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DHARMSINH DESAI UNIVERSITY

DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

TRANSPORT PHENOMENA LABORATORY MANUAL

 Serial PAGE
No TITLE OF THE EXPERIMENT NO

MOMENTUM TRANSPORT

1. DETERMINE VISCOSITY OF NEWTONIAN FLUID

2. EFFLUX TIME
3. VISCOSITY MEASUREMENT BY PIPELINE METHOD
VISCOSITY MEASUREMENT BY FALLING BALL
4. VISCOMETER
5. BROOKE FIELD VISCOMETER

MASS TRANSPORT

6. MASS TRANSFER COEFFICIENT IN TURBULENT FLOW

MASS TRANSFER COEFFICEINT ON INCLINED SUREFACE
7. IN LAMINAR FLOW
MASS TRANSFER COEFFICIENT IN WETTED WALL
8. COLUMN
9. GAS ABSORPTION WITH CHEMICAL REACTION
HEAT TRANSPORT

10. BATCH HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENT

MEASUREMENT OF HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENT OVER
11. FLAT PLATE
12. MEASUREMENT OF THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF SOLIDS
 DETERMINATION OF VISCOSITY OF NEWTONIAN FLUID AT
DIFFERENT CONCENTRATION
Aim: Determination of viscosity of a given Newtonian fluid using Cannon- Fenske viscometer at
different concentration.

Apparatus: Cannon- Fenske viscometer, stop watch, Rubber tube.

Fluid: glycerine, acetone, water.

Theory:

Application of Newton’s law of viscosity to the flow of fluids under steady state
condition through a tube of uniform circular cross – section results in the Hagen- Poissaelle
equation relationship:

𝜋(−∆𝑃)𝑅4
𝑄=
8µ

Where,

∆𝑃 = Total downward pressure – Total upward pressure

The assumptions in the development of the above equation can be written as follows:

1. The flow is laminar. Reynold number is <2100

2. The density is constant. (Incompressible fluid)
3. The flow is independent of time. (Steady state)
4. End effects are neglected.
5. The fluid is Newtonian.

This assumption is valid except for very dilute gases or very narrow capillary tubes in which the
molecular mean free path is comparable to the tube diameter (“slip flow” regime) or much
greater than the tube diameter (“Knudsen flow” regime or “free molecular regime”)

When the total pressure change is due to hydraulic head alone:

For a particular measuring device, where the volume of liquid passing through the capillary and
the hydrostatic head are same, the kinematic viscosity is related to the efflux time as follows:

Procedure:

• The temperature of the constant temperature bath is set to a predetermined value at which
viscosity is to be measured.
• Clean the viscometer thoroughly with water before using it, further with acetone and dry
with filtered air.
• Attach a short section of rubber tubing, equipped with a pinch clamp to narrow leg of
viscometer.
• Fill the liquid in the leg which has large reservoir up to the etched mark.
• Immerse the viscometer in constant temperature bath so that the surface of bath is at least
1 cm above the top of two reservoirs.
• Vertically align the viscometer in the constant temperature bath before measuring any
efflux time. Viscometer is said to be aligned with the center of the two small reservoirs
vertically above the center of the large reservoir.
• Draw the liquid of the known concentration up to first small reservoir above the working
capillary by applying suction of the narrow leg of viscometer up to the level way about
0.5cm the etched mark.
• Close he pinch clamp.
• At this part an unbroken column of liquid must be extended from the large reservoir of
small ones.
• Open the pinch clamp & note down the time required for the fluid to pass from upper
etched mark to lower etched mark.
• Repeat the above procedure for water and for different concentration of glycerin solution
& note down the corresponding efflux time.

Graphs:

1. Kinematic viscosity v/s % concentration of glycerin

2. Absolute viscosity v/s % concentration of glycerin
3. Density v/s %concentration of glycerin

Room Temperature :

Observation table

Sr No Concentration Efflux Density Kinematic Absolute

of glycerine Time Viscosity Viscosity
solution (sec)
 1 0%
2 20%
3 40%
4 60%
5 80%

Result Table:

Sr No. Concentration of µpractically µtheoretically

Glycerine
1 0%
2 20%
3 40%
4 60%
5 80%

Calculation:

• Kinematic viscosity
• Efflux Time
• Absolute viscosity
• Draw graph of µ x

Now we have,
Now we have,

µ = a+bx+cx2
Solve the equations and find three constant a , b, c and calculate
µtheoretical µ = a+bx+cx2
 DETERMINATION OF VISCOSITY OF NEWTONIAN FLUID AT
DIFFERENT TEMPERATURE
Aim: Determination of viscosity of a given Newtonian fluid using Cannon- Fenske viscometer at
different temperature.

Apparatus: Cannon- Fenske viscometer, stop watch, Rubber tube, Burner, Pipette.

Fluid: glycerin, acetone, water.

Theory:

Application of Newton’s law of viscosity to the flow of fluids under steady state
condition through a tube of uniform circular cross – section results in the Hagen- Poissaelle
equation relationship:
𝜋(−∆𝑃)𝑅4
𝑄= 8µ

Where,

∆𝑃 = Total downward pressure – Total upward pressure

The assumptions in the development of the above equation can be written as follows:

6. The flow is laminar. Reynold number is <2100

7. The density is constant. (Incompressible fluid)
8. The flow is independent of time. (Steady state)
9. End effects are neglected.
10. The fluid is Newtonian.

