MATHEMATICS

IOQM

CHAPTER MODULE

ALGEBRA-2
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ALGEBRA - 2
Introduction :
An expression of the form f (x)  a 0 x n  a1x n 1  a 2 x n  2  .....  a n 1x  a n .
in which a0, a1, a2, ....., an are called coefficients (constants free from x) and n is a non-negative integer, is called polynomial
in x.
Leading Coefficient and Leading Term :
If a 0  0 , the polynomial is of degree n, a0xn is the leading term, and a0 is the leading coefficient. Also, an is the constant
term.
A non - zero univariate polynomial (that is, a polynomial in a single variable) in which the leading coefficient is equal to 1.
Degree of a Polynomial :
In a polynomial, degree is the highest power of x having non-zero coefficient.
• Degree of a polynomial is unique and can only be greater or equal to.
Thus, f(x) = 2 is also a polynomial with degree 0. It is called a constant polynomial.
• Degree of a polynomial is a whole number.
Number of terms in a Polynomial :
It is the number of distinct terms in a polynomial in irreducible form.
Zero Polynomial :
f(x) = a for some constant value a is called constant polynomial. When the value of constant is Zero, f(x) is called Zero
polynomial
• Degree of Zero Polynomial is not defined while degree of other constant polynomials is 0 .
Note : All the powers of the variable in different terms of any polynomial should be whole numbers, otherwise it will not
be called as a polynomial
E.g.: x4 + x2 + 2, it will be a polynomial as the power of variables in the terms are 4,2 and 0 respectively.
1 1
x1/2 + x + 4, will not be called a polynomial as the power of x are , 1 and 0 out of which is not a whole number..
2 2

Different Types of Polynomials :

Based on Degrees :
(1) Zero Degree Polynomial : Any non-zero number (constant) is regarded as a polynomial of degree zero or zero degree
polynomial i.e. f(x) = a, where a  0 is a zero degree polynomial
The constant c = cx0 is called Polynomial of degree zero.
(2) Linear Polynomial : The polynomial f(x) = ax + b, a  0 is of degree one and is called a linear Polynomial.
(3) Quadratic Polynomials : The polynomial f(x) = ax2 + bx + c, a  0 is of degree two and is called a quadratic
Polynomial.
(4) Cubic Polynomial : The polynomial f(x)  ax3  bx2  cx  d, a  0 is of degree three and is called a cubic Polynomial.

(5) Biquadratic Polynomial/Quartic Polynomial : The Polynomial f(x)  ax 4  bx3  cx2  dx  e, a  0 is of degree
four and is called a biquadratic/Quartic Polynomial.
Based on Number of Terms :
(1) Monomial : A polynomial is said to be a monomial if it has only one term.
e.g. x, 8x2, 4x3, ..........
(2) Binomial :- A polynomial is said to be a binomial if it contains two terms.
e.g. 2x2  x, 5x 2  3x, 8x 4  4
(3) Trinomial : A polynomial is said to be a trinomial if it contains three terms.
e.g. x3  x2  x, x 4  4x  1.. ....
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Multivariate Polynomials/Homogeneous Polynomial :
A Polynomial in more than one variable is called multivariate polynomial.
e.g. P(x, y)  x 3 y 2  7x 2 y 3  3x 5
P(x, y) is a bivariate polynomial of degree 5.

Value of Polynomial Expressions :

In the polynomial expression y = f(x), x is independent variable (input); y is called dependent variable (output) corresponding
to each input for variable x the equation generates exactly one output as variable y.

Identical Polynomials :
Two polynomials in x are identical if the co-efficients of their like powers of x are equal.
Thus, a 0 xn  a1 xn 1  a2 xn 2  ...  a n 1 x  a n  b0 xn  b1 x n 1  b2 x n 2  ....  bn 1 x  bn

implies that a 0  b 0 ,a1  b1 ,......a n  b n .

Note : If p(x) and q(x) are two polynomials,
Then deg (p(x) +q(x))  max {deg p(x), deg q(x)} …(i)
and deg {p(x).q(x)} = deg p(x) + deg q(x) …(ii)
If we take, p(x)  x 2  1, q(x)  x 2  1 then deg(p(x) + q(x)) = deg(2) = 0
whereas max { deg p(x), deg q(x)} = 2.
Thus, there may be strict inequality in (i).

