6.

14 Frictional (Skin) Resistance in Clay

𝝀 𝑴𝒆𝒕𝒉𝒐𝒅

𝑓𝑎𝑣 = 𝜆(𝜎̅𝑜′ + 2𝑐𝑢 ) → 𝑄𝑠 = 𝑝𝐿𝑓𝑎𝑣

Where,
𝜎̅𝑜′ = mean effective vertical stress for the entire embedment length
𝑐𝑢 = mean undrained shear strength ( 𝜙 = 0 )

The value of 𝜆 decreases with the depth of penetration of the pile (See Table
6.9).
Table 6.9 Variation of 𝜆 with Pile Embedment Length, L
Embedment
length, L 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 50 60 70 80 90
(m)
𝝀 0.5 0.336 0.245 0.200 0.173 0.150 0.136 0.132 0.127 0.118 0.113 0.110 0.110 0.110

𝑐𝑢(1) 𝐿+𝑐𝑢(2) 𝐿+⋯ 𝐴1 +𝐴2 +𝐴3 +⋯

𝑐𝑢 = 𝜎̅𝑜′ =
𝐿 𝐿

Where 𝐴1 , 𝐴2 , 𝐴3 , … = area of the vertical effective stress diagrams.

Figure 6.15 Application of 𝜆 method in layered soil.

𝜶 𝑴𝒆𝒕𝒉𝒐𝒅

𝑓 = 𝛼𝑐𝑢 → 𝑄𝑠 = ∑ 𝑓𝑝 ∆𝐿 = ∑ 𝛼𝑐𝑢 𝑝 ∆𝐿

where 𝛼 is an empirical adhesion factor that lies in the range of 0–1.

Table 6.10 Variation of 𝛼 (Interpolated Values Based on Terzaghi et al.,

1996)
𝑐𝑢 ≤ 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.4 2.8
𝒑𝒂

𝛼 1.00 0.92 0.82 0.74 0.62 0.54 0.48 0.42 0.40 0.38 0.36 0.35 0.34 0.34

Sladen,1992 suggest:
0.45
𝜎̅𝑜′
𝛼 =𝐶( )
𝑐𝑢
Where
𝜎̅𝑜′ = average vertical stress.
𝐶 ≈ 0.4 to 0.5 for bored piles; and ≥ 0.5 for driven piles.
𝑐𝑢
Table 6.11 Variation of of 𝛼 with
̅𝑜′
𝜎
𝒄𝒖 𝜶
̅ ′𝒐
𝝈 Open – ended pile Closed – ended pile
1 0.5 0.5
2 0.4 0.44
3 0.355 0.41
4 0.33 0.395
5 0.31 0.38
6 0.29 0.365
7 0.28 0.35
8 0.26 0.33
9 0.255 0.32
10 0.25 0.31
 𝑐𝑢
Figure 6.15 Application of 𝛼 with for Norwegian Geotechnical Institute
̅𝑜′
𝜎
(NGI)-99 method.

American Petroleum Institute (API), 2007 suggest:

𝑓𝑎𝑣 = 0.5(𝑐𝑢 𝜎̅𝑜′ )0.5

Or
𝑓𝑎𝑣 = 0.5(𝑐𝑢 )0.75 (𝜎̅𝑜′ )0.25
Whichever is larger
𝜷 𝑴𝒆𝒕𝒉𝒐𝒅
When piles are driven into saturated clays:

𝑓 = 𝛽𝜎𝑜′ → 𝑄𝑠 = ∑ 𝑓𝑝 ∆𝐿
Where
𝜎𝑜′ = vertical effective stress
𝛽 = 𝐾 tan 𝜙𝑅′
𝜙𝑅′ = drained friction angle of remolded clay
𝐾 = earth pressure coefficient at rest

Correlation with Cone Penetration Test Results

𝑓 = 𝛼 ′ 𝑓𝑐 → 𝑄𝑠 = ∑ 𝑓𝑝 ∆𝐿 = ∑ 𝛼 ′ 𝑓𝑐 𝑝 ∆𝐿

𝑓
Figure 6.16 Variation of 𝛼 ′ with 𝑐⁄𝑝𝑎 for piles in clay.
Example: For the pipe pile shown in Figure below. Calculate the skin
resistance 𝑄𝑠 by
(1) the 𝛼 method,
(2) the 𝜆 method, and
(3) the 𝛽 method. For the 𝛽 method, use 𝜙𝑅′ = 30𝑜 for all clay layers.
The top 10 m of clay is normally consolidated. The bottom clay layer has an
OCR = 2. (Note: diameter of pile = 457 mm).