This assumption is valid except for very dilute gases or very narrow capillary tubes in which the
molecular mean free path is comparable to the tube diameter (“slip flow” regime) or much
greater than the tube diameter (“Knudsen flow” regime or “free molecular regime”)
When the total pressure change is due to hydraulic head alone:

For a particular measuring device, where the volume of liquid passing through the capillary and
the hydrostatic head are same, the kinematic viscosity is related to the efflux time as follows:

Procedure:

• The temperature of the constant temperature bath is set to a predetermined value at which
viscosity is to be measured.
• Clean the viscometer thoroughly with water before using it, further with acetone and dry
with filtered air.
• Attach a short section of rubber tubing, equipped with a pinch clamp to narrow leg of
viscometer.
• Fill the liquid in the leg which has large reservoir up to the etched mark.
• Immerse the viscometer in constant temperature bath so that the surface of bath is at least
1 cm above the top of two reservoirs.
• Vertically align the viscometer in the constant temperature bath before measuring any
efflux time. Viscometer is said to be aligned with the center of the two small reservoirs
vertically above the center of the large reservoir.
• Draw the liquid of the known concentration up to first small reservoir above the working
capillary by applying suction of the narrow leg of viscometer up to the level way about
0.5cm the etched mark.
• Close he pinch clamp.
• At this part an unbroken column of liquid must be extended from the large reservoir of
small ones.
• Open the pinch clamp & note down the time required for the fluid to pass from upper
etched mark to lower etched mark.
• Repeat the above procedure for water and for different concentration of glycerin solution
& note down the corresponding efflux time.

Graphs:

4. Kinematic viscosity v/s % concentration of glycerin

5. Absolute viscosity v/s % concentration of glycerin
6. Density v/s %concentration of glycerin

Result Table:

Sr No Concentration Temp Efflux Density Kinematic Absolute

of glycerine Time Viscosity Viscosity
 solution (sec)
1 0% 30
40%
80%
2 0% 40
40%
80%
3 0% 50
40%
80%

Calculation:

• Kinematic viscosity
• Efflux Time
• Absolute viscosity
• Draw graph of µ x

Now we have,
Now we have,
𝐵⁄
µ = 𝐴𝑒 𝑇

Solve the equations and find three constant A, B and calculate

𝐵⁄
µtheoretical µ = 𝐴𝑒 𝑇
 BATCH HEAT TRANSFER COOLING OF A LIQUID

Aim: To find out overall heat transfer coefficient and to predict the temperature of the batch with
respect to time

Apparatus: 1 litre beaker, thermometer, stirrer or glass rod heater or burner

Fluid: Water

Theory: Assumptions

1) Density and specific heat variation with respect to the temperature are assumed to be constant

2) At any instant time the temperature is assumed to be constant everywhere in the bath

Rate of heat accumulated within the system= - rate of heat transfer lost from the system

Where,

V=The volume of the liquid taken inside the vessel

Tair=air temperature in °C

Rearranging equation

Let

At θ=0 T=Ti, θ= θ, T=T

Integrating equation we get

ln(T-Tair)-ln(Ti-Tair)= -mθ

T-Tair=(Ti-Tair)e(-mθ)

T=(Ti-Tair) e(-mθ)+Tair

Procedure:

1) Take about 700 ml of water in a beaker and heat it upto 70°C.

2) Pour this hot water in in an insulated beaker. Start stirring with the glass rod and note down
the fall temperature in the beaker with the help of thermometer as a function of time.
3) Since outside of beaker is insulated so heat transfer takes place only by the open upper
liquid surface.
4) Repeat the same procedure with 500 ml water at different temperature.

Graphs:

1) Plot a graph of ln(T-Tair) Vs Time .From the negative slope of the line we get m

2) Plot a graph of Temperature Vs Time

Results: Overall heat transfer coefficients are as follows.

1) For 700 ml of water = _________________ Kcal/hr m² °C
2) For 500 ml of water = _________________ Kcal/hr m² °C

Observation:

1)Volume of water:____________ ml

2)Density of water:_____________ kg/m³

3)Specific heat of water:_____________ Kj/kg°C

4)Temp of air:_________ °C

Observation table:

Sr no Time(sec) Temp(°C) Ln(T-Tair) Theo T

Calculations:

1)From graph of ln(T-Tair) Vs Time

m=__________

2) Theoritical temp:

T=Tair+(Ti-Tair)e(-mθ)

3) Overall heat transfer coefficient U=____________ Kcal/hr m² °C

 HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENT FOR FLAT PLATE

AIM: To Determine the Heat Transfer Coefficient of A Flat Plate

FLUID: water
APPARATUS:
• A stainless steel plate with a facility to measure inlet and outlet temperature of hot And
cold fluid with an accuracy of 1 C.
• The hot fluid used is water with temperature in the range 40–90 C.
• Mild steel tank with a heater to act as a reservoir for the hot fluid.

• Cold fluid is collected in a bucket.

• Two temperature sensors at the inlet and outlet points of plate.
• Heater for heating of a water which is controlled by thermostat.

THEORY:
Free convection
In this experiment free convection heat transfer occurs due to the motion of fluid by density
difference only. any hot body placed in a fluid placed in a fluid at a higher or lower temperature
than the body, will have transfer of heat by free convection.
Due to temperature difference between the body and the surrounding fluid, heat flows between the
two, and causes density change in the fluid and in the vicinity of body surface. the fluid with higher
density flows downwards while that with lower density rises up .this motion of the fluid is
responsible for heat convection since there is no external agency causing the motion of fluid, and
motion is caused naturally due to gravity alone ,we call the phenomenon as natural or free
convection heat exchangers from stream radiators in heating of buildings.
Free convection correlations for horizontal plate used are

𝜌2 𝑔𝐵∆𝑡𝐿3
Grashof Number Gr = 𝜇2

𝜇𝐶𝑝
Prandtl Number Pr = 𝑘

Rayleigh number Ra = GrPr

For Ra 104-107 ,Nu = 0.54 (GrPr)1/4

For Ra 107-1011, Nu= 0.15 (GrPr)1/3

PROCEDURE:

• Set the inlet temperature to a high value (70C).

