A computer network is a group of interconnected computers that can share resources and communicate with each

other using established protocols over digital connections, allowing them to exchange data and access information
across a network of devices.
Computer networking refers to the process of connecting multiple computing devices, like computers,
smartphones, and servers, together to enable the sharing of information and resources by allowing them to
communicate with each other through a network, typically using cables or wireless connections;
Key points about computer networks:
 Interconnected devices:
Multiple computers or devices are linked together to form a network.
 Communication protocols:
A set of rules that govern how data is transmitted and interpreted between devices on the network.
 Resource sharing:
Networks allow users to share files, printers, and other resources across connected devices.
Uses of Computer Networks
 Communicating using email, video, instant messaging, etc.
 Sharing devices such as printers, scanners, etc.
 Sharing files.
 Sharing software and operating programs on remote systems.
 Allowing network users to easily access and maintain information.

 Types of networks:
 Depending on the geographic area covered, networks can be classified as (PAN) Personal Area Network
LAN (Local Area Network), MAN (Metropolitan Area Network), or WAN (Wide Area Network).

 1. Personal Area Network (PAN)

 PAN is the most basic type of computer network. It is a type of network designed to connect devices
within a short range, typically around one person. It allows your personal devices, like smartphones,
tablets, laptops, and wearables, to communicate and share data with each other. PAN offers a network
range of 1 to 100 meters from person to device providing communication. Its transmission speed is very
high with very easy maintenance and very low cost. This uses Bluetooth, IrDA, and Zigbee as technology.
Examples of PAN are USB, computer, phone, tablet, printer, PDA, etc.
 Types of PAN
 Wireless Personal Area Networks: Wireless Personal Area Networks are created by simply utilising
wireless technologies such as WiFi and Bluetooth. It is a low-range network.
 Wired Personal Area Network: A wired personal area network is constructed using a USB.
 Advantages of PAN
 PAN is relatively flexible and provides high efficiency for short network ranges.
 It needs easy setup and relatively low cost.
 It does not require frequent installations and maintenance
 It is easy and portable.
 Needs fewer technical skills to use.
Disadvantages of PAN
 Low network coverage area/range.
 Limited to relatively low data rates.
 Devices are not compatible with each other.
 Inbuilt WPAN devices are a little bit costly.
Applications of PAN
 Home and Offices
 Organizations and the Business sector
 Medical and Hospital
 School and College Education
 Military and Defense

 2. Local Area Network (LAN)

 LAN is the most frequently used network. A LAN is a computer network that connects computers through
a common communication path, contained within a limited area, that is, locally. A LAN encompasses two
or more computers connected over a server. The two important technologies involved in this network
are Ethernet and Wi-fi. It ranges up to 2km & transmission speed is very high with easy maintenance and
low cost. Examples of LAN are networking in a home, school, library, laboratory, college, office, etc.
Advantages of a LAN
Privacy: LAN is a private network, thus no outside regulatory body controls it, giving it a privacy.
High Speed: LAN offers a much higher speed(around 100 mbps) and data transfer rate comparatively to
WAN.
Supports different transmission mediums: LAN support a variety of communications transmission
medium such as an Ethernet cable (thin cable, thick cable, and twisted pair), fiber and wireless
transmission.
Inexpensive and Simple: A LAN usually has low cost, installation, expansion and maintenance and LAN
installation is relatively easy to use, good scalability.
Disadvantages of LAN
The initial setup costs of installing Local Area Networks is high because there is special software
required to make a server.
Communication devices like an ethernet cable, switches, hubs, routers, cables are costly.
LAN administrator can see and check personal data files as well as Internet history of each and every LAN
user. Hence, the privacy of the users are violated
 LANs are restricted in size and cover only a limited area
  Since all the data is stored in a single server computer, if it can be accessed by an unauthorized user,
can cause a serious data security threat.
 3.Campus Area Network (CAN)
 CAN is bigger than a LAN but smaller than a MAN. This is a type of computer network that is usually
used in places like a school or colleges. This network covers a limited geographical area that is, it spreads
across several buildings within the campus. CAN mainly use Ethernet technology with a range from 1km
to 5km. Its transmission speed is very high with a moderate maintenance cost and moderate cost. Examples
of CAN are networks that cover schools, colleges, buildings, etc.
 Advantages of CAN
 Speed: Communication within a CAN takes place over Local Area Network (LAN) so data transfer rate
between systems is little bit fast than Internet.
 Security: Network administrators of campus take care of network by continuous monitoring, tracking and
limiting access. To protect network from unauthorized access firewall is placed between network and
internet.
 Cost effective: With a little effort and maintenance, network works well by providing fast data transfer
rate with multi-departmental network access. It can be enabled wirelessly, where wiring and cabling costs
can be managed. So to work with in a campus using CAN is cost-effective in view of performance
 4. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
 A MAN is larger than a LAN but smaller than a WAN. This is the type of computer network that connects
computers over a geographical distance through a shared communication path over a city, town, or
metropolitan area. This network mainly uses FDDI, CDDI, and ATM as the technology with a range from
5km to 50km. Its transmission speed is average. It is difficult to maintain and it comes with a high cost.
Examples of MAN are networking in towns, cities, a single large city, a large area within multiple
buildings, etc.
 Advantages of MAN
 MAN offers high-speed connectivity in which the speed ranges from 10-100 Mbps.
 The security level in MAN is high and strict as compared to WAN.
 It support to transmit data in both directions concurrently because of dual bus architecture.
 MAN can serve multiple users at a time with the same high-speed internet to all the users.
 MAN allows for centralized management and control of the network, making it easier to monitor and
manage network resources and security.
 Disadvantages of MAN
 The architecture of MAN is quite complicated hence, it is hard to design and maintain.
 This network is highly expensive because it required the high cost to set up fiber optics.
 It provides less fault tolerance.
 The Data transfer rate in MAN is low when compare to LANs.
 5. Wide Area Network (WAN)
 WAN is a type of computer network that connects computers over a large geographical distance through a
shared communication path. It is not restrained to a single location but extends over many
locations. WAN can also be defined as a group of local area networks that communicate with each other
with a range above 50km. Here we use Leased-Line & Dial-up technology. Its transmission speed is very
low and it comes with very high maintenance and very high cost. The most common example of WAN is
the Internet.
 Advantages of WAN
 It covers large geographical area which enhances the reach of organisation to transmit data quickly and
cheaply.
 The data can be stored in centralised manner because of remote access to data provided by WAN.
 The travel charges that are needed to cover the geographical area of work can be minimised.
 WAN enables a user or organisation to connect with the world very easily and allows to exchange data and
do business at global level.
 Disadvantages of WAN
 Traffic congestion in Wide Area Network is very high.
 The fault tolerance ability of WAN is very less.
 Noise and error are present in large amount due to multiple connection point.
  The data transfer rate is slow in comparison to LAN because of large distances and high number of
connected system within the network.
 Other Types of Computer Networks
1. Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN)
 WLAN is a type of computer network that acts as a local area network but makes use of wireless network
technology like Wi-Fi. This network doesn’t allow devices to communicate over physical cables like in
LAN but allows devices to communicate wirelessly.
 2. Storage Area Network (SAN)
 SAN is a type of computer network that is high-speed and connects groups of storage devices to several
servers. This network does not depend on LAN or WAN. Instead, a SAN moves the storage resources from
the network to its high-powered network. A SAN provides access to block-level data storage. Examples of
SAN are a network of disks accessed by a network of servers.

