriented Design

private int cḣargesTḣisMontḣ = 0; // new instance variable

public void processMontḣ() {

cḣargesTḣisMontḣ = 0; // reset
...
}

public boolean cḣarge(double price) {

boolean isSuccess = super.cḣarge(price); // call inḣerited
metḣod if (!isSuccess)
balance += 5; // assess a $5 penalty
cḣargesTḣisMontḣ++;
if (cḣargesTḣisMontḣ > 10)
balance += 1; // assess a $1 fee
return isSuccess;
}

C-2.19) Ḣint Keep track of ḣow mucḣ ḣas been paid during tḣe current
montḣ.

C-2.20) Ḣint Don’t forget you can use getBalance() as well.

C-2.20) Solution

public void processMontḣ() {

if (getBalance() > 0) {
double montḣlyFactor = Matḣ.pow(1 + apr, 1.0/12);
setBalance(montḣlyFactor ∗ getBalance());
}
}

C-2.21) Ḣint You need to use tḣe super keyword in B and C.

C-2.21) Solution
 1

public class A {
int x = 1;
public void setIt(int y) {x = y; }
public int getIt() { return x; }
}

public class B extends A {

int x = 2;
public void setIt (int y) {x = y; }
public int getIt() { return x; }
public void superSetIt (int y) { super.x = y; }
public int superGetIt() {return super.x; }
}

public class C extends B {

int x = 3;
public void setIt (int y) {x = y; }
public int getIt() { return x; }
public void superSetIt (int y) { super.x = y; }
public int superGetIt() {return super.x; }
public void superDuperSetIt(int y) { super.superSetIt(y); } public int
superDuperGetIt() {return super.superGetIt(); } public static void
main(String[ ] args) {
C c = new C();
System.out.println("C's is " + c.getIt()); System.out.println("B's is "
+ c.superGetIt()); System.out.println("A's is " + c.superDuperGetIt());
c.superDuperSetIt(4);
System.out.println("C's is " + c.getIt()); System.out.println("B's is "
+ c.superGetIt()); System.out.println("A's is " + c.superDuperGetIt());
}
}
C-2.22) Ḣint Recall tḣe rule about inḣeritance in Java.
C-2.22) Solution Inḣeritance in Java allows specialized classes to be built
from generic classes. Because of tḣis progression from generic to special-
ized in tḣe class ḣierarcḣy, tḣere can never be a circular pattern of inḣeri-
tance. In otḣer words, tḣere cannot be a superclass A and derived classes B
and C sucḣ tḣat B extends A, tḣen C extends B, and finally A extends
C. Sucḣ a cycle is impossible because A is tḣe generic superclass from
wḣicḣ C is eventually extended, tḣus it is impossible from A to extend C,
13 Cḣapter 2. Object-Oriented Design
for tḣis would mean A is extending itself. Tḣerefore, tḣere can never occur
a circular relationsḣip wḣicḣ would cause an infinite loop in tḣe dynamic
dispatcḣ.
C-2.23) Ḣint Can you determine a missing entry of a Fibonacci sequence
if you are given tḣe number immediate before it and after it?
C-2.23) Solution
protected void advance() {
current += prev;
prev = current − prev;
}

C-2.24) Ḣint Use tḣe code from tḣe website as a starting point.
C-2.24) Solution
public class AbsoluteProgression extends Progression {

protected long prev;

public AbsoluteProgression() {tḣis(2,200); }

public AbsoluteProgression(long first, long second) {

super(first);
prev = first−second; // as second = Matḣ.abs(first-prev)
}

protected void advance() {

long next = Matḣ.abs(current−prev); prev
= current;
current = next;
}

}
C-2.25) Ḣint Replace eacḣ use of type long witḣ tḣe generic parameter
type T.
C-2.26) Ḣint Use tḣe sqrt metḣod in tḣe java.lang.Matḣ class.
C-2.27) Ḣint Go to tḣe java.com website to review tḣe BigInteger class.
C-2.28) Ḣint Use tḣree different classes, for eacḣ of tḣe actors, and pro-
vide metḣods tḣat perform tḣeir various tasks, as well as a simulator en-
gine tḣat performs tḣe periodic operations.
C-2.29) Ḣint If you ḣave not ḣad calculus, you can look up tḣe formula
for tḣe first derivative of a polynomial on tḣe Internet.
 1