Division of Polynomials :
Given two integers m and n with n>0, we know that we can divide m by n to get a quotient ‘q’ and a remainder ‘r’ and
express it as
m = nq + r …(i)
where 0  r < n. Here q and r are uniquely determined by m and n.
• Division Algorithm :
If f(x) and g(x) are two non-zero polynomials, then there exist unique polynomials q(x) and r(x)
such that f(x) = q(x) • g(x) + f(x).
where either r(x) = 0
deg r(x) < deg g(x)
The polynomial q(x) is called the quotient and r (x) the remainder.
When f(x) is divided by g(x), the degree of q(x) = deg f(x) – deg g(x).
Particular Case : When g(x) : ax + b, a linear polynomial, then either r (x) = 0 or
deg r(x) < deg g(x) =1
 deg r(x) = 0
So, that r(x) is a constant.

Horner's Process for Synthetic division of Polynomials :

When a polynomial f(x)  P0 xn  P1 x n 1  ......  Pn 1 x  Pn is divided by a binomial x – , let the quotient be Q(x) and
remainder ‘r’:
We can find quotient Q(x) and remainder ‘r’ by using Horner's Synthetic division process as explained below.

 P0 P1 P2 .........Pn 1 Pn 1st row

q 0  q1 ........q n 2  q n 1 2nd row
q0 q1 q 2 ..........q n 1 | r 3 rd row
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Step-1 : Write all the coefficients Po, PI, P2, ..... Pn of the given polynomial f(x) in the order of descending powers of x as in
the first row.
When any term in f(x) (as seen with descending powers of (x) is missing, we write zero for its coefficient in f(x).
Step-2 : Divide the polynomial f(x) by (x –  ) by writing  in the left corner as shown above. (x    0  x  )
Step-3 : Write the first term of the third as q0 = P0 then multiptly qo by  to get q0 and write it under P1, as the first
element of the second row.
Step-4 : Add q0 to P1 to get q1, the second element of the third row.
Step-5 : Again multiply q1 with  to get q1 and write q1 under P2 and add q1 to P2 to get q2, which is the third
element of the third row.
Step-6 : Continue this process till we obtain qn–1 in the third row. Multiply qn–1 with  and write qn–1 under on Pn and add
qn-1  to Pn on to get r in the third row as shown above.
In the above process the elements of the third row i.e. q0,q1,q2,....,qn–1 are the coefficients of the quotient Q(x) in the
same order of descending powers starting with xn–1.

Q(x)  q 0 x n 1  q1 xn 2  ........q n 2 x  q n 1 and the remainder is ‘r’ i.e. the last element of the third row..
Note : If the remainder r = 0, then  is one of the roots of f(x) = 0 or x –  is a factor of f(x).

Applications of Synthetic Division :

Let f(x) be a polynomial in x.
(1) To express f(x) as a polynomial in x-h. Suppose that

f(x)  a 0 (x  h) n  a1 (x  h) n 1  .....a n 1 (x  h)  a n
Then an is the remainder when f(x) is divided by x–h. If Q is the quotient, an–1 is the remainder when Q is
divided by x–h. If Q’ is the quotient, an–2 is the remainder when Q’ is divided by x–h. Continuing this, we
can find all the coefficients.

Illustration-1 : Express 2x3 + x2 – 5x – 3 as a polynomial in x – 2.

2 1 –5 –3
Solution : 2 4 10 10
2 5 5 7
2
4 18
2 9 23
2 4

2 13

 2x 3  x 2  5x  3  2(x  2)3  13(x  2)2  23(x  2)  7

(2) To expand f(x+h) in powers of x, we express f(x) as a polynomial in x–h, and then change x into x+h.
Illustration-2 : If f(x) = 2x3 + x2 – 5x – 3, find f (x + 2).
Solution : Proceed as Illustration-12 and substitute x + 2 for x in the result, thus
f(x  2)  2x 3  13x 2  23x  7
(3) If f(n) is a polynomial in n of degree r, to express f(n) in the form
a 0  a1n  a2 n(n  1)  a 3 n(n  1)(n  2)  ....  a r n(n  1)(n  2)....(n  r  1)
This can be done by dividing by n, n + 1, n + 2, ...... in succession.
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Illustration-2 : Express n + 3n + 2 in the form a  bn  cn(n  1)  dn(n  1)(n  2)  en(n  1)(n  2)(n  3) .
4 2

Solution : Divide n4 + 3n2 + 2 by n, the quotient by n + 1, the quotient thus obtained by n + 2, and finally the last
quotient by n + 3.