Solution:
𝜶 method:
𝑄𝑠 = ∑ 𝛼𝑐𝑢 𝑝 ∆𝐿
Note: 𝑝 = 𝜋(0.457) = 1.436 𝑚
Depth (m) ∆𝐿 (𝑚) 𝑐𝑢 (𝑘𝑁 ⁄𝑚2 ) 𝛼 (𝑇𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 6.10 ) 𝛼𝑐𝑢 𝑝 ∆𝐿 (𝑘𝑁)
0–3 3 25 0.87 93.7
3 – 10 7 40 0.74 297.5
10 – 20 10 90 0.51 659.1
𝑄𝑠 = 1050 kN

𝝀 method:

𝑐𝑢(1) 𝐿 + 𝑐𝑢(2) 𝐿 + ⋯ (25)(3) + (40)(7) + (90)(10)

𝑐𝑢 = = = 62.75 𝑘𝑁⁄𝑚2
𝐿 20
 𝐴1 + 𝐴2 + 𝐴3 + ⋯ 72 + 512.16 + 1392.8
𝜎̅𝑜′ = = = 98.85 𝑘𝑁⁄𝑚2
𝐿 20

𝑓𝑎𝑣 = 𝜆(𝜎̅𝑜′ + 2𝑐𝑢 ) = 0.173[98.85 + (2)(62.75)] = 38.81 𝑘𝑁⁄𝑚2

𝑄𝑠 = 𝑝𝐿𝑓𝑎𝑣 = 𝜋(0.457)(20)(38.81) = 1114.4 𝑘𝑁

𝜷 method:
𝑓 = 𝛽𝜎𝑜′ → 𝑄𝑠 = ∑ 𝑓𝑝 ∆𝐿
The top layer of clay (10 m) is normally consolidated, 𝜙𝑅′ = 30𝑜
For z =0 – 3 m,
𝑓1 = 𝛽𝜎𝑜′ = 𝐾 tan 𝜙𝑅′ 𝜎𝑜′ = (1 − sin 𝜙𝑅′ ) tan 𝜙𝑅′ 𝜎𝑜′
0 + 48
= (1 − sin 30𝑜 )(tan 30𝑜 ) ( ) = 6.93 𝑘𝑁⁄𝑚2
2
For z =3 – 10 m,
48 + 98.33
𝑓2 = (1 − sin 30𝑜 )(tan 30𝑜 ) ( ) = 21.12 𝑘𝑁⁄𝑚2
2
For z = 10 – 20 m,
𝑓 = 𝛽𝜎𝑜′ = 𝐾 tan 𝜙𝑅′ 𝜎𝑜′ = (1 − sin 𝜙𝑅′ )√𝑂𝐶𝑅 tan 𝜙𝑅′ 𝜎𝑜′
98.33 + 180.23
𝑓3 = (1 − sin 30𝑜 )(tan 30𝑜 )√2 ( ) = 56.86 𝑘𝑁⁄𝑚2
2
So,
𝑄𝑠 = 𝑝[𝑓1 (3) + 𝑓2 (7) + 𝑓3 (10)]
= 𝜋(0.457)[(6.93)(3) + (21.12)(7) + (56.86)(10)] = 1058.45 𝑘𝑁

1050 + 1114.4 + 1058.45

𝑄𝑠 = ≈ 1074 𝑘𝑁
3

Example: A concrete pile 305 mm × 305 mm in cross section is driven to a

depth of 20 m below the ground surface in a saturated clay soil. A summary
of the variation of frictional resistance 𝑓𝑐 obtained from a cone penetration
test is as follows:
Depth (m) frictional resistance 𝒇𝒄 (𝒌𝒈/𝒄𝒎𝟐 )
0–6 0.35
6 – 12 0.56
12 – 20 0.72

Estimate the frictional resistance 𝑄𝑠 for the pile.

Solution:
frictional resistance 𝛼′ ∆𝐿
Depth (m) 𝑄𝑠 = 𝛼 ′𝑓𝑐 𝑝 ∆𝐿
𝒇𝒄 (𝒌𝑵/𝒎𝟐 ) Fig. 6.16 (m)
0–6 34.34 0.84 6 211.5
6 – 12 54.94 0.71 6 285.5
12 – 20 70.63 0.63 8 434.2

𝑄𝑠 = ∑ 𝛼 ′ 𝑓𝑐 𝑝 ∆𝐿 = 931 𝑘𝑁

6.15 Ultimate Capacity of Continuous Flight Auger Pile

Granular Soil:
𝑓 = 𝛽𝜎𝑜′ ≤ 200 𝑘𝑁/𝑚2 → 𝑸𝒔 = ∑ 𝒇𝒑 ∆𝑳
Where
−0.67
𝛽 = 2.27 𝑧𝑚 (silty soil)
−1.3
𝛽 = 10.72 𝑧𝑚 (sandy soil)

The value of 𝛽 is limited to 0.2 ≤ 𝛽 ≤ 2.5

𝑧𝑚 = depth in meters measured from the ground surface to the middle of

the given soil layer as shown below:

𝑸𝒑 = 𝑨𝒑 𝒒𝒑

𝑞𝑝 (𝑘𝑁/𝑚2 ) ≈ 57.5 𝑁60 (𝑓𝑜𝑟 0 ≤ 𝑁60 ≤ 75)

𝑞𝑝 = 4300 𝑘𝑁/𝑚2 (𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑁60 > 75)

 𝑁60 = average of the 𝑁60 values between 1D above and (2-3)D below
the pile tip.
D = Pile diameter.
Also,
𝑞𝑝 (𝑀𝑁/𝑚2 ) = 0.375 𝑞𝑐 (𝑀𝑁/𝑚2 )
𝑞𝑐 = average cone penetration resistance between 2 to 3 pile diameters
below the pile tip.