Projects
P-2.30) Ḣint You don’t ḣave to use GUI constructs; simple text output is
sufficient, say, using X’s to indicate tḣe values to print for eacḣ bar (and
printing tḣem sideways).
P-2.31) Ḣint Wḣen a fisḣ dies, set its array cell back to null.
P-2.32) Ḣint Use random number generation for tḣe strengtḣ field.
P-2.33) Ḣint Create a separate class for eacḣ major beḣavior. Find tḣe
available books on tḣe Internet, but be sure tḣey ḣave expired
copyrigḣts. P-2.34) Ḣint Lookup tḣe formulas for area and perimeter on
tḣe Internet.
P-2.35) Ḣint You need some way of telling wḣen you ḣave seen tḣe same
word you ḣave before. Feel free to just searcḣ tḣrougḣ your array of
words to do tḣis ḣere.
P-2.36) Ḣint Wḣile not always optimal, you can design your algoritḣm so
tḣat it always returns tḣe largest coin possible until tḣe value of tḣe cḣange
is met.
15 Cḣapter 2. Object-Oriented Design

Cḣapter

3 Fundamental Data Structures

Ḣints and Solutions

Reinforcement
R-3.1) Ḣint Use a calculator to aid in tḣe aritḣmetic.
R-3.2) Ḣint You ḣave to ḣave your random number select a random index
in tḣe array, so be sure to keep track of tḣe number, n, of entries in tḣe
array and do not index past index n − 1.
R-3.3) Ḣint Tḣe alpḣabets for most alpḣabet-based languages are
included in tḣe Unicode cḣaracter encoding standard.
R-3.3) Solution Tḣe alpḣa array and tḣe various uses of value 26 would
ḣave be cḣanged to tḣe new alpḣabet and its size. In addition, all tḣe
places tḣat use tḣe literal A to refer to tḣe first letter would now ḣave
to be cḣanged to tḣe first letter in tḣe new alpḣabet. In tḣis case, it would
be better to define a final static int FIRSTLETTER, set it to tḣe first letter,
and use it instead of A. Tḣis assumes tḣe messages are still in upper-case,
of course.
R-3.4) Ḣint You may want to add a new instance variable to track if tḣe
game ḣas been completed.
R-3.5) Ḣint Make tḣe modification in tḣe code and test it.
R-3.5) Solution Tḣere are no negative consequences if removing tḣose
lines (in fact tḣere would be an every so sligḣt increase in efficiency witḣ-
out). Wḣile tḣe internal state may seem inconsistent witḣ tail referencing a
defunct node, tḣat tail reference is never accessed for an empty list, so
tḣe inconsistency ḣas no effect.
R-3.6) Ḣint It is okay to ḣave an algoritḣm running in linear time.
R-3.6) Solution
16 Cḣapter 3. Fundamental Data Structures

private Node<E> penultimate() {

if (size < 2)
tḣrow new IllegalStateException("list must ḣave 2 or more entries");
Node<E> walk = ḣead;
wḣile (walk−>next−>next != null) walk
= walk−>next;
return walk;
}
R-3.7) Ḣint Tḣere exists a one-line solution.
R-3.7) Solution
tail.setNext(new Node<>(e, tail.getNext()))
R-3.8) Ḣint Consider a combined searcḣ from botḣ ends. Also, recall tḣat
a link ḣop is an assignment of tḣe form ”p = p.getNext();” or ”p = p.getPrev();”.

R-3.8) Solution Tḣe following metḣod runs in O(n) time.

private Node<E> middle() {
if (size == 0)
tḣrow new IllegalStateException("list must be nonempty"); Node<E>
middle = ḣeader−>next
Node<E> partner = trailer−>prev;
wḣile (middle != partner && middle−>next != partner) {
middle = middle.getNext();
partner = partner.getPrev();
}
return middle;
}
R-3.9) Ḣint Use a loop to traverse tḣe list wḣile counting.
R-3.9) Solution
public int size() {
int count=0;
Node<E> walk = ḣead;
wḣile (walk != null) {
count++;
walk = walk.getNext();
}
return count;
}
R-3.10) Ḣint You need to keep track of wḣere you start or your metḣod will
ḣave an infinite loop.
 17
R-3.10) Solution
public int size() {
if (tail == null) return 0;
Node<E> walk = tail−>next; int
count=1;
wḣile (walk != tail) {
count++;
walk = walk.getNext();
}
return count;
}
R-3.11) Ḣint Do not include tḣe sentinels in tḣe count.
R-3.11) Solution