3. Passive Optical Local Area Network (POLAN)

A POLAN is a type of computer network that is an alternative to a LAN. POLAN uses optical splitters to split an
optical signal from a single strand of single-mode optical fiber to multiple signals to distribute users and devices.
In short, POLAN is a point to multipoint LAN architecture.
4 Enterprise Private Network (EPN)
EPN is a type of computer network mostly used by businesses that want a secure connection over various
locations to share computer resources.
5. Virtual Private Network (VPN)
A VPN is a type of computer network that extends a private network across the internet and lets the user
send and receive data as if they were connected to a private network even though they are not. Through a
virtual point-to-point connection users can access a private network remotely. VPN protects you from
malicious sources by operating as a medium that gives you a protected network connection.
Home Area Network (HAN)
Many of the houses might have more than a computer. To interconnect those computers and with other
peripheral devices, a network should be established similar to the local area network (LAN) within that
 home. Such a type of network that allows a user to interconnect multiple computers and other digital
devices within the home is referred to as Home Area Network (HAN). HAN encourages sharing of
resources, files, and programs within the network. It supports both wired and wireless communication.

Internetwork
An internet network is defined as two or more computer network LANs, WANs, or computer network
segments that are connected by devices and configured with a local addressing system. The method is
known as internetworking. There are two types of Internetwork.
 Intranet: An internal network within an organization that enables employees to share data, collaborate,
and access resources. Intranets are not accessible to the public and use private IP addresses.
 Extranet: Extranets extend the intranet to authorized external users, such as business partners or
clients. They provide controlled access to specific resources while maintaining security.
Advantages of Computer Network
 Central Storage of Data: Files are stored on a central storage database which is easily accessible and
available to everyone.
 Connectivity: A single connection can be routed to connect multiple computing devices.
 Sharing of Files: Files and data can be easily shared among multiple devices which helps in easy
communication among the organization.
 Security through Authorization: Computer Networking provides additional security and protection of
information in the system
Disadvantages of Computer Network
 Virus and Malware: A virus is a program that can infect other programs by modifying them. Viruses
and Malware can corrupt the whole network.
 High Cost of Setup: The initial setup of Computer Networking is expensive because it consists of a lot of
wires and cables along with the device.
 loss of Information: In case of a System Failure, might lead to some loss of data.
  Management of Network: Management of a Network is somehow complex for a person, it requires
training for its proper use.

Network topology

Network topology is the physical and or logical arrangement of devices and connections in a network. It defines
how devices are connected to each other and how data flows through the network.

There are mainly two categories of computer network topologies: physical and logical.

Physical topology provides the layout of computer cables and other network devices, Also called the underlay, the
physical components of a network include cables, routers, and hardware. Underlays are a network’s material wire
layout and maps physical connections. Whereas
Logical topology provides information about how data flows within a network, regardless of the physical
arrangement of the devices. Also called overlay, the logical topology directs data movement through a network.
Logic, not physical connections, directs the flow of data from one device to another, and the overlay maps the path
along which data travels within a network

1.Point to Point Topology

A point-to-point network is the simplest and most basic type of network topology. It consists of two nodes that are
connected by a single link. Data travels back and forth between these two endpoints. Though easy to set up, its
simplicity limits its use in modern networks.
 Benefits of Point to Point Topology Challenges of Point to Point Topology

 Superior bandwidth, as only  Only applicable for small areas with

two nodes use the link nodes physically close to each other
 High speed when compared  High dependence on the common
to other types of network link; if the link fails, the network
topologies goes down
 Simple to implement  Only useful if the network has two
 Easy to maintain and handle nodes; thus, not applicable for many
 Low instances of latency modern use cases

2.Bus Topology
o The bus topology is designed in such a way that all the stations are connected through a single cable known
as a backbone cable.
o Each node is either connected to the backbone cable by drop cable or directly connected to the backbone
cable.
o When a node wants to send a message over the network, it puts a message over the network. All the stations
available in the network will receive the message whether it has been addressed or not.
.
 Benefits of Bus Topology Challenges of Bus Topology

 Easy to add new devices and replace or  Device failure and other network
remove existing devices without affecting faults are difficult to locate in the
other devices connected to the network network
 Failure in a few devices does not affect  Damage to the backbone cable
other devices, or the network can bring the entire network to a
halt
 Less cable is required when compared to
other network topologies such as mesh and  Increase in the bandwidth
star; the cable can be extended easily consumption of a few devices
whenever required can affect the performance of the
whole network
 Moderate data speeds: Coaxial or twisted
pair cables are mainly used in bus-based  Slower operations, as only one
networks that support upto 10 Mbps node transmits data at a time
 Limited failure: A failure in one node will  Low privacy, as all nodes receive
not have any effect on other nodes. the signal sent by the server
  Data loss over long distance

3.Ring topology
In a ring topology, nodes are connected in a circular fashion, with each node having exactly two neighbors. Data
flows in one direction around the ring, though dual-ring systems can send data in both directions. These networks
are generally cheap to install and expand and data flows quickly within the network.

Benefits of Ring Topology Challenges of Ring Topology

 Circular flow of data minimizes  A single failure in the cable can disrupt
packet collision overall network operations
 Unidirectional ring topologies  Unidirectional ring networks see data
feature high-speed data packets pass through numerous nodes before
transmission reaching their destination
 Robust system–can handle a  Adding, modifying, or removing nodes is
high number of nodes and heavy difficult and can disrupt network activity
traffic
 Lower chances of data loss over
long distances
 Faults are located more easily,
making troubleshooting efficient

4.Mesh topology
A mesh topology is a highly interconnected network structure where each node is directly linked to multiple other
nodes. In a full mesh configuration, every node connects to every other node within a single network, creating
redundant paths for data transmission. This high level of interconnectivity enhances network resilience and fault
tolerance, as data can reroute through alternative paths if a connection fails. Partial mesh topologies, where only
some nodes are directly connected to all other nodes, offer a balance between the sturdiness of full mesh and the
cost-effectiveness of simpler topologies.