–1 1 0 3 0 2
–1 1 4
–2 1 –1 4 –4

–2 6
–3 1 –3 10
–3
1 –6
The required coefficients are the numbers in thick type.
 n 4  3n 2  2  2  4n  10n(n  1)  6n(n  1)(n  2)  n(n  1)(n  2)(n  3)

HCF of Polynomials :
The highest common factor (HCF) of two polynomials f(x) and g(x) is that common factor which has highest degree
among all common factors and in which the coefficient of highest degree term is positive.
Steps to solve :
• Let us take two polynomials f(x), g(x).
• Divide the polynomials f(x)/g(x) to get
f(x) = g(x) • q(x) + r(x). Hence the degree of g(x) > degree of r(x).
• If the remainder r(x) is zero, then g(x) is the highest common factor of polynomials.
• If the remainder is not equal to zero, then again divide g(x) by r (x) to obtain
g(x) = r(x) • q(x) + r1(x)
Here, if r1(x) is zero, then required HCF is r(x).
• If it is not zero, then continue the process until we get zero as a remainder.

LCM of Polynomial :
The least common multiple (LCM) of two or more polynomials is the polynomial of the lowest degree, having smallest
numerical coefficient which is exactly divisible by the given polynomials and whose coefficient of highest degree term has
the same sign as the sign of the coefficient of highest degree term in their product.

Relation between LCM and HCF :

LCM of {f(x) and g(x)}  HCF of {f(x) and g(x)} = f(x).g(x) =  f(x).g(x)
Let us denote the two polynomials by f(x) and g(x).
Let us denote the HCF by h(x) and LCM by (x) . Then we have h(x)  (x) =  f(x)  g(x)

Do Yourself - 1
1. Find the GCD and LCM of a(x) and b(x) in the following set.
(i) a(x) = (x 2 + 2)(x + 9)(x 5  1), b(x) = (x 2 +2)(x  1)(x 4 + 2)

(ii) a(x) = (12x 2  5x  2) (9x 2 + 5x  4) ; b(x) = (4x 2 + 5x + 1)(x 3  12x 2 + 47x  60)

(iii) a(x) = x 4  1, b(x) = x 3  x 2  x  1

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2. Find a pair of polynomials (x) and b(x) when the GCD and LCM are given by
(i) GCD {a(x), b(x)} = x + 1
LCM {a(x), b(x)} = x4 + 4x3 + 5x2 + 8x + 6
(ii) GCD {a(x), b(x)} = (x + 1)2
LCM {a(x), b(x)} = (x2  1) (x2 + 3x + 2)
Complete and Incomplete Polynomials :
A polynomial of degree n, which contains all powers of the variable from 0 to n, is called a complete polynomial.
Otherwise it is said to be incomplete polynomial.
For example, the incomplete polynomial 2x5 + 7x3  5 can be made complete by writing it as
2x5 + 0x4 + 7x3 + 0x2 + 0x  5.
Note :
(1) If (atleast) one of the two polynomials f(x) and g(x) is the zero polynomial, then the product f(x).g(x) is also the zero
polynomial.
(2) Let f(x), g(x) be two non-zero polynomials, then,
(i) f(x). g(x) is a non-zero polynomial.
(ii) deg {f(x).g(x)} = degf(x) + deg g(x).

Polynomial Equation :
A polynomial equation is obtained by equating a polynomial to zero.

f(x) = a 0 x n + a1 xn 1 + a2 x n 2 +....+a n 1 x + a n = 0
The highest power of x in the equation is called the degree of the equation.
 If  be a complex number such that f( ) = 0, then  is called a root or zero of the polynomial f.
For example : 3x3 + 4x2  7 is a polynomial of degree with real coefficients; 1 is a zero of this polynomial.
x3 + 2x  i is a polynomial of degree 3 with complex coefficients; ‘i’ is a zero of this polynomial.