• Set the flow rate to appropriate value. Note down the value and maintain it constant
• Start the hot water tap and start the flow on flat plate .

• Gather the water coming from flat plate and measure its temperature using a thermometer.

• Measure the temperature at inlet and outlet of the plate.

• Repeat the same procedure for different flow rate.

OBSREVATIONS:
Length of plate(l): ___30 cm.
Width of plate(w): ___3 cm.
Heat transfer area(A)= 30*3 cm2

Tank dimensions 15*15*15 cm3

Inlet Temprature (Ti) = ____ C
OutletTemprature (To) =_____ C

OBSERVATION TABLE:

Sr.no Flowrate Inlet Outlet Mean film

(ml/sec) Temp. Temp(C) Temp.(C)
(C)

CALCULATIONS:
𝑇𝑖+𝑇𝑜
Mean Film Temprature = 2
Fluid properties are calculated at mean film Temprature____C
K= _____ W/m.K
Cp= _____ j/kg.K
μ = _______ kg/m.s
∆t= Ti-To C
ρ = ________ kg/m3
B = 1/(T+273)
________𝐾 −1

1.Prandtl no.

𝜇𝐶𝑝
Pr = 𝐾
=________
2.Grashof no.

𝜌 2 𝑔𝐵∆𝑡𝐿3
Gr = 𝜇2
 =_________

3.Rayleigh no.
Ra = GrPr
=_________

4.Nusselt No.

Nu = hl/k = 0.15(GrPr)1/3
=_________

5.Heat transfer coefficient

h = ________ W/m2.k

6.Heat transferred

Q = hA(Ti-To)
=_______ Watt

RESULT:
Flow rate(ml/s) h(w/m2k) Q(w)
 MASS TRANSFER CO-EFFICIENT-I
Aim: To determine the mass transfer coefficient in case of benzoic acid

Apparatus: 1 liter beaker, Stirrer, Pipette, Burette, Conical flask, Stopwatch.

Chemicals: Sodium hydroxide, Benzoic acid pellet, Phenolphthalein, Oxalic acid.

Theory:

In the homogeneous phase concentration profile is driving force for mass transfer depend on
whether flow condition over a plate is laminar or turbulent.The mass transfer flux proportionality
constant factor is known as mass transfer coefficient

K=N flux/ΔC avg

Procedure:

1) Take about 700 ml of water in 1 liter beaker.

2) Hang the benzoic acid pellet of known dimension with the help of a stand and suspend it in a
large volume of water

3) Stir the system gently

4) Here the pellet is stationary, moving fluid is water which flow over pellet surface.

5) After 1 hour time interval take 15 ml of solution from the beaker and titrate it against
NaOH(before the standardized NaOH with oxalic acid)

6) Analyze only one sample of beaker solution

7) Also make saturated solution of benzoic acid, titrate it against NaOH and measure its
concentration (Cbs)

8) Take the pellet out of water and measure its new dimensions.(i.e. diameter and length).

Result:

1) The mass transfer rate Nb=_________________ gm mole/m²sec

2) The mass transfer rate =_________________ m³/m²sec

Observation:
1) Normality of Naoh:

N1V1= N2V2

N2= N1V1/V2

Where,

N1=Normality of oxalic acid

V1=Volume of oxalic acid solution

N2=Normality of Naoh

V2=10 ml of Naoh

2) Dimension of pellet

Initially at time t=0 Avg Diameter=___________

Avg Length=___________

At time t=1 hr Avg Diameter=___________

Avg Length=___________

Initial area of pellet A1=2пrl+2пr² (t=0)

New area of pellet A2=2пrl+2пr² (t=1 hr)

Average area Aavg=(A1+A2)/2

3)Concentration of saturated benzoic acid solution

NbVb=N2V2

Nb = N2V2/Vb

Where ,

Nb=Normality of saturated benzoic acid solution

Vb=10 ml of saturated benzoic acid solution

N2=Normality of NaOH

V2=Volume of NaOH

So CBS=Nb gmole/liter
4) Concentration of benzoic acid solution after 1 hour

Nb1Vb1=N2V2

Nb1= N2V2/Vb1

Nb1=Normality of benzoic acid solution after 1 hour

Vb1=15 ml of benzoic acid solution after 1 hour

N2=Normality of Naoh

V2=Volume of Naoh

So CB1=Nb1 gmole/liter

5)Driving force ΔCavg:

ΔCavg=Cb2-(Cb1+0)/2

6) Mass transfer rate:

Nb=0.7* CB1/ Δt Aavg Δt=time interval (1hr)

7)Mass transfer coefficient

K=Na/ΔCavg
 MASS TRANSFER CO-EFFICIENT-II

AIM: To determine the mass transfer co-efficient in case of benzoic acid for laminar flow.

APPARATUS: Pipette, Burette, Stop watch, 1 liter beaker, Bucket, Pipe, Benzoic acid fused
plate and its stand.

CHEMICALS: Sodium hydroxide, benzoic acid fused on a plate, phenolphthalein, oxalic acid.

THEORY: In the homogeneous phase, a concentration profile is the driving force for mass
transfer depending on whether the flow condition over the benzoic acid fused plate is laminar or
turbulent. The mass transfer flux proportionality constant is known as mass transfer co-efficient.
The mass transfer coefficient is a diffusion rate constant that relates the mass transfer rate, mass
transfer area and the concentration change as driving force.

K = Nflux/ (ΔC) avg

This can be used to quantify the mass transfer between phases, immiscible and partially miscible
fluid mixtures (or between a fluid and a porous solid). Quantifying mass transfer allows for
design and manufacture of separation process equipment that can meet specified requirements,
estimate what will happen in real life situations (chemical spill), etc.