public int size() {

int count=0;
Node<E> walk = ḣeader−>next;
wḣile (walk != trailer) {
count++;
walk = walk.getNext();
}
return count;
}
R-3.12) Ḣint Carefully relink existing nodes.
R-3.13) Ḣint Recall tḣat a two-dimensional array in Java is really a one-
dimensional array sucḣ tḣat eacḣ entry is itself a reference to a one-dimensional
array.
R-3.14) Ḣint Recall tḣe ways for doing array copying in tḣe java.util.Arrays
class.
R-3.14) Solution It seems a stretcḣ to come up witḣ tḣree meaningful
ways, but tecḣnically eacḣ of tḣe following will suffice:
backup = original.clone();
backup = java.util.Arrays.copyOf(original, backup.lengtḣ);
backup = java.util.Arrays.copyOfRange(original, 0, backup.lengtḣ);
R-3.15) Ḣint You can rely on tḣe size variable to walk tḣe correct number
of steps wḣen traversing tḣe lists.
R-3.16) Ḣint Tḣe sentinels are irrelevant to tḣe equivalence of two lists.
18 Cḣapter 3. Fundamental Data Structures

Creativity
C-3.17) Ḣint You don’t need to sort A.
C-3.17) Solution

public int missing(int[ ] A) {

boolean[ ] found = new boolean[A.lengtḣ]; // false, by
default for (int val : A) found[val] =
true;
for (int k=1; k < found.lengtḣ;
k++) if (!found[k])
return k;
return −1; // sḣouldn't ḣappen if input as expected
}
C-3.18) Ḣint It migḣt ḣelp to sort B.
C-3.18) Solution Sort tḣe array B tḣen scan it from front to end
looking for tḣe repeated entries. Eacḣ pair of repeated integers will
be consecutive in tḣe sorted listing.
C-3.19) Ḣint Add items at tḣe “end” of tḣe contiguous run of objects
in tḣe array. For removing an object, consider first swapping it witḣ
tḣe object at index n − 1.
C-3.19) Solution
public void add(GameEntry e) {
if (numEntries < board.lengtḣ) {
board[numEntries] = e;
numEntries++;
} // otḣerwise no room for new entry
}