Remainder Theorem :
If f(x) is a polynomial in x, and ‘ ’ is a real number, then the remainder after dividing f(x) by (x –  ) is f( ).
Proof : Let Q(x) be the quotient, R the remainder.
When f(x) is divided by x – 
 f(x) = (x –  ) Q(x) + R
Putting, x = 
f( ) = R

Factor Theorem :
If ‘ ’ is a root of equation f(x) = 0, then (x –  ) is a factor of f(x) and conversely.
Proof : Let Q(x) be the Quotient and R, the remainder
when f(x) is divided by x –  .
 f(x) = (x –  ) Q(x) + R
Putting, x = 
f( ) = R
But f( ) = 0
  is a root of f(x) = 0
 R=0
 f(x) = (x –  ) Q(x)
which shows that x –   is a factor of f(x).
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Illustration-3 : Let f(x) be a polynomial, having integer coefficients and let f(0) =1989 and f(1) = 9891.
Prove that f(x) has no integer roots.
Solution : Let  be the integer root of f(x) thus (  – 0) divides f(0).
i.e.  |1989   must be odd.
Also, (  – 1) divides f(1)
   1|9891   must be even
 ( – 1) must be odd which is a contradiction.
  is not an integer
 f(x) has no integer roots.

Fundamental Theorem of Algebra :

Every polynomial function of degree  1 has atleast one zero in the complex number.
_
Proof : Let f(x) = anxn + an–1xn 1+...+ a1x + a0 with n  1, then there exists atleast one   C such that

a n  n  a n 1n 1  ...  a1  a 0  0

From this, it is easy to deduce that a polynomial function of degree 'n' has exactly n zeroes.
i.e., f(x)  a  x  r1  x  r2  .....  x  rn 
Note :
(1) Some of the zeroes of a polynomial may repeat.
(2) If a root  is repeated m times, then m is called multiplicity of the root ' ' or  is called m fold root.
For example :
f(x) = x2 + 2x + 1 = (x + 1)2 and the zeroes of f(x) are –1 and –1. Here it can be said that f(x) has a zero –1 with
multiplicity two.
Similarly, f(x) = (x + 2)3 (x – 1) has zeroes –2, –2, –2, 1 i.e., the zeroes of f(x) are –2 with multiplicity 3 and 1.
(3) The real numbers of the form 3, 5, 12, 27,......., 5  3 , etc. are called quadratic surds. In general, a, b
and a  b , etc. are quadratic surds, if a, b are not perfect squares.
In a polynomial with integral coefficients (or rational coefficients), if one of the zeroes in a quadratic surd, then it
has the conjugate of the quadratic surd also as a zero.

Illustration-4 : P(x) is a monic polynomial of degree four such that P(1) = P(2) = P(3) = 0, then find P(0) + P(4).
Solution :  P(1) = P(2) = P(3) = 0
 x = 1, 2, 3 are the roots of P(x).
Thus by Fundamental Theorem of Algebra,
P(x) = (x – 1)(x – 2)(x – 3)(x – )
 P(0) = 6 and P(4) = 6(4 – )
 P(0) + P(4) = 6 + 6(4 – )
6 + 24 – 6 = 24

Do Yourself - 2
1. Obtain a polynomial of lowest degree with integral coefficient, whose one of the zeroes is 5 2.
2. Solve the equation x4 – 2x2 – 22x2 + 62x – 15 = 0, having given that one root is 2  3 .

c
3. Form a fourth degree polynomial equation whose roots are 0,  a,
b
4. Let P(x) be a monic cubic equation such that P(1) = 1, P(2) = 2, P(3) = 3, then find P(4).
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Common Divisor :
Let f(x), g(x) be two polynomials over any number system F such that atleast one of them is non-zero.
A non-zero polynomial h(x) said to be a common divisor of f(x), g(x), if h(x)|f(x) and h(x)|g(x).
Theorem :
Let f(x), g(x) be any two non-zero polynomials over k. Then their gcd exists and is unique.
if d(x) = (f(x),g(x)) then, d(x) = a(x) f(x) + b(x)g(x) for some polynomials a(x) and b(x) over k.
Note :Two non-zero polynomials f(x), g(x) over k are said to be relatively prime or coprime, if
(f(x), g(x)) = 1 or (f(x), g(x)) = c
where c  0 over k.