Mass transfer coefficients can be estimated from many different theoretical equations,
correlations, and analogies that are functions of material properties, intensive properties and flow
regime (laminar or turbulent flow). Selection of the most applicable model is dependent on the
materials and the system, or environment, being studied.

PROCEDURE:

• Connect the pipe to a water outlet and adjust the flow to laminar condition.
• Now, place the outlet of the pipe just above the plate such that the water coming out of it
covers the benzoic acid fused plate completely.
• Start the timer as soon as water starts flowing over the plate.
• Collect all the water coming downwards from the plate in a bucket.
• After an interval of 1 hour take 15 ml of solution from the bucket and titrate it against
NaOH. (Before that standardize the NaOH with oxalic acid)
• Analyze only one sample of the bucket solution.
• Also make saturated solution of Benzoic acid and titrate it against NaOH & measure its
concentration (CBS).
• Measure the dimensions of the benzoic acid fused plate.
RESULT:

1.) The mass transfer rate NB = __________ g mole/m2sec.

2.) Mass transfer co-efficient = __________ m3/m2sec.

OBSERVATIONS:

(1) Normality of NaOH:

N1V1 = N2V2
N2 = N1V1/V2
Where,
N1 = Normality of oxalic acid solution.
N2 = Normality of NaOH solution.
V1 = Volume of oxalic acid solution.
V2 = 10 ml of Naoh solution.

(2) Dimensions of the plate:

Average Length of the plate =
Average width of the plate =

Area of the plate = Length * Width =

(3) Concentration of saturated Benzoic acid solution:

NBVB = N2V2

NB = N2V2/VB

Where,
NB = Normality of saturated benzoic acid solution.
N2 = Normality of NaOH solution.
VB = 10 ml of saturated benzoic acid solution.
V2 = Volume of Naoh solution.

(4) Concentration of Benzoic acid solution after 1 hr:

NB1VB1 = N2V2
NB1 = N2V2/VB1
Where,
 NB = Normality of benzoic acid solution after 1 hr.
N2 = Normality of NaOH solution.
VB = 15 ml of saturated benzoic acid solution after 1 hr.
V2 = Volume of Naoh solution.

Therefore, CB1 = NB1 = _______ gm mole/ liter

(5) Driving force (ΔC)avg:

(ΔC)avg = CBS – (CB1 + 0)/2

(6) Mass Transfer Rate:

NB = (0.7*CB1)/(Δt*A)
Δt = time interval (1 hr)

(7) Mass transfer Co-efficient:

K = NB/(ΔC)avg
 THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF SOLID

Aim: -To Obtain the Thermal Conductivity of Solids of Different Material.

Apparatus: - Large Temperature Control Bath, Heater, Diaphragm Pump, Circulation Chamber,
Copper-Constantan Thermocouples connected to a Digital Thermometer, Solid Test Specimen,
Stopwatch, Agitator, Thermometer

Theory: -
Thermal conductivity is an important transport property of matter.
The rates of heat flow, particularly in solids, are determined by the magnitude of thermal
conductivity, which reflects the capacity of the material to transmit energy by molecular
mechanisms. Like density or heat capacity, thermal conductivity is a state property, and its value
is generally a function of local temperature, pressure, and chemical composition of a material.
Thermal conductivity, denoted by k, is defined by Fourier's law as the proportionality factor
between the heat flux q and a temperature gradient, which is the driving force for heat flow:
q = − k ∇T 1.1
The minus sign in Fourier's law indicates that heat always flows from regions of high temperature
to regions of lower temperature.
The thermal conductivity of solids can exhibit values that range over many ordersof magnitude.
Good conductors such as metals have high conductivity, while good insulators, like wool, have
much smaller values. It is necessary to measure the conductivity of a material experimentally in
order to ascertain the correct value of k to use in quantitative heat-transfer calculations. This
experiment demonstrates one method for measuring the thermal conductivity of solids.
This experiment is based on measurement of transient temperature changes in asample of an
initially cool solid material after it is immersed in a hot fluid bath. The experiment is modeled by
use of Fourier's law, combined with the principle of conservation of energy, in order to obtain a
theoretical relation for temperature as a function of time in the unsteady-state heating process.
Comparison between experimental data for temperature as a function of time and the theoretical
prediction allows calculation of the thermal conductivity.
A microscopic energy balance in a homogeneous solid, where the physical properties are assumed
to be constant yields

1.2
In solids of simple geometry, Equation 1.2 can be used along with appropriate boundary conditions
to solve for the temperature T within the solid body as a function of time t as well as position.
As an example consider a thin, wide slab of solid material with thickness 2b that is initially at a
uniform temperature To. At time t=0 the slab is exposed on its surfaces to a fluid held at a different
temperature T∞. The temperature profiles in the solid can be calculated from Equation 2 if the heat
conduction from the edges of the slab is neglected and the temperature profile is taken to be a
function only of time and distance y. The position coordinate y is measured from the center plane
of the slab, and Equation 1.2 becomes,

1.3
It is convenient to express Equation 1.3 in dimensionless form. Let a dimensionless temperature
be defined as

1.4
where T∞ is the surrounding fluid temperature and To is the solid’s initial temperature. A
dimensionless position η is defined as

1.5
where b is the distance from the center to the surface of the slab. The dimensionless time, τ, is
defined as

1.6
where the thermal diffusivity, α, is
 1.7
Observe that the magnitude of the thermal diffusivity is proportional to the value of the thermal
conductivity, k. Equation 1.3 becomes