Benefits of Mesh topology Challenges of Mesh Topology

 Extremely robust and redundant, as any node or  Requires many cables and
link failure, affects a minimum number of input/output (I/O) ports
endpoints
 Time-consuming
 Highly efficient data transfer due to dedicated installation and
point-to-point links for all devices maintenance
 Robust security and privacy  Cost-intensive
 Swift fault identification

5.Star topology
In a star network, all the nodes are connected to a central hub. The nodes are positioned around that central hub in a
shape that roughly resembles a star. If a single node fails, the rest of the network is unaffected, as long as the
central hub is operational.

Benefits of Star Topology Challenges of Star Topology

  Easy network maintenance and  Choosing the right central hub is vital, as
management since each node has this device needs to be compatible with all
its own cable nodes and links in the network
 Failures affect only one device  Higher requirement of cables and
and problem areas are located connectors
swiftly
 Failure of the central hub brings down the
 Adding new devices is simple and entire network
straightforward
 Rapid data transfer

6.Tree topology
Tree topology combines elements of both bus and star networks, creating a hierarchical structure. In this
configuration, a central hub serves as the root node, connecting to multiple star networks rather than individual
nodes. This architecture enables a higher number of devices to connect to a central data center, enhancing data flow
efficiency.

Benefits of Tree Topology Challenges of Tree Topology

 Ideal for nodes that are grouped together  Large volume of cabling and
numerous hubs are required
 Superior scalability; more nodes and
hierarchies can be added without disrupting  Difficult to configure and
the existing network
  In case of damage to one part of the network, maintain
other nodes and hierarchies remain
 Failure of the central backbone
unaffected
(trunk) brings the entire
 Swift and easy fault identification and network dow
maintenance
 High-speed data transfer among nodes in one
hierarchy

7.Hybrid topology
A hybrid topology combines elements of different topologies to meet specific needs. For instance, a network might
use star and mesh configurations to balance scalability with reliability. A tree network that combines a star network
and a bus network is also an example of hybrid topology.
Each hybrid network topology can be customized to build an efficient network architecture based on specific use
cases and business needs. However, creating a customized network architecture can be challenging and can require
more cabling and network devices, raising maintenance costs.

Benefits of Hybrid Topology Challenges of Hybrid Topology

 Combines the advantages of  Depending on the configuration, such a
multiple topologies network can be resource-intensive to create and
maintain
 Can be tailor-made to suit
specific network  Potentially complicated design that could make
requirements troubleshooting difficult
 Highly flexible and scalable  Requires compatible cabling and other
if implemented correctly hardware for inter-topology links
A server is a computer or system that provides data, resources, programs, or services to other computers, called
clients, over a network.
Types of servers
 Web server: Delivers web content to clients over the internet
 Database server: Provides access to database systems for other programs
 Mail server: Stores and delivers email for clients
 File server: Stores and manages files so that other computers can access them
 Application server: Runs specific applications and presents them to end users
Client in networking is a computer or device that requests services or resources from another computer called a
server, essentially acting as the "requester" in a client-server model; meaning it initiates a connection to access
information or perform actions on a server, like when you use a web browser to access a website, your browser is
considered the client making requests to the website's server.
A client is any computer hardware or software device that requests access to a service provided by a server.
Key points about clients:
 Function:
Clients send requests to servers to access services like files, data, or applications.
 Example devices:
Your laptop, smartphone, or any device running software that connects to a server can be considered a client.
 Client-server model:
This is the architecture where a client communicates with a server to fulfill its requests.

Elements for secure data transmission:

 1.Encryption:
Encrypting data at rest and in transit using robust algorithms to scramble information so only authorized parties can
decrypt it.
 2.Secure protocols:
Employing protocols like TLS (Transport Layer Security) and IPsec to establish secure communication channels
and authenticate data integrity.
3.Backup: A copy of data that is stored separately from the original. Backups are created to protect data from loss
or corruption, and to ensure that data is available in the event of a disaster
  4.HTTPS:
Using the secure version of HTTP for web traffic, ensuring data is encrypted when transmitted between a server
and client.
 5.Virtual Private Networks (VPNs):
Creating a secure tunnel over a public network by encrypting data and masking the user's IP address.
 6.Access control:
Implementing mechanisms to restrict who can access sensitive data based on user identity and permissions.
 7.Firewalls:
Deploying network security devices to filter incoming and outgoing traffic, blocking malicious attempts to access
the network.
 8.Two-factor authentication:
Requiring users to provide not only their password but also a second verification code for added security.
 9.Regular updates:
Keeping software and security patches up-to-date to address vulnerabilities and mitigate potential attacks.
Other important aspects of data transmission security:
 Application security:
Implementing security measures within applications to protect sensitive data at the application level.
 Data integrity checks:
Verifying that data has not been altered during transmission through checksums or digital signatures.
  Antivirus and anti-malware protection:
Utilizing software to detect and prevent malicious software from infecting systems.
 Network monitoring:
Continuously monitoring network activity to identify suspicious behavior and potential threats.
Ethical and legal issues in networking
Ethical and legal issues in networking primarily revolve around user privacy, data security, unauthorized access,
intellectual property infringement, online harassment, censorship, and the potential for misuse of personal
information collected through networks, all of which can have significant legal implications depending on the
jurisdiction and the specific actions taken.
Key ethical concerns in networking:
 1.Privacy violations:
Collecting, storing, and sharing personal data without proper consent, including tracking user activity online
without notification.
 2.Data breaches:
Failure to adequately protect sensitive user data from unauthorized access, leading to potential identity theft and
financial loss.
 3.Surveillance:
Monitoring user behavior on networks without legitimate justification, potentially infringing on individual privacy.
 4.Misuse of information:
Using personal data for purposes beyond its intended use, like targeted advertising without consent.
  5.Cyberbullying and harassment:
Facilitating online harassment or bullying through network platforms.
 6.Digital divide:
Unequal access to technology and the internet, creating disparities in information access and participation.
Key legal issues in networking:
 1.Data protection laws: Violating regulations like GDPR (General Data Protection Regulation) or CCPA
(California Consumer Privacy Act) regarding data collection and handling.
 2.Copyright infringement: Unauthorized distribution of copyrighted content through online networks.
 3.Trademark infringement: Misusing registered trademarks online.
 4.Cybercrime: Engaging in malicious activities like hacking, phishing, or malware distribution.
 5.E-surveillance laws: Improper monitoring of employee or user online activity without legal
authorization.
 6.Digital defamation: Publishing defamatory content online, potentially leading to lawsuits.
Some specific examples of ethical and legal dilemmas in networking:
 Targeted advertising based on personal data:
While utilizing user data for advertising can be beneficial, the extent to which personal information is collected and
used raises ethical concerns.
 Employee monitoring on company networks:
Monitoring employee internet activity on company networks can be necessary for security, but raises privacy
concerns about personal use.
  Social media platform content moderation:
Deciding what content to remove on social media platforms, balancing freedom of speech with harmful content.
 Data collection by IoT devices:
The vast amount of data collected by connected devices like smart home appliances raises privacy concerns.
Network Architecture
A network architecture refers to the design and structure of a computer network, encompassing its hardware
components, software protocols, communication technologies, and how they are organized to enable data transfer
between devices within the network.
Types of network architectures:
 1.Client-server architecture:
A centralized model where clients request services from a dedicated server, which is the most widely used
architecture for applications like web