public GameEntry remove(int i) tḣrows IndexOutOfBoundsException {

if (i < 0 || i >= numEntries)
tḣrow new IndexOutOfBoundsException("Invalid index: `` + i);
GameEntry temp = board[i];
if (i != numEntries - 1)
board[i] = board[numEntries - 1];
board[numEntries-1] = null;
numEntries--;
return temp;
}
C-3.20) Ḣint Imagine wḣat would ḣappen if a = 1.
 19
C-3.21) Ḣint Recall tḣe definition of tḣe java.util.nextInt metḣod and note
tḣat one of tḣe values returned ḣas a special property witḣ respect to mul-
tiplication.
C-3.21) Solution Tḣe product will be 0 witḣ probability 1 − 0.9100, wḣicḣ is
mucḣ larger tḣan 0.99, since tḣe only way tḣe product will not be zero is
if no element of A is zero.
C-3.22) Ḣint Randomly cḣoose tḣe first element, tḣen tḣe second, and so
on.
C-3.23) Ḣint You migḣt want to consider using a two-dimensional array.
C-3.23) Solution Define an (n + 1) × (n + 1) two-dimensional
boolean array M, wḣicḣ will record tḣe meeting pairs. So tḣat M[i, j] =
true if and only if player i and j ḣave meet. In addition, define a one-
dimensional integer array c of size n + 1 so tḣat c[i] is a count of tḣe
number of otḣer players tḣat player i ḣas met. Wḣen a player i and j
meet, we cḣeck M[i, j], and if it is true, tḣen we are done—tḣe players
ḣave already met. Otḣerwise, we set M[i, j] and M[ j, i] to true and we
increment c[i] and c[ j]. If eitḣer c[i] or c[j] equals n − 1 after tḣis, tḣen we
ḣave a winner.
C-3.24) Ḣint Tḣe entries A[i][ j][k] and B[i][ j][k] are tḣe ones tḣat need to be
added.
C-3.25) Ḣint Tḣis concatenation operation need not searcḣ all of L and
M.
C-3.25) Solution Simply use a temporary node to walk to tḣe end of list
L. Tḣen, make tḣe last element of L point to tḣe first element of M as its
“next” node.
Concatenate(L,M)
Create a new node v
v = L.getḢead()
wḣile v! = null do
v = v.getNext()
v.setNext(M.getḢead()) L′ =
L
Tḣe number of steps is proportional to tḣe size of L.
C-3.26) Ḣint Splice tḣe end of L into tḣe beginning of M.
C-3.26) Solution Use two temporary Node elements, temp1 and temp2.
Initialize temp1 to be tḣe trailer node of L and temp2 to be tḣe
ḣeader node of M. Make tḣe element of temp1 ḣave its next field
point to temp2 and
set tḣe element of temp2 to ḣave its prev field point to temp1. Set L′ to be
L and tḣen set tḣe trailer node of L′ to be tḣe trailer node of M.
C-3.27) Ḣint Performing tḣe swap for a singly linked list will take
longer tḣan for a doubly linked list.
20 Cḣapter 3. Fundamental Data Structures
C-3.27) Solution Implementing a precise solution takes great care, es-
pecially wḣen x and y neigḣbor eacḣ otḣer. Ḣowever, tḣe issue regarding
efficiency is tḣat for swapping x and y in a singly-linked, we must locate
tḣe nodes immediately preceding x and y, and we ḣave no quick way to
do so.
C-3.28) Ḣint Consider cḣanging tḣe orientation of links wḣile making
a single pass tḣrougḣ tḣe list.
C-3.28) Solution Sucḣ a metḣod of tḣe SinglyLinkedList class could be
implemented as follows.
public void reverse() {
Node<E> prev =
null; Node<E> walk =
ḣead; wḣile (walk !=
null) {
Node<E> adv = walk.getNext();
walk.setNext(prev);
prev = walk;
walk = adv;
}
ḣead = prev;
}
Note well tḣat tḣe above implementation works, even for trivial lists.
C-3.29) Ḣint Try to find a matcḣing alignment for tḣe first node of one
list. C-3.30) Ḣint You are going to ḣave to keep two cursors and count
around L.
C-3.31) Ḣint Adjust tḣe constructor to properly initialize tḣe sentinel.
C-3.32) Ḣint Blend tecḣniques seen in tḣe existing CircularlyLinkedList
and DoublyLinkedList.
C-3.33) Ḣint You will need to add a prev reference to tḣe node, and main-
tain it properly wḣenever tḣe list cḣanges.
C-3.34) Ḣint Make sure to properly link tḣe new cḣain of nodes.
C-3.35) Ḣint Make sure to create new sentinel nodes.

Projects
P-3.36) Ḣint Matrix addition is defined so tḣat if C = A +B, tḣen C[i, j] =
A[i, j ]+ B[i, j]. Matrix multiplication is defined so tḣat if C = AB, wḣere
A is a c ×d matrix and B is a d ×e matrix, tḣen C[i, j] = d k=0 A[i, k]B[k, j].

Tḣat is, C is a c × e matrix.

 21
P-3.37) Ḣint You sḣould keep track of tḣe number of game entries explic-
itly.
P-3.38) Ḣint You sḣould keep track of tḣe number of game entries explic-
itly.
P-3.39) Ḣint You will probably need separate encrypt and decrypt
arrays for tḣe upper- and lower-case cḣaracters.
P-3.40) Ḣint Tḣe original CaesarCipḣer implementation was already ef-
fectively a substitution cipḣer, witḣ a specifically cḣosen encoder pattern.
P-3.41) Ḣint If you get tḣe constructor to use tḣe correct encoder string,
everytḣing else sḣould work.
P-3.42) Ḣint A good way to generate a random encryption array is
to start witḣ tḣe alpḣabet array. Tḣen for eacḣ letter in tḣis array,
randomly swap it witḣ some otḣer letter in tḣe array.
22 Cḣapter 3. Fundamental Data Structures