1.8
Two boundary conditions and an initial conditions are needed to solve the problem.
At t=0, T=To, which in dimensionless from becomes,
Θ = 1 at τ= 0 1.9
In general, heat transfer from a stirred fluid to a solid surface is not perfectly efficient. In that case
T1 is not equal to T∞ at all times, and the boundary condition for solving Equation 1 must be
established accordingly. Although the flow patterns and convective heat transfer in the fluid phase
surrounding the solid may be quite complex, it is common to represent the heat-transfer efficiency
by use of Newton's "law" of cooling:

1.10
where q1 is the flux of heat crossing the solid-fluid interface into the fluid. Equation 1.10 is not a
fundamental law; it is merely a convenient approximation used to describe the efficiency of the
fluid-side heat-transfer process. It defines the proportionality factor h, the fluid-film heat transfer
coefficient, the value of which depends on the flow conditions and geometry as well as the
properties of the fluid. Better mixing and more efficient heat transfer give larger values of h.
Assuming that in a given situation, one can estimate the value of h, Equation 1.10 can be used as
a more realistic boundary condition on the solid surface instead of thecondition of a constant
temperature. That is, the appropriate boundary condition for solving Equation 1.2 for a slab
becomes

1.11
where the first relation expresses Fourier's law for the heat flux on the solid side of the interface
and the second gives the flux on the fluid side.
In dimensionless form, Equation 1.11 becomes
 1.12
where the dimensionless parameter Bi is defined as

1.13
and called the Biot number. The magnitude of the Biot number indicates the resistance to heat flow
of the solid body relative to that in the surrounding fluid.

The dimensionless temperature at the centre of the slab may be approximated accurately by

1.14
where A1 is a combination of constants appearing in the first term in Equation 1.15. At these longer
times a semilog plot of Θ versus τ should become a straight line with a slope
of –β2 and an intercept of lnA1.
Similar relations can be derived for unsteady conduction in a cylinder or in a sphere by solving
Equation 1.2 in cylindrical or spherical coordinates. The results for a cylinder are

1.15
with the eigenvalues being given as the roots of

1.16
 Figure 1.1Diagram of the experimental apparatus.
Procedure: -
(As shown in the figure 1.1 there are two sets of tanks from which bigger tanks (1 & 2) are used
as industrial pilot model and the smaller tanks (1 & 2) set is used as laboratory model.)

1. Turn on the heater, if it has not been done, and maintain the bath temperature at 600C.
2. As we are using laboratory model open valve V-4 and V-2 and close all the remaining valves.
3. Turn on the circulation pump, and check that there is flow through the test chamber.
4. Ensure that the bath has reached the pre-determined temperature and that it is holding constant.
5. Inspect the digital thermometers and make sure that they are all reading room temperature
properly. Note any offset observed with a particular thermocouple.
6. Now take metal specimen for your experiment. Check the dimensions, and note the materials
of the solid test specimens that will be used.
7. Just prior to placing a test specimen in the tank 2, measure the bath temperature with the
mercury thermometer, and record the temperature at the centre of the test specimen.
8. Place the test specimen in the tank 2 and record the temperature history at the centre of the
specimen by recording both time and temperature as the solid heats up.
9. This may be done most conveniently by choosing a temperature, using the stopwatch to record
when that temperature is reached, and then selecting the next temperature to be recorded. Be
careful not to turn off the stopwatch when interval readings are taken. Take as many readings
as possible at the beginning of a run while the temperature is changing most rapidly. Later the
data may be taken in a more leisurely manner. Take data until the solid centre line temperature
reaches at least 95% of its ultimate change.
10. Just after the measurement of the temperature history at the centre of the test specimen has
been completed, once again measure the bath temperature with the mercury thermometer.

Note: Initial filling and any make-up of water lost from the bath should be done with hot tap water
to minimize bath-temperature recovery time.

Calculations: -
1. For each of the known materials tested, plot the temperature-time data in dimensionless
form on a semi-log graph, according to Equation 1.14 Obtain the value of β1 from the
slope of the linear region.
2. Now find the Biot number,
Biot number = 1 − ( β × cotβ)
3. To find Heat flow,
Heat flow = molar flow × heat capacity ×(inlet temperature − outlet temperature)
4. To find heat transfer coefficient,
h = Q / (A×t)
5. To find volume to surface ratio of Specimen,

Surface area of specimen = 2××r2 + ×D× t

Volume of specimen = /4×D2×t

B = Volume of specimen / surface area of specimen
6. To find thermal conductivity from Biot number,
Bi = h × b ÷ K

Result: - Thermal Conductivity of Solid is _________W/m K.

 VISCOSITY OF NEWTONIAN AND NON-NEWTONIAN FLUIDS

AIM: To determine viscosity of Non-Newtonian fluid using Brookfield viscometer.

Equipment:Brookfield Viscometer (The Brookfield DV-III-RV Rheometer)

Chemicals: Carbopol, SCMC, Water

Theory:

Of all the fluid properties, viscosity requires the greatest consideration in the study
of fluid flow. Viscosity is that property of a liquid by virtue of which it offers resistance to shear
stress. When a shearing force is applied to a fluid at rest it causes the fluid to deform. There are
two major causes of viscosity in fluids: molecular attraction and transfer of molecular momentum.

The viscosity of real materials can be significantly affected by such variables as shear
rate, temperature, pressure, molecular structure, molecular weight and time of shearing. The
viscosity of a gas increases with temperature, but the viscosity of a liquid decreases with
temperature. The basic unit of viscosity is the poise, 1P= 1g /(cm*s) =0.1 Pa.s. It is widely used
for materials such as high-polymer solutions and molten polymers. However, it is too large a unit
for most common fluids. Hence, the viscosity of a fluid is expressed in centipoise, where 100
centipoise is equal to 1poise.