browsing.
Client-server architecture, architecture of a computer network in which many clients (remote processors) request
and receive service from a centralized server (host computer). In a client/server network, a centralized, really
powerful computer(server) acts as a hub in which other computers or workstations(clients) can connect to. This
server is the heart of the system, which manages and provides resources to any client that requests them
Advantages of a client/server network
  Resources and data security are controlled through the server.
 Not restricted to a small number of computers.
 Server can be accessed anywhere and across multiple platforms.
Disadvantages of a client/server network
 Can become very costly due to the need of a server as well as networking devices such as hubs, routers, and
switches.
 If and when the server goes down, the entire network will be affected.
 Technical staff needed to maintain and ensure network functions efficiently.

 2.Peer-to-peer architecture:
Each device acts as both a client and a server, allowing direct communication between peers without a

central server.
In a peer-to-peer network, tasks are allocated to every device on the network. Furthermore, there is no real
hierarchy in this network, all computers are considered equal and all have the same abilities to use the resources
available on this network. Instead of having a central server which would act as the shared drive, each computer
that’s connected to this network would act as the server for the files stored on it.
Advantages of a peer-to-peer network
 Does not require a dedicated server which means its less costly.
 If one computer stops working, the other computers connected to the network will continue working.
  Installation and setup is quite painless because of the built-in support in modern operating systems.
Disadvantages of a peer-to-peer network
 Security and data backups are to be done to each individual computer.
 As the numbers of computers increases on a P2P network… performance, security, and access becomes a
major headache.
3. File server
A file server is a computer that stores and manages files for a network of computers. It allows users to access files
remotely, without having to physically transfer them.
How it works
 A file server is a central computer in a network.
 It has hardware and software that allow it to store and manage files.
 Users with the correct permissions can access the files, open them, read them, change them, delete them, or
upload new files.
What it can do
 File servers can also provide other resources, such as gateways and protocol conversion.
 File servers can be used to implement policies like file encryption, dynamic access control, and file
expiration.
How to access it
 To access a file server, you need to know the path to the server.
 You can enter the path into the address bar of File Explorer.
 You can also press the Windows Key + R and enter the path.
Network Building Blocks

All networks, large or small, require specialized network hardware to make them work. For small networks, the
hardware may consist of nothing more than a network interface card in each computer, a cable for each computer,
and a network switch that all the computers plug into. Larger networks probably have additional components, such
as routers or repeaters. Small or large, all networks are built from the following basic building blocks: network
interface card, cables,routers,hubs,switches,modems,bridges,repeaters,firewalls etc.

Networking cable is a piece of networking hardware used to connect one network device to other network devices
or to connect two or more computers to share devices such as printers or scanners

Hub: A hub is a basic networking device that is used to connect computers or other networking devices together. A
hub does not use any routing table to send the data to the destination.

A hub, also known as an active hub or repeater hub, is a network device that connects multiple computer
networking devices together, creating a single network segment. It has multiple input/output ports, where a signal
introduced at any port is echoed to every other port except the original incoming port.Although it can identify basic
errors of networks like collisions, it can be a security risk to broadcast all information to the multiple ports. As the
hub is a dumb device, it does not need an IP address. Furthermore, Hubs are cheaper than a switch or router.
Switch: A switch is a hardware device that also connects computers to each other. A switch is different as
compared to a hub in that way; it handles packets of data. Whenever a switch receives a packet, it decides the
device to which the packet can be sent, and sends it to that device only. A hub broadcasts the packet to all
computers, but the switch does not circulate the packet to all devices, which means bandwidth is not shared with
the network, and thus it increases the efficiency of the network. That's why switches are more preferred as
compared to a hub.
Router: A router is more different from a switch or hub. It is mainly used to route the data packets to another
network instead of transmitting the data to the local networks only. A router is commonly found in homes and
offices as it allows your network to communicate with other networks through the internet. Basically, a router
provides more features to your networks like firewall, VPN, QoS, traffic monitoring, etc.

Bridges

A network bridge is a device that enables multiple communication networks or network segments to be combined
into a single, unified network. This process is referred to as network bridging, which is distinct from routing.

Gateways

A gateway serves as a connection between networks, translating data to enable communication between different
networks.

Routers
Routers are devices that connect multiple packet-switched networks or subnetworks, performing two primary
functions: managing traffic between networks by forwarding data packets to their intended IP addresses, and
allowing multiple devices to share the same internet connection.

NICs (Network Interface Cards)

A network interface card (NIC), also known as an Ethernet card, LAN card, or network adaptor, is a piece of
hardware that enables computers to communicate with other devices on a network. It provides a dedicated
connection to the network and contains the necessary circuits to translate digital data into signals used to transfer
data, such as Ethernet or Wi-Fi.

Modems

A modem is a crucial piece of computer hardware that converts digital data into a format suitable for transmission
over analog mediums, such as phone lines or radio waves. This process involves modulating one or more carrier
wave signals to encode the digital information, which is then transmitted over the medium. Modems come in three
different types:

 DSL modems: often considered the slowest as they use telephone cables.
 Cable modems: faster than DSL because they transmit data over TV lines.
 Wireless modems: the fastest type of transmitter as it transfers information between the local network
and an internet service provider (ISP).
 Repeaters
 Repeater nodes are a crucial component of computer networks, responsible for amplifying and
rebroadcasting incoming signals to extend their reach and make them more usable.
 WAPs (Wireless Access Points)
 A wireless access point (WAP) is a crucial networking device that enables wireless-capable devices to
connect to a wired network.
 Firewalls
 A firewall is a critical network security device or sets of instructions that acts as a sentinel, monitoring and
controlling all incoming and outgoing network traffic to ensure that only authorized traffic is allowed to pass
through. Firewalls have been a crucial first line of defense in network security, serving as a barrier between
trusted, internal networks and untrusted outside networks, such as the internet. Firewalls can take various
forms, including hardware-based solutions, software-based solutions, and cloud-based options, which can be
categorized as software-as-a-service (SaaS), public cloud, or private cloud (virtual).
 IDPS (Intrusion Detection & Prevention System)
 Intrusion detection and prevention systems are critical components of network security. Intrusion detection
systems (IDS) involves monitoring network traffic to identify potential threats, such as exploit attempts or
imminent incidents that may compromise the network.
 VPNs (Virtual Private Networks) appliances
A VPN appliance is a dedicated device/software that ensures secure, remote access to a private network
through the implementation of VPN technology. Typically situated at the perimeter of the network, it
enables authorized users to securely connect to internal servers and resources from anywhere outside the
network, maintaining a secure and private connection.
  NODE :
Any device that can send, receive, or forward data, essentially acting as a connection point within the
network; examples include computers, servers, printers, routers, switches, and even mobile phones, all of
which have a unique network address allowing them to communicate with each other on the network.