Cohesive Soil:

FHWA (2007) recommends:

𝑘𝑁 𝑘𝑁 𝑘𝑁
𝑓 = 𝛼𝑐𝑢 = 56.2 2 (𝑓𝑜𝑟 25 ≤ 𝑐𝑢 ≤ 150 )
𝑚 𝑚2 𝑚2

𝑞𝑝 = 0.15𝑞𝑐
𝑞𝑐 = average cone penetration resistance between 2 to 3 pile diameters
below the pile tip.

Example:
Consider a CFA pile in granular soil that has a nominal diameter of 0.6 m and length of
12 m. The average value of N60 between one pile diameter above and 3 pile diameters
below the pile tips is 20. Use FS = 3 and estimate the allowable load-carrying capacity
𝑘𝑁
of the pile. Assume the unit weight of sand at 𝛾 = 16 𝑚3 .

Solution
We will divide the pile into three segments (4m in length for each segment)

Pile 𝑓
Depth 𝜷 𝜎𝑜′ 𝑸𝒔
Segment 𝒛𝒎 𝜷 (𝑘𝑁
(m) 𝒕𝒐 𝒃𝒆 𝒖𝒔𝒆𝒅 (𝑘𝑁/𝑚2 ) (𝑘𝑁)
No. /𝑚2 )
0 + 64 80 603.18
1 0–4 2 4.35 2.5 = 32
2
64 + 128 99.84 752.78
2 4–8 6 1.04 1.04 = 96
2
128 + 192 85.92 647.83
3 8 – 12 10 0.537 0.537 = 160
2
∑ 2003.8
 −1.3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 0.2 ≤ 𝛽 ≤ 2.5
Note: 𝛽 = 10.72 𝑧𝑚
𝑘𝑁
𝑓 = 𝛽𝜎𝑜′ ≤ 200 2 → 𝑸𝒔 = ∑ 𝒇𝒑 ∆𝑳
𝑚

𝑞𝑝 = 57.5𝑁60 = (57.5)(20) = 1150 𝑘𝑁/𝑚2

𝜋 2 𝜋
𝑄𝑝 = 𝐴𝑝 𝑞𝑝 = 𝐷 𝑞𝑝 = ( ) (0.6)2 (1150) = 325.15 𝑘𝑁
4 4
𝑸𝒔 + 𝑸𝒑 2003.8 + 325.15
𝑄𝑎𝑙𝑙 = = = 776.3 𝑘𝑁
𝐹𝑆 3

Example:
For the Figure shown below an idealized variation of 𝑐𝑢 in a saturated clay.
A CFA pile is to be constructed in this clay with a length of 10 m and a
diameter of D of 0.45 m. Estimate the ultimate side-skin resistance 𝑄𝑠 and
the point load 𝑄𝑝 for the pile. Assume a unit weight of 𝛾 for the clay to be 18
kN/m3.
Solution:
𝑓 = 𝛼𝑐𝑢 = 56.2 𝑘𝑁 ⁄𝑚2
𝑄𝑠 = 𝜋𝐷 𝑓𝐿 = 𝜋(0.45)(56.2)(10) = 252.9 𝑘𝑁

𝐴𝑡 𝑧 = 10 𝑚 → 𝑐𝑢 = 100 𝑘𝑁 ⁄𝑚2
𝐴𝑡 𝑧 = 10𝑚 + 3𝐷 = 10 + 3(0.45) = 10 + 1.35 = 11.35 𝑚 → 𝑐𝑢
= 100 + 7.14(1.35) = 109.6 𝑘𝑁 ⁄𝑚2
100 + 109.6
𝑐𝑢(𝑎𝑣.) = = 104.8 𝑘𝑁 ⁄𝑚2
2
𝑞𝑐 − 𝜎𝑜
𝑐𝑢 =
𝑁𝑘
Where;
𝑁𝑘 ≈ 15 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑒
𝜎𝑜 = 𝛾(11) = (18)(11) = 198 𝑘𝑁 ⁄𝑚2

𝑞𝑐 = (104.8)(15) + 198 = 1770 𝑘𝑁 ⁄𝑚2

𝑞𝑝 = 0.15𝑞𝑐 = 0.15(1770) = 265.5 𝑘𝑁 ⁄𝑚2

𝜋 2 𝜋
𝑄𝑝 = 𝐷 𝑞𝑝 = (0.45)2 (265.5) = 42.2 𝑘𝑁
4 4

6.16 Point Bearing Capacity of Piles Resting on Rock

Goodman, 1980 suggest:

𝑞𝑝 = 𝑞𝑢 (𝑁𝜙 + 1)
Where
𝑁𝜙 = tan2 (45 + 𝜙 ′⁄2)
𝑞𝑢(𝑙𝑎𝑏)
𝑞𝑢 = unconfined compression strength of rock, 𝑞𝑢(𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛) = 5

𝜙 ′ = drained angle of friction

Thus,
[𝑞𝑢(𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛) (𝑁𝜙 + 1)]𝐴𝑝
𝑄𝑝(𝑎𝑙𝑙) =
𝐹𝑆
Table 6.12 Typical Unconfined Compressive Strength and Angle of
Friction of Rocks.
Type of Rock 𝒒𝒖(𝒍𝒂𝒃) (𝑴𝑵/𝒎𝟐 ) 𝝓′ (𝒅𝒆𝒈. )
Sandstone 70 – 140 27 - 45
Limestone 105 – 210 30 – 40
Shale 35 – 70 10 – 20
Granite 140 – 210 40 – 50
Marble 60 – 70 25 - 30
6.17 Pile Load Tests
1. Compression test
a. Maintained load test or load-controlled test.
b. Constant rate penetration test
c. Cyclic test
2. Tension test
3. Lateral test
The test procedure is standardized by ASTM–D1143–81, ASTM–D3689–
90, ASTM–D3689–07, and ASTM–D3966–90

Method of load application

Figure 6.17 Pile load test (compressive load test): (a) using kentledge, (b)
using reaction pile
 Figure 6.18 3MN kentledge test.