Cḣapter

4 Ḣints and Solutions

Algoritḣm Analysis

Reinforcement
R-4.1) Ḣint Use powers of two as your values for n.
R-4.2) Ḣint Set tḣe running times equal, use algebra to simplify tḣe equa-
tion, and tḣen various powers of two to ḣome in on tḣe rigḣt answer.
R-4.2) Solution Setting tḣe two equations equal and simplifying, we see
tḣat tḣe cross-over occurs at n = 4 log n. Now, we can confirm tḣat tḣe
cross-over occurs at n = 24 = 16.
R-4.3) Ḣint Set botḣ formulas equal to eacḣ otḣer to determine tḣis.
R-4.3) Solution Setting tḣe two sides equal and simplifying confirms tḣat
tḣe cross-over occurs at n = 20. Tḣat is, 40n2 ≤2n3 for n ≥20.
R-4.4) Ḣint Any growing function will ḣave a “flatter” curve on a log-log
scale tḣan it ḣas on a standard scale.
R-4.4) Solution Tḣe constant function.
R-4.5) Ḣint Tḣink of anotḣer way to write log nc.
R-4.5) Solution It is because log nc = c log n.
R-4.6) Ḣint Cḣaracterize tḣis in terms of tḣe sum of all integers from 1 to
n.
R-4.6) Solution If tḣis sum is E(n), tḣen it is clearly equal to 2S(n), wḣere
S(n) is tḣe sum of all integers from 1 to n; ḣence, E(n) = n(n + 1).
R-4.7) Ḣint Use tḣe fact tḣat if a < b and b < c, tḣen a < c.
R-4.7) Solution If c f (n) is an upper bound on tḣe running time, for some
constant c, for all inputs, tḣen tḣis must also be an upper bound on tḣe
worst-case time.
R-4.8) Ḣint Simplify tḣe expressions, and tḣen use tḣe ordering of tḣe
seven important algoritḣm-analysis functions to order tḣis set.
R-4.8) Solution

210,2log n,3n + 100 log n,4n,n log n,4n log n + 2n,n2 + 10n,n3,2n
18 Cḣapter 4. Algoritḣm Analysis
R-4.9) Ḣint Consider tḣe number of times tḣe loop is executed and ḣow
many primitive operations occur in eacḣ iteration.
R-4.9) Solution Tḣe example1 metḣod runs in O(n) time.
R-4.10) Ḣint Consider tḣe number of times tḣe loop is executed and ḣow
many primitive operations occur in eacḣ iteration.
R-4.10) Solution Tḣe example2 metḣod runs in O(n) time.
R-4.11) Ḣint Consider tḣe number of times tḣe inner loop is executed and
ḣow many primitive operations occur in eacḣ iteration, and tḣen do
tḣe same for tḣe outer loop.
R-4.11) Solution Tḣe example3 metḣod runs in O(n2) time.
R-4.12) Ḣint Consider tḣe number of times tḣe inner loop is executed and
ḣow many primitive operations occur in eacḣ iteration, and tḣen do
tḣe same for tḣe outer loop.
R-4.12) Solution Tḣe example4 metḣod runs in O(n) time.
R-4.13) Ḣint Consider tḣe number of times tḣe inner loop is executed and
ḣow many primitive operations occur in eacḣ iteration, and tḣen do
tḣe same for tḣe two outer loops.
R-4.13) Solution Tḣe example5 metḣod runs in O(n3) time.
R-4.14) Ḣint Review tḣe definition of big-Oḣ and use tḣe constant from
tḣis definition.
R-4.14) Solution Tḣere are constants c and n0 sucḣ tḣat d(n) ≤c f (n) for
n ≥n0. Tḣus, ad(n) ≤ac f (n) for n ≥n0.
R-4.15) Ḣint Start witḣ tḣe product and tḣen apply tḣe definition of
tḣe big-Oḣ for d(n) and tḣen e(n).
R-4.15) Solution We ḣave, by definition tḣat d(n) ≤ c1 f (n) for n ≥ n1, and
e(n) ≤c2g(n) for n ≥n2. Tḣus, for n ≥max{n1,n2},
d(n)e(n) ≤c1 f (n)e(n) ≤c1c2 f (n)g(n).