OSI MODEL
The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model is a conceptual framework that describes how data moves through
networks. It's made up of seven layers, each with its own responsibilities. The OSI model is a reference model that
helps developers and technology vendors create software programs and digital communications products that work
together. It's also used to troubleshoot and understand networking issues


layer Name Description Devices Protocols and Standards
1. Physical Physical Governs the Hubs, Repeaters, RJ 45, ST/SC, V SERIES.
layout of cables and Transceivers, Cables. (Modem Standards)
devices such as repeaters
and hubs.
2. Data Link Provides MAC Switches, Bridges. Ethernet
addresses to uniquely A MAC (Media
identify network nodes Access Control)
and a means for data to address, sometimes
be sent over the Physical referred to as a
layer in the form of hardware or physical
packets. Bridges and address, is a unique,
switches are layer 2 12-character
 devices. alphanumeric
attribute that is used
to identify individual
electronic devices on
a network. An
example of a MAC
address is: 00-B0-D0-
63-C2-26
3. Network Handles routing of data Routers. IP
across network
segments.
4. Transport Provides reliable Firewall TCP, UDP
delivery of packets.
5. Session Establishes sessions N/A SQL, NFS, ASP
between network
applications.
6. Presentation Converts data so that N/A JPEG, JPG, TIFF, PNG, GIF,
systems that use MP3, MP4.
different data formats
can exchange
information
7. Application Allows applications to Firewall and Gateway. SMPT, IMAP, DNS, VoIP,
request network HTTP, NTP, FTP
services.
The first three layers are sometimes called the lower layers. They deal with the mechanics of how information is
sent from one computer to another over a network. Layers 4 through 7 are sometimes called the upper layers. They
deal with how applications programs relate to the network through application programming interface.
The Physical Layer

The bottom layer of the OSI model is the Physical layer. It addresses the physical characteristics of the network,
such as the types of cables used to connect devices, the types of connectors used, how long the cables can be, and
so on. For example, the Ethernet standard for 10BaseT cable specifies the electrical characteristics of the twisted-
pair cables, the size and shape of the connectors, the maximum length of the cables, and so on.

Another aspect of the Physical layer is the electrical characteristics of the signals used to transmit data over the
cables from one network node to another. The Physical layer doesn’t define any meaning to those signals other than
the basic binary values of zero and one. The higher levels of the OSI model must assign meanings to the bits that
are transmitted at the Physical layer. One type of Physical layer device commonly used in networks is a repeater. A
repeater is used to regenerate the signal whenever you need to exceed the cable length allowed by the Physical
layer standard.

The Data Link Layer

The Data Link layer is the lowest layer at which meaning is assigned to the bits that are transmitted over the
network. Data link protocols address things such as the size of each packet of data to be sent, a means of
addressing each packet so that it’s conveyed to the intended recipient, and a way to ensure that two or more nodes
don’t try to transmit data on the network at the same time. The Data Link layer also provides basic error detection
and correction to ensure that the data sent is the same as the data received. If an uncorrectable error occurs, the data
link standard must specify how the node is to be informed of the error so that it can retransmit the data. At the Data
Link layer, each device on the network has an address known as the Media Access Control address, or MAC
address. This address is actually hard-wired into every network device by the manufacturer. MAC addresses are
unique; no two network devices made by any manufacturer anywhere in the world can have the same MAC
address. You can see the MAC address for a computer’s network adapter by opening a command window and
running the ipconfig /all command.

One of the most import functions of the Data Link layer is to provide a way for packets to be sent safely over the
physical media without interference from other nodes attempting to send packets at the same time. The two most
popular ways to do this are CSMA/CD and token passing. Ethernet networks use CSMA/CD, and Token Ring
networks use token passing. For an explanation of how CSMA/CD works, see the upcoming section, “How
CSMA/CD works.”

How CSMA/CD works

An important function of the Data Link layer is to make sure that two computers don’t try to send packets over the
network at the same time. If they do, the signals will collide with each other and the transmission will be garbled.
Ethernet accomplishes this feat by using a technique called CSMA/CD, which stands for “carrier sense multiple
access with collision detection.

Carrier sense means that whenever a device wants to send a packet over the network media, it first listens to the
network media to see whether anyone else is already sending a packet. If it doesn’t hear any other signals on the
media, the computer assumes that the network is free, so it sends the packet.

Multiple access means that nothing prevents two or more devices from trying to send a message at the same time.
Sure, each device listens before sending. However, suppose that two devices listen, hear nothing, and then proceed
to send their packets at the same time? Picture what happens when you and someone else arrive at a four-way stop
sign at the same time. You wave the other driver on, he or she waves you on, you wave, he or she waves, you both
wave, and then you both go at the same time.

Collision detection means that after a device sends a packet, it listens carefully to see whether the packet crashes
into another packet. If it does, it waits a random period of time and then tries to send the packet again.
CSMA/CD works pretty well for smaller networks. After a network hits about 30 computers, however, packets
start to collide, and the network slows to a crawl. When that happens, the network should be divided into two or
more separate sections that are sometimes called collision domains.

The Network Layer

The Network layer handles the task of routing network messages from one computer to another. The two most
popular layer 3 protocols are IP (which is usually paired with TCP) and IPX (normally paired with SPX for use
with Novell and Windows networks). Network layer protocols provide two important functions: logical addressing
and routing. The following sections describe these functions.

The Transport Layer

The Transport layer is the layer where you’ll find two of the most well-known networking protocols: TCP
(normally paired with IP) and SPX (normally paired with IPX). As its name implies, the Transport layer is
concerned with the transportation of information from one computer to another.

The main purpose of the Transport layer is to ensure that packets are transported reliably and without errors. The
Transport layer does this task by establishing connections between network devices, acknowledging the receipt of
packets, and resending packets that are not received or are corrupted when they arrive.

The Session Layer

The Session layer establishes conversations known as sessions between networked devices. A session is an
exchange of connection-oriented transmissions between two network devices. Each of these transmissions is
handled by the Transport layer protocol. The session itself is managed by the Session layer protocol. A single
session can include many exchanges of data between the two computers involved in the session. After a session
between two computers has been established, it is maintained until the computers agree to terminate the session.
The session layer allows three types of transmission modes:

✦ Simplex: In this mode, data flows in only one direction.