Figure 6.19 Typical set-up for applying tensile loads to pile using hydraulic
jacks acting at ends of test beam anchored to pile.
Figure 6.20 Typical Set Ups for Applying Lateral Load with Conventional
Hydraulic Jack.
Using load-controlled test
𝑆𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑆𝑡 − 𝑆𝑒
Where;
𝑆𝑡 = Total or gross settlement
𝑆𝑒 = Elastic shortening or elastic compression of the pile
𝑆𝑛𝑒𝑡 = Net settlement.

Figure 6.21 Load vs. total settlement plots (Pile Test).

Figure 6.21 shows a load-settlement diagram obtained from field loading and
unloading. For any load 𝑄, the net pile settlement can be calculated as
follows:
When 𝑄 = 𝑄1 → 𝑆𝑛𝑒𝑡(1) = 𝑆𝑡(1) − 𝑆𝑒(1)
When 𝑄 = 𝑄2 → 𝑆𝑛𝑒𝑡(2) = 𝑆𝑡(2) − 𝑆𝑒(2)

These values of 𝑄 can be plotted in a graph against the corresponding net

settlement, 𝑆𝑛𝑒𝑡
 Figure 6.22 Load vs. net settlement plots (Pile Test).

Definition of failure load

1. The load at which settlement continuous to increase without any further
increase of load.
2. The load causing a gross settlement of 10% of the least pile width.
3. The load beyond which there is an increase in gross settlement.
4. The load beyond which there is an increase in net settlement.
5. The load that produces a plastic yielding or net settlement of 6 mm
(0.25 in).
6. The load indicated by the intersection of tangent lines drawn through
the initial, flatter portion of the gross settlement curve and the steeper
portion of the same curve.
7. The load at which the slope of the settlement is equal to 0.25 mm per
10 kN (0.01 in per ton) of test load.
8. One-half of the load at which, when maintained for 24 hours, the net
settlement after the removal of the load does not exceed 0.25 mm per
10 kN (0.01 in per ton) of test load (city of New York).
9. The proposed method by Davisson,1973. (Figure 6.23).

𝐷 (𝑚𝑚) 𝑄𝑢 𝐿
𝑆𝑢 (𝑚𝑚) = 4 + +
120 𝐴𝑝 𝐸𝑝
 Where,
𝑄𝑢 = Ultimate load (kN)
𝐷 = Pile diameter or width (mm)
𝐿 = Pile length (mm)
𝐴𝑝 = Area of pile cross section (mm2)
𝐸𝑝 = Young’s modulus of pile material (kN/mm2)
𝑆𝑢 = Total settlement (mm)

Figure 6.23 Davisson’s method for determination of 𝑄𝑢

When piles are driven into soft clay, a certain zone surrounding the clay
becomes remolded or compressed. This results in a reduction of undrained
shear strength. With time, the loss of undrained shear strength is partially or
fully regained. The time lapse may range from 30 to 60 days (Fig. 6.24).
 Figure 6.24 nature of variation of undrained shear strength with time
around a pile driven into soft clay.

6.18 Elastic Settlement of Piles

Method of Poulos and Davis
𝑄 𝑄𝑎𝑣𝑔 𝐿
𝑆𝑡 = 𝑆𝑛𝑒𝑡 + 𝑆𝑒 = 𝐼𝑝 +
𝐿𝐸𝑠 𝐴𝑝 𝐸𝑝
Where:
𝑄 = the load applied on the pile head.
𝐿 = pile length.
𝐸𝑠 = the modulus of elasticity of the soil.
𝐼𝑝 = the influence factor from Figure 6.25.
𝑄+𝑄𝑤𝑝
𝑄𝑎𝑣𝑔 = is the average pile load = 2

𝑄𝑤𝑝 = the working load at the pile point.

𝐴𝑝 = Area of pile cross section.
𝐸𝑝 = Young’s modulus of pile material.

Figure 6.25 The influence factor, 𝐼𝑝

Vesic’s Method
The total settlement, 𝑆𝑒
𝑆𝑒 = 𝑆𝑒(1) + 𝑆𝑒(2) + 𝑆𝑒(3)
Where:
𝑆𝑒(1) = Elastic shortening of the pile
𝑆𝑒(2) = Settlement of the pile due to the working load at the pile point, 𝑄𝑤𝑝 .
𝑆𝑒(3) = Settlement of the pile due to the working load along the pile shaft, 𝑄𝑤𝑠 .