Fluids may be classified as Newtonian or non-Newtonian. In Newtonian fluid, there is a

linear relation between the magnitude of applied shear stress and the resulting rate of deformation.
Newtonian fluids have a constant viscosity (dynamic or absolute viscosity) at a given temperature
such as water, benzene ethyl alcohol or aqueous solutions of salts and sugar. However, a wide
range of industrially important liquids, such as solutions of high molecular weight polymers,
colloids, suspensions, and emulsions exhibit more complex behaviour, which is termed non-
Newtonian. In non-Newtonian fluid, there is a nonlinear relationship between the magnitude of
applied shear stress and the rate of angular deformation. The viscosity is not independent of the
velocity gradient. Namely, the viscosity will vary with the rate of shear (the difference between
velocities of parallel faces of a fluid element divided by the distances between the faces) of the
fluid. They have a variable viscosity at a constant temperature.
Viscosity of liquidsdecreases with temperature and in gas viscosity increases with
increases in temperature.
There are many types of non-Newtonian fluids as it is stated above, each having distinct
properties. Measurement of these viscosities is more involved and requires the additional function
of time. Non- Newtonian Fluids are classified into two categories, which are time independent
non-Newtonian Fluids (Pseudoplastic, Shear Thickening, Bingham Fluids) and time dependent
non-Newtonian Fluids (Thixotropic, Rheopectic).
Examples:

Sr.
Fluid Type
No.
1 Water, Benzene, CCl4 Newtonian
2 Toothpaste, Sewage sludge,Paints,Jellies Bingham (Non Newtonian)
Psuedo Plastic (Non
3 Human Blood, Solution of High molecular Polymer
Newtonian)
4 Pulp in water Dilatent
5 Enamels,Lipstic Thixotropic
6 Gypsum, Bentonite solution Rheopectic

Newtonian fluids:

Application of Newton’s law of viscosity and conservation to the steady flow of a

constant density fluid through a straight tube of uniform circular cross section of length L leads
to the Hagen-Poiseuille relationship:
 (−) R 4
Q= …………………………………...(1)
8L

Where (-) is the net driving force for the flow, Q is the volumetric flow rate of fluid
and R is the tube radius. The quantity  is defined as (p+ gh) where p is static, or
thermodynamic pressure  is fluid density, g is the acceleration of gravity and h is the vertical
elevation above a datum plane. Thus,  represents the combined effects of pressure and gravity
in causing the fluid motion.
According to the assumptions of the Hagen-Poiseuille law, the flow must be laminar and free
from end effects. If the construction and operation of an experimental apparatus can conform
accurately to the key assumptions, it is possible to use Equation (1) to measure the viscosity of
Newtonian fluids.
Steady flow Q of a fluid in a long, straight tube that is maintained at a constant temperature
and is equipped with a device to measure the pressure gradient P / L at some distance from the
ends of the tube. In most instances, the control of the operating conditions over the entire length
of the tube, the cleaning difficulties, and the need for a large sample of liquid to fill the length of
the tube prohibit or make very difficult the use of such a device. Other more convenient and
compact types of viscometers to which the Hagen-Poiseuille equation may be applied have been
developed. The Cannon-Fenske viscometer and other modifications of the Ostwald pipette are
examples.

When the total change in the driving force  associated with a flow rate Q through a tube is
due to hydrostatic head alone, Equation (1) may be written as,
4
 g ( − h ) R
= ……………………….(2)
8QL

where (-h) is upstream elevation minus downstream elevation, called the hydrostatic head
difference, and the quantity  is defined as

= / …………………………………(3)

and is called the kinematic viscosity. The kinematic viscosity is often expressed in units of cm2/sec,
which is called stoke. The viscosity, is frequently referred to as the absolute viscosity or the
dynamic viscosity to avoid confusing it with the kinematic viscosity,  which is the ratio of
viscosity to mass density.

Consider steady fluid flow through a straight capillary tube of fixed length L for which the
hydrostatic head differential h is constant. If one measures the time for a fixed volume of fluid
V to pass through a particular tube, the kinematic viscosity should be related to the observed efflux
time te as follows:

= C* te…………………………………….(4)

where C is called the viscometer constant. If C is evaluated by observing te with a liquid of known
viscosity, C may be calculated for the apparatus. Then measurements of t e for the same V in the
same cell with other fluids allows the kinematic viscosities of the latter to be calculated from
Equation (4). Dynamic viscosity value is then obtained by multiplication with the density of the
liquid. Equation (4) is derived by substituting the relation.

Q = V / te...................................................(5)

into Equation (2) and combining all constant factors into one term. The viscometer constant C is
thus identified to be
 g ( − h) R 4
C= …………………………(6)
8VL

Although the preceding equations are derived for constant h and constant Q, they may be
applied with reasonable success to a pipette-type viscometer in which a liquid drains under a
slowly varying hydrostatic head. In that case, one may use average values of Q and h in
Equations (2) and (6), and the constant C should still be a property of only the viscometer
geometry and not depend on the properties of the fluid.
Non-Newtonian fluids:

An apparent viscosity, a is often used to describe the flow behaviour of non-Newtonian

fluids, can be defined as follows:

 Shearstress
a =− =− ......................(7)
 rateofshear

The flow is analyzed with standard mathematical models. Mathematical models provide a
means to numerically and graphically analyze the behaviour of fluids flow. Power law, Bingham
plastic, Cross and, Casson models are available.