✦ Half-duplex: In this mode, data flows in both directions, but only in one direction at a time.
✦ Full-duplex: In this mode, data flows in both directions at the same time.

The Presentation Layer

The Presentation layer is responsible for how data is represented to applications. Most computers — including
Windows, UNIX, and Macintosh computers — use the American Standard Code for Information Interchange
(ASCII) to represent data. However, some computers (such as IBM mainframe computers) use a different code,
known as Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code (EBCDIC). ASCII and EBCDIC are not compatible
with each other. To exchange information between a mainframe computer and a Windows computer, the
Presentation layer must convert the data from ASCII to EBCDIC and vice versa.

Besides simply converting data from one code to another, the Presentation layer can also apply sophisticated
compression techniques so that fewer bytes of data are required to represent the information when it’s sent over the
network. At the other end of the transmission, the Presentation layer then uncompressed the data.

The Presentation layer can also scramble the data before it is transmitted and unscramble it at the other end by
using a sophisticated encryption technique.

The Application Layer

The highest layer of the OSI model, the Application layer, deals with the techniques that application programs use
to communicate with the network. The name of this layer is a little confusing. Application programs such as
Microsoft Office or QuickBooks aren’t a part of the Application layer. Rather, the Application layer represents the
programming interfaces that application programs such as Microsoft Office or QuickBooks use to request network
services.
Some of the better-known Application layer protocols are:

✦ DNS (Domain Name System) for resolving Internet domain names.

✦ FTP (File Transfer Protocol) for file transfers.
✦ SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol) for e-mail.
✦ SMB (Server Message Block) for file sharing in Windows networks.
✦ NFS (Network File System) for file sharing in UNIX networks.
✦ Telnet for terminal emulation.

The Ethernet Protocol

The actual transmission speed of Ethernet is measured in millions of bits per second, or Mbps. Ethernet comes in
three different speed versions: 10Mbps, known as Standard Ethernet; 100Mbps, known as Fast Ethernet; and
1000Mbps, known as Gigabit Ethernet. Keep in mind, however, that network transmission speed refers to the
maximum speed that can be achieved over the network under ideal conditions. In reality, the actual throughput of
an Ethernet network rarely reaches this maximum speed.

Network protocols are sets of rules and conventions that govern how data is formatted, transmitted, received, and
processed in a computer network. These protocols enable devices, computers, and networks to communicate and
interoperate effectively. There are numerous network protocols used at different layers of the OSI (Open Systems
Interconnection) model. Here are some key network protocols and their respective layers:
1. Physical Layer:
 o Ethernet (IEEE 802.3): This is a widely used protocol for wired LANs. It defines how data is
transmitted over the physical medium, such as copper or fiber-optic cables.
o USB (Universal Serial Bus): Used for connecting various devices to computers, including printers,
keyboards, and storage devices.
2. Data Link Layer:
o ARP (Address Resolution Protocol): Resolves IP addresses to physical MAC (Media Access
Control) addresses.
o PPP (Point-to-Point Protocol): Used for establishing a direct connection between two devices, such
as for dial-up and DSL connections.
3. Network Layer:
o IP (Internet Protocol): The backbone of the internet, responsible for routing and addressing packets.
o ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol): Used for sending error and control messages, including
ping requests.
o OSPF (Open Shortest Path First): A routing protocol for interior gateway routing, commonly used
in larger networks.
o BGP (Border Gateway Protocol): A routing protocol used for interdomain routing on the internet.
4. Transport Layer:
o TCP (Transmission Control Protocol): Ensures reliable and ordered delivery of data between
devices by establishing connections, error-checking, and flow control.
o UDP (User Datagram Protocol): Provides a connectionless and lightweight transport service suitable
for applications where real-time communication is more critical than reliability.
5. Session Layer:
o NetBIOS (Network Basic Input/Output System): Used for session establishment and termination,
as well as naming services on LANs.
6. Presentation Layer:
o SSL/TLS (Secure Sockets Layer/Transport Layer Security): Provides encryption and security for
data transmitted over networks, commonly used for secure web browsing (HTTPS).
7. Application Layer:
 o HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol): Used for transferring web pages and data on the World Wide
Web.
o FTP (File Transfer Protocol): Used for transferring files over a network.
o SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol): Used for sending email.
o POP3 (Post Office Protocol 3) and IMAP (Internet Message Access Protocol): Used for retrieving
email from mail servers.
o DNS (Domain Name System): Resolves human-readable domain names to IP addresses.
o SSH (Secure Shell): Provides secure remote login and command execution on remote servers.
o Telnet: Used for remote terminal access to network devices
8. IP (Internet Protocol): The foundation of the internet, responsible for routing and addressing packets of
data so they can travel across networks.
9. TCP (Transmission Control Protocol): Ensures reliable and ordered data transmission by establishing
connections, error-checking, and flow control.
10.UDP (User Datagram Protocol): Provides a connectionless and lightweight transport service suitable for
applications where real-time communication is more critical than reliability.
11.HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol): Used for transferring web pages and data on the World Wide Web.
12.HTTPS (Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure): A secure version of HTTP that uses encryption to protect
data transfer, commonly used for secure web browsing.
13.FTP (File Transfer Protocol): Used for transferring files over a network.
14.SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol): Used for sending email.
15.POP3 (Post Office Protocol 3): Used for retrieving email from mail servers.
16.IMAP (Internet Message Access Protocol): Used for accessing email on remote servers.
17.DNS (Domain Name System): Resolves human-readable domain names to IP addresses.
18.SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol): Used for managing and monitoring network devices.
19.Telnet: A protocol used for remote terminal access to network devices.
20.SSH (Secure Shell): Provides secure remote login and command execution on remote servers.
21.BGP (Border Gateway Protocol): A routing protocol used for interdomain routing on the internet.
 22.ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol): Used for sending error and control messages, including ping
requests.
23.ARP (Address Resolution Protocol): Resolves IP addresses to physical MAC addresses.
24.NTP (Network Time Protocol): Used for synchronizing the time of networked devices.
25.LDAP (Lightweight Directory Access Protocol): Used for accessing and managing directory information
services, such as phone directories and user accounts.
26.SIP (Session Initiation Protocol): Used for initiating, maintaining, modifying, and terminating real-time
sessions involving video, voice, messaging, and other communications applications and services.
27.DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol): Used for assigning dynamic IP addresses and other
network configuration settings to devices on a network.
28.RTP (Real-time Transport Protocol): Used for transmitting real-time data, such as audio and video, over
networks.
29.XMPP (Extensible Messaging and Presence Protocol): A protocol for instant messaging and presence
information.
30.NNTP (Network News Transfer Protocol): Used for accessing newsgroups and reading Usenet news
articles.
31.BitTorrent: A protocol for peer-to-peer file sharing.
32.RIP (Routing Information Protocol): A routing protocol used for small to medium-sized networks.
33.IGMP (Internet Group Management Protocol): Used for managing multicast group memberships.
34.HTTP/2 and HTTP/3: Improved versions of HTTP designed to enhance web page loading and
responsiveness.
o