Cyclic or Symmetric Polynomial and It’s factorization :

• A polynomial of multi variable is called symmetric, if the polynomial does not change by any permutation of it’s variable.
For example x + y + z, x2 + y2 + z2, xyz etc. A symmetric expression containing two variables x and y can be always
factorized as a product of factor expressed in terms of the basic symmetric expression (x + y), xy. Similarly a symmetric
expression containing three variables x,y,z can be always factorized as a product of factors expressed in terms of the basic
symmetric expressions (x + y + z), (xy + yz + zx), xyz.
• A polynomial of multi-variables called cyclic, if after changing all it’s variable cyclically, the resulting polynomial does not
change. For Example (xy + yz + zx) x2y + y2z + z2x, etc.
Note : A symmetric Polynomial must be cyclic, but the converse is not true.

Theorem (Factorization of Cyclic Polynomial) :

If P(x, y, z) is cyclic Polynomial and (x – y) is a factor of P(x, y, z) then (y – z) and (z – x) are also the factors of P(x, y, z).
Similarly, If (x + y) is the factor of P(x, y, z), then (y + z) and (z + x) also the factor of P(x, y, z).
Notes :
1. If P(x, y, z) is a multivariable polynomial in x,y,z , then If P(x, y, z) = P(y, z, x) = P(z, x, y), then P(x, y, z) must be a cyclic
polynomial.
2. If for the cyclic polynomial P(x, y, z); we have P(x, y, z) = 0, then (x – y) must be the factor of polynomial P(x, y, z) and
hence (y – z) and (z – x) are also the factors of P(x, y, z).

Some Important cyclic expression and their factorization :

1. x2  y  z   y 2  z  x   z 2  x  y   (x  y)(y  z)(z  x)

2.  xy  x  y   yz  y  z   zx  z  x      x  y  y  z  z  x 
3.      
x y 2  z 2  y z 2  x 2  z x 2  y 2   x  y  y  z  z  x 

4. x3  y  z   y 3  z  x   z 3  x  y     x  y  y  z  z  x  x  y  z 

5.      
x y 2  z 2  y z 2  x 2  z x2  y 2  3xyz   x  y  z  xy  yz  zx 

6. 
x3  y 3  z3  3xyz   x  y  z  x2  y 2  z 2  xy  yz  zx 
7.      
x y 2  z 2  y z2  x 2  z x2  y 2  2xyz   x  y  y  z  z  x 

8.  x 4  y 4  z 4  2x2 y 2  2y 2 z 2  2z2 x2   x  y  z  x  y  z  y  z  x  z  x  y 
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Newton’s Sum :
Consider a polynomial p(x) of degree n.
p  x   a n x n  a n 1 x n 1  ......  a1 x  a 0
Let p(x) = 0 have roots x1, x2, ......., xn define the sum :

pk  x1k  x2k  ......  xkn

Newton’s sums tell us that,
a n p1  a n 1  0

a n p2  a n 1 p  2a n 2  0

a n p3  a n 1 p2  a n 2 p1  3a n 3  0

and so on.

Illustration-5 : Consider the polynomial p(x) = x3 + 3x2 + 4x – 8. Let the roots of p(x) = 0 are   
then find    .
Solution : By Newton’s sum
p1 + 3 = 0
p2 + 3p1 + 8 = 0
p3  3p2  4p1  24  0

p 4  3p3  4p2  8p1  0

Solving, first for p1 and then for other variables we get;
p1        3

p2  2  2   2  1

p3  3  3  3  33

p 4  4  4   4  127

  4  4   4  127

ANSWER KEY
Do Yourself - 1
1. (i) GCD = (x + 2)(x – 1)
2

LCM = (x2 + 2) (x + 9) (x5 – 1) (x4 + 2)

 1  2 5 1  5 4
(ii) GCD = (x + 1)  4x   LCM = (x3 – 12x2 + 47x – 60)   x  x     x2  x  
 x  12 6  9 9
(iii) GCD = x3 – x2 + x – 1; LCM = x4 – 1
2. (i) a(x) = (x + 1)(x + 3); b(x) = (x + 1)(x2 + 2)
(ii) a(x) = (x + 1)2(x  1); b(x) = (x + 1)2 (x + 2)
Do Yourself - 2
1. P(x) = ax4 – 14ax2 + 9a, where a  Q, a  0. 2. Roots are 2  3, 5,3 .
3. bx4 – cx3 – a2bx2 + a2cx = 0. 4. P(4) = 10.