It should be noted that for shear thinning and shear thickening behaviour, the shear stress-
shear rate curve passes through the origin. This type of behaviour is often approximated by the
‘power law’ and such materials are called ‘power law fluids’. The power law, also called
Ostwald-de Waele equation is usually written as
= * n.................................................(8)

also, power law viscosity becomes as;

a= * (n-1)...........................................(9)

The power n is known as the power law index or flow behaviour index, and K as the
consistency coefficient. The constants K and n are determined by fitting the equation to data.
Clearly, shear thinning behaviour corresponds to n1 and shear thickening behaviour to n1. The
special case, n=1, is that of Newtonian behaviour and in this case the consistency coefficient K is
identical to the viscosity, . Values of n for shear thinning fluids often extend to 0.5 but less
commonly can be as low as 0.3 or even 0.2, while values of n for shear thickening behaviour
usually extend to 1.2 or 1.3.

The power law model fails at high shear rates, where the viscosity must ultimately approach
a constant value.

A different kind of time-independent behaviour is that characterized by materials known

as Bingham plastics, which exhibit a yield stress, y. If subject to shear stress smaller than the yield
stress, they retain a rigid structure and do not flow. It is only at stresses in excess of the yield value
that flow occurs. In the case of a Bingham plastic model, the shear rate is proportional to shear
stress in excess of the yield stress:
 = y + p*…………………………….. (10)
 In the Bingham model equation, y and p are both constants; refer to the yield stress and
coefficient of plastic viscosity respectively. The Bingham equation describes the shear stress/shear
rate behaviour of many shear-thinning materials at low shear rates.

Many materials exhibit Newtonian behaviour at very low shear rates, however they also
have Newtonian behaviour at very high shear rates as shown in Figure 3. The term pseudoplastic
is used to describe this type of behaviour. The whole flow curve of this type of behaviour can be
represented by the Cross model. o, and are the values of apparent viscosity for the lower and
upper Newtonian regions respectively. The constant m is the shear rate evaluated at the mean
apparent viscosity (o+ )/2.

 a −  1
= ……………………(11)
o −  1 + ( /  m ) n

Figure: Variation of apparent viscosity with shear rate for a polymer

INTRODUCTION TO BROOKFIELD VISCOMETER

• The Brookfield DV-III+ RV Rheometer with a spindle set.

• 50 ml graduated pipette.
• 500 ml glass beaker
• A stock of 50% weight-percent aqueous polymer suspension.
• Distilled water.
• Constant temperature water bath, set at various temperatures.
The most often seen viscometer types in food and beverage development are based on
rotational viscometry; meaning they measure viscosity by sensing torque required to rotate a
spindle at a constant speed while immersed in the fluid. The torque is proportional to the viscous
drag on the spindle, and thus to the viscosity of the fluid. Advantages of the rotational viscometers,
like Brookfields, are that they are easy to set up and use, do not require enormous amounts of
operator skill, continuous rotation allows for measurements over time, suitable for measuring
Newtonian and non-Newtonian fluids, can determine shear dependency if any.

Viscosity values of the prepared solutions will be measured by using Brookfield DV III
Rheometer at a given shear rate as well. The measurement range of the viscometer is determined
by the rotational speed of the spindle, the size and shape of the spindle is rotating in, and the full-
scale torque of the calibrated spring.

Figure:The Brookfield Rheometer

PROCEDURE
• Calibrate with water the viscometer before viscosity measurement.
• Introduce to the sample container and take solution around 25 % of container size.
• Choose appropriate Spindle as per available solution. (LV or HV)
• Viscosities of materials are measured at different speeds from 50 RPM to 300 RPM at 1
minute intervals.
• Collect data from display and note down reading.
• Plot the graph
 o Viscosity vs RPM
o Viscosity vs Concentration
and compare data with model equations.