Transmission media
Transmission media refers to the physical or logical medium through which data is transmitted from one device to
another within a network. These media can be wired (guided) or wireless(unguided). The choice of medium
depends on factors like distance, speed, and interference
 1. Guided Transmission Media (Wired/cabled Media): Guided transmission media are physical media that
use cables or conductors to guide electrical signals from one point to another. These cables are used to
transmit data signals
Guided media include the following:
1.Twisted Pair Cable: This is a type of guided media that consists of pairs of insulated copper wires twisted
together. It is commonly used for telephone lines and Ethernet connections.this type of cable is also divided into
shielded Twisted Pair Cables and Unshielded Twisted Pair Cables
1. Unshielded Twisted Pair Cables (UTP) :
These are a pair of two insulated copper wires twisted together without any other insulation or shielding and
hence are called unshielded twisted pair cables. They reduce the external interference due to the presence of
insulation. Unshielded twisted pair cables are arranged in pairs so that we can add a new connection whenever
required. The DSL or telephone lines in our houses have one extra pair in them. When UTP are arranged in pairs,
each pair is coded with a different color as defined by the 25-pair color code developed by AT&T Corporation.
The Electronic Industries Association divides UTP into 7 categories based on some standards. Categories are
based upon cable quality where 1 is the highest quality and 7 is the lowest quality. Each cable in a category is put
to a different use as needed.
Advantages –
1. These cables are cost-effective and easy to install owing to their compact size.
2. They are generally used for short-distance transmission of both voice and data.
3. It is less costly as compared to other types of cables.
Disadvantages –
1. The connection established using UTP is not secure.
2. They are efficient only for a distance up to 100 meters and have to be installed in pieces of up to 100
meters.
3. These cables have limited bandwidth.

Unshielded Twisted Pair Cable (UTP)

2. Shielded Twisted Pair Cables (STP) :
These types of cables have extra insulation or protective covering over the conductors in the form of a copper
braid covering. This covering provides strength to the overall structure of the cable. It also reduces noise and
signal interference in the cable. The shielding ensures that the induced signal can be returned to the source via
ground and only circulate around the shield without affecting the main propagating signal. The STP cables are
also color-coded like the UTP cables as different color pairs are required for analog and digital transmission.
These cables are costly and difficult to install.

Advantages –
1. They are generally used for long-distance communication and transmission and are installed
underground.
2. The protective shield prevents external electromagnetic noise penetration into the cable.
3. They have a higher bandwidth as compared to UTP.

Disadvantages –
1. These cables are very expensive.
2. They require a lot of maintenance which increases the cost more.
3. These can be installed underground only.
4. The length of the segment is similar to UTP for these cables.

Applications of Twisted pair cables :

 Twisted Pair cables are used in telephone lines to provide data and voice channels.
 The DSL lines make use of these cables.
 Local Area Networks (LAN) also make use of twisted pair cables.
 They can be used for both analog and digital transmission.
 RJ-45 is a very common standard of twisted pair cables.
 o 2.Coaxial Cable: Coaxial cables consist of a central conductor surrounded by insulation, a metallic
shield, and an outer insulating layer. They are often used for cable TV and broadband internet
connections.
o 3.Fiber Optic Cable: Fiber optic cables use thin strands of glass or plastic to transmit data as light
pulses. They are known for their high bandwidth and are used for long-distance communication and
high-speed internet connections.
Unguided Transmission Media (Wireless Media): Unguided transmission media, also known as wireless
media, do not rely on physical cables to transmit data. Instead, they use electromagnetic waves to transmit
signals through the air or a vacuum. Unguided media include:
o 1.Radio Waves: Used in wireless communication, including Wi-Fi, cellular networks, and broadcast
radio and television.
o 2.Microwaves: Often used for point-to-point communication links, such as those found in microwave
backhaul for cellular networks.
o 3.Infrared (IR): Used for short-range wireless communication, such as remote controls and some
data transfer applications.
o 4.Bluetooth: A short-range wireless technology used for connecting devices like smartphones,
headphones, and keyboards.
o 5.Satellite Communication: Data is transmitted between a ground station and satellites in space. It's
used for various purposes, including satellite TV, internet access, and global positioning systems
(GPS).
o Guided Media o Unguided Media

o The signal energy propagates through o The signal energy propagates through the
wires in guided media. air in unguided media.

o Used to perform point-to-point o Unguided media is generally suited for

 o Guided Media o Unguided Media

communication. radio broadcasting in all directions.

o It is affordable. o It is costly.

o Signals are in the form of voltage, o Signals are in the form of electromagnetic
current, or photons in the guided media. waves in unguided media.

o It sends out a signal that indicates which

o It does not indicate which way to travel.
way to go.

o For a shorter distance, this is the best

o For longer distances, this method is used.
option.

o It is unable to pass through walls. o It can pass through walls.

Network configuration involves setting up and managing the hardware, software, and connections for a network.
This includes routers, switches, and firewalls.
Steps for configuring a network:
1. Set up hardware: Set up routers and switches
2. Establish connections: Connect host machines to the network
3. Configure security: Install firewalls or intrusion detection systems
4. Set rules: Define how data is routed and controlled
5. Configure IP addressing: Choose whether to use static or dynamic IP addresses
6. Configure a gateway: Connect the local subnet to the larger network
7. Back up configurations: Use automation tools to back up network configurations
Data Communication
Transferring data over a transmission medium between two or more devices, systems, or places

Components of Data Communication

A communication system is made up of the following components:
1. Message: A message is a piece of information that is to be transmitted from one person to another. It could
be a text file, an audio file, a video file, etc.
2. Sender: It is simply a device that sends data messages. It can be a computer, mobile, telephone, laptop,
video camera, or workstation, etc.
3. Receiver: It is a device that receives messages. It can be a computer, telephone mobile, workstation, etc.
4. Transmission Medium / Communication Channels: Communication channels are the medium that
connect two or more workstations. Workstations can be connected by either wired media or wireless media.
5. Set of rules (Protocol): When someone sends the data (The sender), it should be understandable to the
receiver also otherwise it is meaningless. For example, Sonali sends a message to Chetan. If Sonali writes in
Hindi and Chetan cannot understand Hindi, it is a meaningless conversation.