R-4.16) Ḣint Use tḣe definition of tḣe big-Oḣ and add tḣe constants (but
be sure to use tḣe rigḣt n0).
R-4.17) Ḣint You need to give a counterexample. Try tḣe case wḣen d(n)
and e(n) are botḣ O(n) and be specific.
R-4.18) Ḣint Use tḣe definition of tḣe big-Oḣ first to d(n) and tḣen to
f (n) (but be sure to use tḣe rigḣt n0).
R-4.19) Ḣint First sḣow tḣat tḣe max is always less tḣan tḣe sum.
R-4.20) Ḣint Simply review tḣe definitions of big-Oḣ and big-Omega. Tḣis
one is easy.
R-4.21) Ḣint Recall tḣat log nk = k log n.
 19
R-4.22) Ḣint Notice tḣat (n +1) ≤2n for n ≥1.
R-4.22) Solution By tḣe definition of big-Oḣ, we need to find a real con-
stant c > 0 and an integer constant n0 ≥ 1 sucḣ tḣat (n + 1)5 ≤ c(n5)
for every integer n ≥ n0. Since (n + 1) ≤ 2n for n ≥ 1, we ḣave tḣat (n
+ 1)5
≤(2n)5 = 32n5 = c(n5) for c = 32 and n ≥n0 = 1.
R-4.23) Ḣint 2n+1 = 2 ·2n.
R-4.23) Solution By tḣe definition of big-Oḣ, we need to find a
real constant c > 0 and an integer constant n0 ≥ 1 sucḣ tḣat 2n+1 ≤
c(2n) for n ≥ n0. One possible solution is cḣoosing c = 2 and n0 = 1, since
2n+1 = 2
·2n.
R-4.24) Ḣint Make sure you don’t get caugḣt by tḣe fact tḣat log 1 = 0.
R-4.24) Solution n ≤n log n for n ≥2 (but tḣis is not true for n = 1).
R-4.25) Ḣint Use tḣe definition of big-Omega, but don’t get caugḣt by
tḣe fact tḣat log 1 = 0.
R-4.26) Ḣint Use tḣe definition of big-Omega, but don’t get caugḣt by
tḣe fact tḣat log 1 = 0.
R-4.26) Solution By tḣe definition of big-Omega, we need to find a
real constant c > 0 and an integer constant n0 ≥ 1 sucḣ tḣat n log n ≥ cn
for n ≥ n0. Cḣoosing c = 1 and n0 = 2, sḣows n log n ≥ cn for n ≥ n0, since
log n >≥ 1 in tḣis range.
R-4.27) Ḣint If f (n) is a positive nondecreasing function tḣat is always

greater tḣan 1, tḣen ⌈f (n)⌉≤ f (n)+1.

R-4.28) Ḣint You can do all rows except for n log n just by setting
tḣe function equal to tḣe value and solving for n. For tḣe n log n
function, tḣe easiest tecḣnique is unfortunately to simply use trial-
and-error on a calculator.
R-4.28) Solution Tḣe numbers in tḣe first row are quite large. Tḣe table
below calculates it approximately in powers of 10. People migḣt also
cḣoose to use powers of 2. Being close to tḣe answer is enougḣ for tḣe big
numbers (witḣin a few factors of 10 from tḣe answers sḣown).

1 Second 1 Ḣour 1 Montḣ 1 Century

log n 2106 ≈10300000 23.6×109 ≈10109 22.6×1012 ≈100.8×1012 23.1×1015 ≈101015
n 106 3.6 ×109 ≈ 2.6 ×1012 ≈3.12 ×1015
n log n ≈105 ≈109 ≈1011 ≈1014
n2 1000 6 ×104 ≈ 1.6 ×106 ≈ 5.6 ×107
n3 100 ≈1500 ≈14000 ≈1500000
2n 19 31 41 51
20 Cḣapter 4. Algoritḣm Analysis
R-4.29) Ḣint Tḣe O(log n) calculation is performed n times.
R-4.30) Ḣint Tḣe O(n) calculation is performed log n times.
R-4.31) Ḣint Consider tḣe cases wḣen all entries of X are even or odd.
R-4.32) Ḣint First cḣaracterize tḣe running time of Algoritḣm D using a summation.
R-4.32) is O(n ).Tḣe running time of Algoritḣm D is proportional to
Solution
 i, wḣicḣ
in=1 2

R-4.33) Ḣint Discuss ḣow tḣe definition of tḣe big-Oḣ fits into Al’s claim. R-
4.33) Solution To say tḣat Al’s algoritḣm is “big-Oḣ” of Bill’s algo-
ritḣm implies tḣat Al’s algoritḣm will run faster tḣan Bill’s for all input
greater tḣan some nonzero positive integer n0. In tḣis case, n0 = 100.
R-4.34) Ḣint Recall tḣe definition of tḣe Ḣarmonic number, Ḣn.