(𝑄𝑤𝑝 + 𝜉𝑄𝑤𝑠 ) 𝐿
𝑆𝑒(1) =
𝐴𝑝 𝐸𝑝
𝑄𝑤𝑝 = working load at the pile point
𝑄𝑤𝑠 = working load along the pile shaft
𝐴𝑝 = Area of pile cross section.
𝐿 = pile length.
𝐸𝑠 = the modulus of elasticity of the soil.
𝜉 = a constant in the range of 0.50 – 0.67, depend on the skin friction distribution. The
magnitude of 𝜉 will depend on the nature of unit friction (skin) resistance distribution
along the pile shaft. If the distribution of f is uniform or parabolic, 𝜉 = 0.5. However,
for triangular distribution of f, the magnitude of 𝜉 is about 0.67 (Vesic, 1977).
𝑞𝑤𝑝 𝐷 𝑄𝑤𝑝 𝐶𝑝
𝑆𝑒(2) = (1 − 𝜇𝑠2 )𝐼𝑤𝑝 𝑜𝑟 𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑆𝑒(2) =
𝐸𝑠 𝐷 𝑞𝑝

Where,

qp = ultimate point resistance of the pile

𝐷 = width or diameter of the pile
Cp = an empirical coefficient (Table 6.13)
qwp = point load per unit area at the pile point = 𝑄𝑤𝑝 ⁄𝐴𝑝
𝐸𝑠 = modulus of elasticity of soil at or below the pile point.
𝜇𝑠 = Poisson’s ratio of soil
𝐼𝑤𝑝 = influence factor ≈ 0.85
𝑄𝑤𝑠 𝐷 𝑄 𝐶𝑠
𝑆𝑒(3) = (1 − 𝜇𝑠2 )𝐼𝑤𝑠 𝑜𝑟 𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑆𝑒(3) = 𝑤𝑠
𝑝𝐿 𝐸𝑠 𝐿𝑞𝑝
Where:
𝑝 = perimeter of the pile
𝐿 = embedded length of pile
𝐿
𝐼𝑤𝑠 = influence factor = 2 + 0.35√𝐷

𝐿
𝐶𝑠 = an imperical constant = (0.93 + 0.16√𝐷) 𝐶𝑝

Table 6.13 Typical values of 𝐶𝑝

Type of soil Driven pile Bored pile

Sand (dense to loose) 0.02 – 0.04 0.09 – 0.18
Clay (stiff to soft) 0.02 – 0.03 0.03 – 0.06
Silt (dense to loose) 0.03 – 0.05 0.09 – 0.12
Example: The allowable working load on a presstressed concrete pile 21 m long that
has been driven into sand is 502 kN. The pile is octagonal in shape with D = 356 mm
(see Table 6.3). Skin resistance carries 350 kN of the allowable load, and point bearing
carries the rest. Use 𝐸𝑝 = 21 × 106 𝑘𝑁/𝑚2, 𝐸𝑠 = 25 × 103 𝑘𝑁/𝑚2 , 𝜇𝑠 = 0.35, and
𝜉 = 0.62. Determine the settlement of the pile.
Solution:

(𝑄𝑤𝑝 + 𝜉𝑄𝑤𝑠 ) 𝐿
𝑆𝑒(1) =
𝐴𝑝 𝐸𝑝
From Table 6.3 for D=356 mm, the area of pile cross section, 𝐴𝑝 = 1045 𝑐𝑚2 .
Also, perimeter 𝑝 = 1.168 𝑚. Given 𝑄𝑤𝑠 = 350 𝑘𝑁, so
𝑄𝑤𝑝 = 502 − 350 = 152 𝑘𝑁

(152 + 0.62(350))(21)
𝑆𝑒(1) = = 0.00353𝑚 = 3.35 𝑚𝑚
0.1045(21 × 106 )

𝑞𝑤𝑝 𝐷 152 0.356

𝑆𝑒(2) = (1 − 𝜇𝑠2 )𝐼𝑤𝑝 = ( )( ) (1 − 0.352 )(0.85) = 0.0155 𝑚
𝐸𝑠 0.1045 25 × 10 3

= 15.5 𝑚𝑚

𝑄𝑤𝑠 𝐷 𝐿 21
𝑆𝑒(3) = (1 − 𝜇𝑠2 )𝐼𝑤𝑠 , 𝐼𝑤𝑠 = 2 + 0.35√ = 2 + 0.35√ = 4.69
𝑝𝐿 𝐸𝑠 𝐷 0.356

350 0.356
𝑆𝑒(3) = [ ]( ) (1 − 0.352 )(4.69) = 0.00084 𝑚 = 0.84 𝑚𝑚
(1.168)(21) 25 × 103

The total elastic settlement is:

𝑆𝑒 = 𝑆𝑒(1) + 𝑆𝑒(2) + 𝑆𝑒(3) = 3.35 + 15.5 + 0.84 = 19.69 𝑚𝑚

6.19 Laterally Loaded Piles
• Elastic Solution
• Ultimate Load Analysis-Brom’s Method
Elastic Solution
A general method for determining moments and displacements of a vertical pile
embedded in granular soils and subjected to lateral load and moment at the ground
surface was given by Matlock and Reese (1960). Consider a pile of length L subjected
to a lateral force 𝑄𝑔 and a moment 𝑀𝑔 at the ground surface (𝑧=0), as shown in Figure
6.26a. Figure 6.26b shows the general deflected shape of the pile and the soil resistance
caused by the applied load and the moment. According to a simpler Winkler’s model,
an elastic medium (soil in this case) can be replaced by a series of infinitely close
independent elastic springs. Based on this assumption,
𝑃′ (𝑘𝑁/𝑚)
𝑘=
𝑥 (𝑚)
Where,
𝑘 = modulus of subgrade reaction
𝑃′ = pressure on soil
𝑥 = deflection

The subgrade modulus for granular soils at a depth z is defined as: 𝑘𝑧 = 𝑛ℎ 𝑧. Where,
𝑛ℎ = constant of modulus of horizontal subgrade reaction (Table 6.14).