Figure: Inlets and outlets of water bath and sample cup

OBSERVATIONS Table:
 Dial Shear
Sr. Viscosity
Sample Spindle RPM Factor readi Rate ln na ln r ln K K
No.
ng cP 1/sec
50 0.05 84 4.2 10.5 1.43508 2.35138 3.0810472 21.781
100 0.05 61 3.05 12.5 1.11514 2.52573 2.8831516 17.871
1 SCMC (1%) #63 150 0.05 56 2.8 13.2 1.02962 2.58022 2.8357712 17.044
200 0.05 52.2 2.61 14.1 0.95935 2.64617 2.8116726 16.638
250 0.05 50.4 2.52 14.8 0.92426 2.69463 2.8104979 16.618
50 0.05 128 6.4 5.7 1.8563 1.74047 3.0746243 21.642
100 0.05 100 5 6.1 1.60944 1.80829 2.8752401 17.73
SCMC
2 #63 150 0.05 88.8 4.44 6.5 1.49065 1.8718 2.8009159 16.46
(1.25%)
200 0.05 82.8 4.14 7.2 1.4207 1.97408 2.8025525 16.487
250 0.05 78 3.9 7.9 1.36098 2.06686 2.8077805 16.573
SCMC
50 0.05 129 6.45 5.7 1.86408 1.74047 3.0824065 21.811
(1.25%)
100 0.05 100 5 6.2 1.60944 1.82455 2.8866224 17.933
3 #63
Reproducibil
150 0.05 89 4.45 6.7 1.4929 1.90211 2.8243794 16.85
ity
200 0.05 82 4.1 7.2 1.41099 1.97408 2.7928437 16.327
250 0.05 77 3.85 7.8 1.34807 2.05412 2.7859598 16.215
50 0.05 136 6.8 4.9 1.91692 1.58924 3.0293873 20.685
100 0.05 128 6.4 5.2 1.8563 1.64866 3.010359 20.295
4 SCMC (1.3%) #63 150 0.05 117 5.85 5.9 1.76644 1.77495 3.0089083 20.265
200 0.05 110 5.5 6.2 1.70475 1.82455 2.9819326 19.726
250 0.05 99 4.95 7.1 1.59939 1.96009 2.9714539 19.52
50 0.05 148 7.4 4.6 2.00148 1.52606 3.0697194 21.536
100 0.05 138 6.9 4.9 1.93152 1.58924 3.0439861 20.989
5 SCMC (1.4%) #63 150 0.05 122 6.1 5.2 1.80829 1.64866 2.9623498 19.343
200 0.05 117 5.85 5.9 1.76644 1.77495 3.0089083 20.265
250 0.05 108 5.4 6.3 1.6864 1.84055 2.9747837 19.585
50 0.05 172 8.6 3.8 2.15176 1.335 3.0862629 21.895
100 0.05 146 7.3 4.2 1.98787 1.43508 2.9924335 19.934
6 SCMC (1.5%) #63 150 0.05 132 6.6 4.7 1.88707 1.54756 2.9703634 19.499
200 0.05 121 6.05 4.9 1.80006 1.58924 2.9125229 18.403
250 0.05 112 5.6 5.1 1.72277 1.62924 2.863235 17.518
SCMC (1.5%) 50 0.05 173 8.65 3.8 2.15756 1.335 3.0920601 22.022
100 0.05 147 7.35 4.3 1.9947 1.45862 3.0157308 20.404
7 Reproducibil #63 150 0.05 133.5 6.675 4.7 1.89837 1.54756 2.981663 19.721
ity 200 0.05 122 6.1 4.9 1.80829 1.58924 2.9207534 18.555
250 0.05 114 5.7 5.1 1.74047 1.62924 2.8809346 17.831
 50 0.05 288 14.4 35.4 2.66723 3.56671 5.1639265 174.85
100 0.05 144 7.2 28.3 1.97408 3.34286 4.3140843 74.745
Carbopol
8 #63 150 0.05 122 6.1 20.5 1.80829 3.02042 3.9225862 50.531
(0.06%)
200 0.05 72 3.6 18.7 1.28093 2.92852 3.3309003 27.964
250 0.05 57.6 2.88 17.5 1.05779 2.8622 3.0613309 21.356
50 0.05 431 21.55 40.2 3.07038 3.69387 5.6560827 286.03
100 0.05 416 20.8 38.7 3.03495 3.65584 5.5940407 268.82
Carbopol
9 #63 150 0.05 387 19.35 35.7 2.96269 3.57515 5.4652979 236.35
(0.12%)
200 0.05 350 17.5 33.9 2.8622 3.52342 5.3285914 206.15
250 0.05 340 17 32.7 2.83321 3.48738 5.2743759 195.27
Carbopol
50 0.05 433 21.65 40.2 3.07501 3.69387 5.6607124 287.35
(0.12%)
100 0.05 419 20.95 38.7 3.04214 3.65584 5.6012264 270.76
10 #63
Reproducibil 150 0.05 390 19.5 35.7 2.97041 3.57515 5.4730199 238.18
ity 200 0.05 354 17.7 33.9 2.87356 3.52342 5.3399551 208.5
250 0.05 342 17.1 32.7 2.83908 3.48738 5.280241 196.42
50 0.05 520 26 45.6 3.2581 3.81991 5.9320319 376.92
100 0.05 430 21.5 36.9 3.06805 3.60821 5.593801 268.76
Carbopol
11 #63 150 0.05 390 19.5 32.8 2.97041 3.49043 5.4137144 224.46
(0.18%)
200 0.05 362 18.1 28.7 2.89591 3.3569 5.2457399 189.76
250 0.05 340 17 26.5 2.83321 3.27714 5.1272147 168.55
50 0.05 1285 64.25 67.9 4.16278 4.21804 7.1154069 1230.8
100 0.05 778 38.9 55.4 3.66099 4.01458 6.4712 646.26
Carbopol
12 #63 150 0.05 590 29.5 47.8 3.38439 3.86703 6.0913082 442
(0.24%)
200 0.05 485 24.25 40.1 3.18842 3.69138 5.7723801 321.3
250 0.05 417.5 20.875 38.7 3.03855 3.65584 5.59764 269.79
Carbopol
50 0.05 1288 64.4 67.9 4.16511 4.21804 7.1177389 1233.7
(0.24%)

100 0.05 790 39.5 55.4 3.6763 4.01458 6.4865064 656.23

13 #63
Reproducibil
ity 150 0.05 593 29.65 47.8 3.38946 3.86703 6.0963801 444.25
200 0.05 487 24.35 40.1 3.19253 3.69138 5.7764953 322.63
250 0.05 420 21 38.7 3.04452 3.65584 5.6036102 271.4
50 0.05 1425 71.25 73.6 4.26619 4.29865 7.2752463 1444.1
100 0.05 996 49.8 62.8 3.90801 4.13996 6.8059835 903.24
Carbopol
14 #63 150 0.05 770 38.5 57.1 3.65066 4.0448 6.4820211 653.29
(0.30%)
200 0.05 560 28 50.2 3.3322 3.91602 6.073415 434.16
250 0.05 480 24 48.4 3.17805 3.8795 5.8937037 362.75

DATA ANALYSIS: (Non-Newtonian Fluids)

1. Plot for the polymer suspension;
 a. Viscosity vs RPM
b. Viscosity vs Concentration
2. . Calculate the constants for each models. Write your model equations for viscosity as a
function of T, and shear rate(  )
CALCULATIONS:

• Power law
a= * (n-1)

For 50 rpm:

a= x(n-1)

SCMC:

Conc: 1%

a= 4.2 cP

n= 0.3

= 10.5 sec-1

ln(a)=ln() +(n-1)xln
K= 21.78

Conc: 1.25%

a= 6.4 cP

n= 0.3

= 5.7 sec-1

ln(a)=ln() +(n-1)xln
K= 21.64
Result:Carbopol

Sr.No. Conc. (wt/vol) K

1 1 21.78
2 1.25 21.64
3 1.3 20.68
4 1.4 21.53
5 1.5 21.89