Type of data communication

As we know that data communication is communication in which we can send or receive data from one device
to another. The data communication is divided into three types:
1. Simplex Communication: It is one-way communication or we can say that unidirectional communication in
which one device only receives and another device only sends data and devices uses their entire capacity in
transmission. For example, IoT, entering data using a keyboard, listening music using a speaker, etc.
2. Half Duplex communication: It is a two-way communication, or we can say that it is a bidirectional
communication in which both the devices can send and receive data but not at the same time. When one
device is sending data then another device is only receiving and vice-versa. For example, walkie-talkie.
3. Full-duplex communication: It is a two-way communication or we can say that it is a bidirectional
communication in which both the devices can send and receive data at the same time. For example, mobile
phones, landlines, etc.
Forms of Data Transmission Signals
Data transmission signals can be categorized primarily as analog signals and digital signals, within these
categories, further distinctions can be made based on the transmission method, including: electrical signals
(using copper wires), optical signals (light pulses through fiber optic cables), and wireless signals (radio
waves, microwaves, infrared) depending on the medium used for transmission
 Analog signals:
Continuous waveforms that represent data as variations in voltage or current levels, often used in
traditional communication systems like older telephones.
 Digital signals:
Discrete waveforms representing data as binary digits (0s and 1s), offering better noise immunity and
are widely used in modern communication systems. pes of data transmission signals based on
transmission method:
 Electrical signals:
 Twisted pair wires: Common for Ethernet connections.
 Coaxial cable: Used for cable television and high-speed data transmission.
 Optical signals:
 Fiber optic cable: Transmits data using light pulses through glass fibers, offering high bandwidth and
long distances.
 Wireless signals:
 Radio waves: Used in broadcast radio, Wi-Fi
 Microwaves: For point-to-point communication over long distances
 Infrared: Used in short-range applications like remote controls
Other important aspects of data transmission signals:
 Serial transmission: Data bits are sent one at a time sequentially over a single channel.
 Parallel transmission: Multiple data bits are sent simultaneously over separate channels, resulting in faster
transmission rates.
 Modulation: Technique used to encode digital data onto an analog carrier wave for transmission over a
channel.

 Data Transmission Security

 Data transmission security is the process of sending and receiving data in a way that prevents unauthorized
access. It uses encryption, authentication, and other security measures.
 Use Encryption: Encrypt the data using mathematical algorithms and encoding methods before transmitting
it. This ensures that the information is unreadable to unauthorized parties.
 Regularly Update Security Measures: Keep software and systems updated with the latest security patches
and improvements.
 Choose Secure Protocols: Use secure communication protocols like TLS/SSL for internet data
transmission to establish encrypted connections.
 Implement Authentication: Verify the identity of both sender and receiver to prevent unauthorized access
to data.
 Protect Encryption Keys: Safeguard encryption keys used to maintain data confidentiality.
 Use Secure File Transfer Methods: Employ protocols like SFTP for secure file transfers, especially for
sensitive information.
 Follow Ethical and Legal Standards: Adhere to ethical and legal guidelines, especially in telemedicine,
to ensure privacy and compliance.
 Regularly Update Security Measures: Keep software and systems updated with the latest security patches
and improvements.
Certainly! Here is a list of networking terminologies and
their meanings:
1. IP Address (Internet Protocol Address): A unique numerical label assigned to each device on a computer
network that uses the Internet Protocol for communication.
2. MAC Address (Media Access Control Address): A hardware address that uniquely identifies each device
on a network.
3. Router: A network device that forwards data packets between computer networks, often connecting a local
network to the internet.
4. Switch: A network device that connects devices within a local area network (LAN) and forwards data
frames based on MAC addresses.
5. Hub: An older network device that connects multiple devices in a LAN, broadcasting data to all connected
devices.
6. Firewall: A network security device or software that monitors and controls incoming and outgoing network
traffic based on predetermined security rules.
7. DNS (Domain Name System): A system that translates domain names into IP addresses, making it easier
for users to access websites and services on the internet.
8. Gateway: A device or software that connects different networks, translating between different network
protocols or data formats.
9. Subnet Mask: A numeric code that defines the size and arrangement of subnetworks within an IP network.
10.VPN (Virtual Private Network): A technology that creates a secure, encrypted connection over a less
secure network, such as the internet.
11.LAN (Local Area Network): A network that connects devices in a limited geographic area, such as a home,
office, or campus.
12.WAN (Wide Area Network): A network that spans a larger geographic area, often connecting multiple
LANs.
13.Ethernet: A popular networking technology for wired LANs, using a system of frames to transmit data.
14.Wi-Fi (Wireless Fidelity): A wireless networking technology that allows devices to connect to a LAN using
radio waves.
15.**Router: A device that connects multiple computer networks together and routes data packets between
them.
16.**Gateway: A device that acts as an entry and exit point between two different networks, translating data
between them.
17.Modem (Modulator-Demodulator): A device that modulates digital data from a computer into analog
signals for transmission over analog communication lines and demodulates incoming analog signals back
into digital data.
18.ISP (Internet Service Provider): A company that provides internet access to customers, typically through
wired or wireless connections.
19.Bandwidth: The maximum data transfer rate of a network or internet connection, usually measured in bits
per second (bps).
20.Packet: A unit of data that is transmitted over a network, typically containing both the data and control
information.
21.TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol): A set of networking protocols that form the
foundation of the internet.
22.ARP (Address Resolution Protocol): A protocol used to map an IP address to a physical (MAC) address on
a local network.
23.DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol): A network protocol that automatically assigns IP
addresses and network configuration to devices on a network.
24.Port: A logical endpoint for communication in a computer network, often associated with a specific service
or application.
25.NAT (Network Address Translation): A method used to modify network address information in packet
headers while in transit, commonly used for sharing a single public IP address among multiple devices on a
private network.
26.VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol): Technology that enables voice communication and multimedia
sessions over the internet or other IP networks.
27.DNS Server: A server that stores DNS records and helps resolve domain names to IP addresses.
28.Latency: The time it takes for data to travel from the source to the destination in a network, often measured
in milliseconds (ms).
29.Attenuation refers to the reduction of signal strength or intensity as a signal travel through a medium or
transmission path, such as a cable, fiber-optic line, or wireless channel. It is a common phenomenon in any
form of data transmission or signal propagation.
30.Packet: A small unit of data sent over a network, often containing both the data to be transmitted and control
information.
31.Protocol: A set of rules and conventions that govern how data is transmitted and received in a network.
32.Firewall: A security device or software that filters network traffic to protect against unauthorized access and
threats.
33. Load Balancing: The practice of distributing network traffic or computing workload across multiple
servers or paths to ensure optimal resource utilization and performance.
34.