Table 6.14 Representative values of 𝑛ℎ

Soil 𝑛ℎ (𝑘𝑁/𝑚3 )
Dry or moist and
Loose 1800 – 2200
Medium 5500 – 7000
Dense 15000 – 18000
Submerged sand
Loose 1000 – 1400
Medium 3500 – 4500
Dense 9000 – 12000

Referring to Figure 6.26b and using the theory of beams on an elastic foundation, we
can write:
𝑑4𝑥
𝐸𝑝 𝐼𝑝 4 = 𝑝′
𝑑𝑧
Where
𝐸𝑝 = modulus of elasticity in the pile material
𝐼𝑝 = moment of inertia of the pile section

Base on Winkler’ model

𝑃′ = −𝑘𝑥
The sign in the above equation is negative because the soil reaction is in the direction
opposite to the pile deflection. Combining above equations gives:
𝑑4𝑥
𝐸𝑝 𝐼𝑝 4 + 𝑘𝑥 = 0
𝑑𝑧

Figure 6.26 Laterally loaded pile; (b) soil resistance on pile caused by lateral load; (c) sign
convention for displacement, slope, moment, shear, and soil reaction

The solution of above equation results in the following expressions:

Pile deflection at any depth [𝑥𝑧 (𝑧)]:

𝑄𝑔 𝑇 3 𝑀𝑔 𝑇 2
𝑥𝑧 (𝑧) = 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑥
𝐸𝑝 𝐼𝑝 𝐸𝑝 𝐼𝑝
Slope of pile at any depth [𝜃𝑧 (𝑧)]:
 𝑄𝑔 𝑇 2 𝑀𝑔 𝑇
𝜃𝑧 (𝑧) = 𝐴𝜃 + 𝐵𝜃
𝐸𝑝 𝐼𝑝 𝐸𝑝 𝐼𝑝
Moment of pile at any depth [𝑀𝑧 (𝑧)]:

𝑀𝑧 (𝑧) = 𝐴𝑚 𝑄𝑔 𝑇 + 𝐵𝑚 𝑀𝑔

Shear force on pile at any depth [𝑉𝑧 (𝑧)]:

𝑀𝑔
𝑉𝑧 (𝑧) = 𝐴𝑣 𝑄𝑔 + 𝐵𝑣
𝑇

Soil reaction at any depth [𝑝𝑧′ (𝑧)]:

𝑄𝑔 𝑀𝑔
𝑝𝑧′ (𝑧) = 𝐴𝑝′ + 𝐵𝑝 ′ 2
𝑇 𝑇
Where 𝐴𝑥 , 𝐵𝑥 , 𝐴𝜃 , 𝐵𝜃 , 𝐴𝑚 , 𝐵𝑚 , 𝐴𝑣 , 𝐵𝑣 , 𝐴𝑝′ , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵𝑝′ are coefficients.
5 𝐸𝑝 𝐼𝑝
𝑇 = characteristics length of the soil – pile system = √ 𝑛ℎ
When 𝐿 ≥ 5𝑇, the piles is considered to be a long pile. For 𝐿 ≤ 2𝑇, the pile is
considered to be a rigid pile. Table 6.15 gives the values of the coefficients for long
piles (𝐿/𝑇 ≥ 5) in the above equations. Note that, in the first column of table 6.15,

Table 6.15 Coefficients for Long Piles, 𝑘𝑧 = 𝑛ℎ 𝑧

Z, is nondimensional depth, or
𝑧
𝑍=
𝑇
Ultimate Load Analysis-Brom’s Method
Broms (1965) developed a simplified solution for laterally loaded piles based on the
assumptions of (a) shear failure in soil, which is the case for short piles, and (b) bending
of the pile governed by plastic yield resistance of the pile section, which is applicable
for long piles. Brom’s solution for calculating the ultimate load resistance, 𝑄𝑢(𝑔), for
short piles is given in Figure 6.27. A similar solution for piles embedded in cohesive
soil is shown in figure 6.27b. In using figure 8.41a, note that:

Figure 6.27 Brom’s solution for ultimate lateral resistance of short piles (a) in sand,
(b) in clay.