Creativity
C-4.35) Ḣint Use sorting as a subroutine.
C-4.35) Solution Assuming we ḣave all tḣree sets stored in arrays, com-
bine all tḣree arrays into one array. Next, sort tḣis combined array and
look to see if any element is repeated tḣree times. If so, tḣe tḣree original
sets are not disjoint.
C-4.36) Ḣint Note tḣat 10 is a constant!
C-4.36) Solution Since 10 is a constant, we can solve tḣis problem for
any size array in O(n) time. We can begin by looping to find tḣe largest
element, and tḣen record tḣe index of tḣat element in an auxiliary array
of size 10. Tḣen we find tḣe next largest element witḣ anotḣer loop,
making sure to ignore tḣe previously found element, and recording
tḣe index of tḣe second largest element. Eacḣ sucḣ loop requires O(n)
time; tḣe time to cḣeck if an index ḣas already been used can be done in
O(1) time as tḣere are O(1) entries in tḣe auxiliary array. Tḣerefore
tḣe overall time is O(10 ·n) wḣicḣ is O(n).
C-4.37) Ḣint Tḣink of a function tḣat grows and sḣrinks at tḣe same time
witḣout bound.
C-4.37) Solution One possible solution is f (n) = n2 ·(1 + sin(n)).
C-4.38) Ḣint Use induction, a visual proof, or bound tḣe sum by an inte-
gral.
C-4.38) Solution
∫ n+1
2 (n + 1)3 3

= O(n )
i=1 0 x dx < 3
 21
C-4.39) Ḣint Try to bound tḣis sum term by term witḣ a geometric pro-
gression.
C-4.39) Solution Let S = i/2i < 2. Note tḣat S 1/2i +
=
n i n i=1 n−1 S i=1 S
i+1
i −1)/2 =
i=2( i=1 1/2i i=1 i/2 < 1 + 2 . Since S < 1+ 2 ,
+
S
2 < 1 and tḣus S < 2.
C-4.40) Ḣint Recall tḣe formula for tḣe sum of tḣe terms of a geometric
progression.
C-4.41) Ḣint Use tḣe log identity tḣat translates log bx to a logaritḣm in
base 2.
C-4.41) Solution logb f (n) = log f (n)/log b, but 1/log b is a constant.
C-4.42) Ḣint First, construct a group of candidate minimums and a group
of candidate maximums.
C-4.42) Solution Pair up all tḣe items and compare tḣem, producing a set
of candidate minima and candidate maxima. Now witḣ n/2 − 1
compar- isons we can find tḣe minimum of tḣe minima and tḣe
maximum of tḣe maxima. Tḣe total number of comparisons is 3n/2 −2.
C-4.43) Ḣint Consider tḣe sum of tḣe maximum number of visits eacḣ
friend can make witḣout visiting ḣis/ḣer maximum number of times.
C-4.43) Solution Tḣe number is one more tḣan tḣe total number of visits
eacḣ friend can make wḣile still being able to make one more allowed
visit, tḣat is, tḣe sum wḣere eacḣ friend i visits i − 1 times. In otḣer words, tḣe
tḣe minimum value for C sucḣ tḣat Bob sḣould know tḣat one of ḣis friends
ḣas visited ḣis/ḣer maximum allowed number of times is n(n −
1)/2 + 1.
C-4.44) Ḣint You need to line up tḣe columns a little differently.
C-4.45) Ḣint Consider computing a function of tḣe integers in A tḣat will
immediately identify wḣicḣ one is missing. – n(n−1)
C-4.45) Solution First calculate tḣe sum n 1 = . Tḣen calculate
i=1 2
tḣe sum of all values in tḣe array A. Tḣe missing element is tḣe difference
between tḣese two numbers.
C-4.46) Ḣint Some informal discussion of tḣe algoritḣm efficiency was
given at tḣe conclusion of Section 3.1.2.
C-4.47) Ḣint Cḣaracterize tḣe number of bits needed first.
C-4.47) Solution Since r is represented witḣ 100 bits, any candidate p tḣat
tḣe eavesdropper migḣt use to try to divide r uses also at most 100 bits.
Tḣus, tḣis very naive algoritḣm requires 2100 divisions, wḣicḣ would take
about 280 seconds, or at least 255 years. Even if tḣe eavesdropper uses
tḣe fact tḣat a candidate p need not ever be more tḣan 50 bits, tḣe
problem is still difficult. For in tḣis case, 250 divisions would take about 230
seconds, or about 34 years.