𝜙
𝐾𝑝 = 𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 = tan2 (45 + )
2
0.75𝑞𝑢 0.75𝑞𝑢
𝑐𝑢 = 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑐𝑜ℎ𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 ≈ = = 0.375𝑞𝑢
𝐹𝑆 2
Where,
𝑞𝑢 = unconfined compression strength
Figure 6.28 shows the analysis of Broms for long piles. In the figure, the yield moment
for the pile is:

𝑀𝑦 = 𝑆𝐹𝑦
Where;
𝑀𝑦 = Yield moment for the pile
𝑆 = Section modulus of the pile section
𝐹𝑦 = Yield stress of the pile material

The deflection of the pile head, 𝑥𝑜 , under working load conditions can be estimated
from figure 6.29, the term 𝜂 can be expressed as:
5 𝑛ℎ
𝜂=√
𝐸𝑝 𝐼𝑝

The range of 𝑛ℎ for granular soil is given in table 6.14. Similarly in figure 6.29b, which
is for clay, the term K is the horizontal soil modulus and can be defined as:

𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 (𝑘𝑁/𝑚2 )
𝐾=
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 (𝑚)

Also, the term 𝛽 can be defined as:

4 𝐾𝐷
𝛽=√
4𝐸𝑝 𝐼𝑝

Note that, in Figure 6.29m 𝑄𝑔 is the working load.

Figure 6.28 The solution of Broms for ultimate lateral resistance of long piles (a) in
sand (b) in clay
Figure 6.29 The solution of Broms for estimating deflection of pile head (a) in sand
and (b) in clay.
Example: Consider a steel H-pile (HP 250×85) 25 m long, embedded fully in agranular
soil. Assume that 𝑛ℎ = 12000 𝑘𝑁/𝑚3 . The allowable displacement at the top of the
pile is 8 mm. Determine the allowable lateral load, 𝑄𝑔 . Let 𝑀𝑔 = 0. Use the elastic
𝑘𝑁 𝑘𝑁
solution. let 𝐸𝑝 = 207 × 106 𝑚2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐹𝑦 = 248000 𝑚2.
Solution:
From table 6.1a, 𝐼𝑝 = 123 × 10−6 𝑚4 (about the strong axis)

5 𝐸𝑝 𝐼𝑝 5 (207 × 106 )(123 × 10−6 )

𝑇= √ =√ = 1.16 𝑚
𝑛ℎ 12000
𝐿 25
= = 21.55 > 5, 𝑠𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑛𝑒. 𝐵𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑀𝑔 = 0,
𝑇 1.16
𝑄𝑔 𝑇 3 𝑀𝑔 𝑇 2 𝑄𝑔 𝑇 3 𝑥𝑧 (𝑧)𝐸𝑝 𝐼𝑝
𝑥𝑧 (𝑧) = 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑥 = 𝐴𝑥 , → 𝑄𝑔 =
𝐸𝑝 𝐼𝑝 𝐸𝑝 𝐼𝑝 𝐸𝑝 𝐼𝑝 𝐴𝑥 𝑇 3

At 𝑧 = 0, 𝑥𝑧 = 8 𝑚𝑚 = 0.008 𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐴𝑥 = 2.435 (see Table 6.15), so

(0.008)(207 × 106 )(123 × 10−6 )

𝑄𝑔 = = 53.59 𝑘𝑁
(2.435)(1.163 )

This magnitude of 𝑄𝑔 is based on the limiting displacement condition only. However,

the magnitude of 𝑄𝑔 based on the moment capacity of the pile also needs to be
determined. For 𝑀𝑔 = 0
𝑀𝑧 (𝑧) = 𝐴𝑚 𝑄𝑔 𝑇 + 𝐵𝑚 𝑀𝑔 = 𝐴𝑚 𝑄𝑔 𝑇

From Table 6.15, the maximum value of 𝐴𝑚 at any depth is 0.772. The maximum
allowable moment that the pile can carry is:

𝐼𝑝
𝑀𝑧(max) = 𝐹𝑦
𝑑1
2

From table 6.1a 𝐼𝑝 = 123 × 10−6 𝑚4 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑1 = 0.254 𝑚

𝐼𝑝 123 × 10−6
= = 968.5 × 10−6 𝑚3
𝑑1 0.254
( 2 )
2
𝑀𝑧(max) (248000)(968.5 × 10−6 )
𝑄𝑔 = = = 268.2 𝑘𝑁
𝐴𝑚 𝑇 (0.772)(1.16)

So, 𝑸𝒈 = 𝟓𝟑. 𝟓𝟗 𝒌𝑵
 Pile-Driving Formulas
Pile Capacity for Vibration-Driven Piles
Wave Equation Analysis

6.20 Negative Skin Friction

Negative skin friction is a downward drag force exerted on a pile by the soil surrounding
it. Such a force can exist under the following conditions, among others:
1. If a fill of clay soil is placed over a granular soil layer into which a pile is driven,
the fill will gradually consolidate. The consolidation process will exert a
downward drag force on the pile (see Figure 6.30a) during the period of
consolidation.
2. If a fill of granular soil is placed over a layer of soft clay, as shown in Figure
6.30b, it will induce the process of consolidation in the clay layer and thus exert
a downward drag on the pile.
3. Lowering of the water table will increase the vertical effective stress on the soil
at any depth, which will induce consolidation settlement in clay. If a pile is
located in the clay layer, it will be subjected to a downward drag force.

Figure 6.30 Negative skin friction

In some cases, the downward drag force may be excessive and cause foundation failure.
This section outlines two tentative methods for the calculation of negative skin friction.
Clay fills over granular soil (Fig. 6.30a)
Similar to the 𝛽 method, the negative (downward) skin stress on the pile is:
𝑓𝑛 = 𝐾 ′ 𝜎𝑜′ tan 𝛿 ′
Where,
𝐾 ′ = earth pressure coefficient = 1 − sin 𝜙
𝜎𝑜′ = vertical effective stress at any depth z, 𝜎𝑜′ = 𝛾𝑓′ 𝑧
𝛾𝑓′ = effective unit weight of fill
𝛿 ′ = soil – pile friction angle ≈ (0.5 − 0.7)𝜙 ′

Hence, the total downward drag force on a pile is:

𝐻𝑓 𝑝𝐾 ′ 𝛾𝑓′ 𝐻𝑓2 tan 𝛿 ′

𝑄𝑛 = ∫ (𝑝𝐾 ′ 𝛾𝑓′ tan 𝛿 ′ )𝑧𝑑𝑧 =
0 2

𝐻𝑓 = height of the clay fill.

Granular soil fill over clay (Fig. 6.30b)

In this case, the evidence indicates that the negative skin stress on the pile may exist
from 𝑧 = 0 𝑡𝑜 𝑧 = 𝐿1 , which is referred to as the neutral depth.

(𝐿 − 𝐻𝑓 ) 𝐿 − 𝐻𝑓 𝛾𝑓′ 𝐻𝑓 2𝛾𝑓′ 𝐻𝑓
𝐿1 = [ + ′ ]−
𝐿1 2 𝛾 𝛾′
Where,
𝛾𝑓′ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛾 ′ = effective unit weight of the fill and the underlying clay layer,
respectively.
For end-bearing piles,
𝐿1 = 𝐿 − 𝐻𝑓
The unit negative skin friction at any depth from 𝑧 = 0 𝑡𝑜 𝑧 = 𝐿1 is:

𝑓𝑛 = 𝐾 ′ 𝜎𝑜′ tan 𝛿 ′
Where,
𝐾 ′ = 𝐾𝑜 = 1 − sin 𝜙
𝜎𝑜′ = 𝛾𝑓′ 𝐻𝑓 + 𝛾 ′ 𝑧
𝛿 ′ = (0.5 − 0.7)𝜙 ′
𝐿1 𝐿1
𝑄𝑛 = ∫ 𝑝𝑓𝑛 𝑑𝑧 = ∫ 𝑝𝐾 ′ (𝛾𝑓′ 𝐻𝑓 + 𝛾 ′ 𝑧) tan 𝛿 ′ 𝑑𝑧
0 0

𝒑𝑲′ 𝜸′ 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜹′ 𝟐
𝑸𝒏 = (𝒑𝑲′ 𝜸′𝒇 𝑯𝒇 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜹′ )𝑳𝟏 + 𝑳𝟏
𝟐
Example: For the figure shown below, let 𝐻𝑓 = 2 𝑚. The pile is circular in cross section
with a diameter of 0.305 m. For the fill that is above the water table, 𝛾𝑓 = 16 𝑘𝑁/𝑚3
and 𝜙 ′ = 32𝑜 . Determine the total drag force. Use 𝛿 ′ = 0.6𝜙 ′

Solution:
𝑝𝐾 ′ 𝛾𝑓′ 𝐻𝑓2 tan 𝛿 ′ 𝜋(0.305)(1 − sin 32)(16)(22) tan[0.6(32)]
𝑄𝑛 = = = 𝟓. 𝟎𝟐 𝒌𝑵
2 2

Example: For the figure shown below, let 𝐻𝑓 = 2 𝑚. The pile is circular in cross section
′
with a diameter of 0.305 m, 𝛾𝑓 = 16.5 𝑘𝑁/𝑚3, 𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡(𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑦) = 17.2 𝑘𝑁/𝑚3 , 𝜙𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑦 =
𝑜
34 , and L=20 m. The water table coincides with the top of the clay layer. Determine
′
the downward drag force. Use 𝛿 ′ = 0.6𝜙𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑦

Solution:

(𝐿 − 𝐻𝑓 ) 𝐿 − 𝐻𝑓 𝛾𝑓′ 𝐻𝑓 2𝛾𝑓′ 𝐻𝑓
𝐿1 = [ + ′ ]−
𝐿1 2 𝛾 𝛾′
 (20 − 2) 20 − 2 16.5 × 2 2(16.5)(2) 242.4
𝐿1 = [ + ]− = − 8.93
𝐿1 2 (17.2 − 9.81) (17.2 − 9.81) 𝐿1

𝐿1 = 11.75 𝑚

𝑝𝐾 ′ 𝛾 ′ tan 𝛿 ′ 2
𝑄𝑛 = (𝑝𝐾 ′ 𝛾𝑓′ 𝐻𝑓 tan 𝛿 ′ )𝐿1 + 𝐿1
2

𝑄𝑛 = [𝜋(0.305)(1 − sin 34) (16.5)(2) tan(0.6 × 34)](11.75)

(11.75) × 𝜋(0.305) × (1 − sin 34) (17.2 − 9.81) tan(0.6 × 34)

+
2

𝑄𝑛 = 60.78 + 79.97 = 𝟏𝟒𝟎. 𝟕𝟓 𝒌𝑵