MODULE 3

Ethernet is a family of computer networking technologies for local area networks (LANs) commercially introduced in 1980. Standardized in IEEE 802.3, Ethernet has largely replaced competing wired LAN technologies. Systems communicating over Ethernet divide a stream of data into individual packets called frames. Each frame contains source and destination addresses and error-checking data so that damaged data can be detected and re-transmitted. The standards define several wiring and signaling variants. The original 10BASE5 Ethernet used coaxial cable as a shared medium. Later the coaxial cables were replaced by twisted pair and fiber optic links in conjunction with hubs or switches. Data rates were periodically increased from the original 10 megabits per second, to 100 gigabits per second. Since its commercial release, Ethernet has retained a good degree of compatibility. Features such as the 48-bit MAC address and Ethernet frame format have influenced other networking protocols. Evolution Ethernet evolved to include higher bandwidth, improved media access control methods, and different physical media. The coaxial cable was replaced with point-to-point links connected by Ethernet repeaters or switches to reduce installation costs, increase reliability, and improve management and troubleshooting. Many variants of Ethernet remain in common use. Ethernet stations communicate by sending each other data packets: blocks of data individually sent and delivered. As with other IEEE 802 LANs, each Ethernet station is given a 48-bit MAC address. The MAC addresses are used to specify both the destination and the source of each data packet. Ethernet establishes link level connections, which can be defined using both the destination and source addresses. On reception of a transmission, the receiver uses the destination address to determine whether the transmission is relevant to the station or should be ignored. Network interfaces normally do not accept packets addressed to other Ethernet stations. Adapters come programmed with a globally unique address. An Ethertype field in each frame is used by the operating system on the receiving station to select the appropriate protocol module (i.e. the Internet protocol module). Ethernet frames are said to be self-identifying, because of the frame type. Self-identifying frames make it possible to intermix multiple protocols on the same physical network and allow a single computer to use multiple protocols together.[17] Despite the evolution of Ethernet technology, all generations of Ethernet (excluding early experimental versions) use the same frame formats (and hence the same interface for higher layers), and can be readily interconnected through bridging.

Advanced networking

A core Ethernet switch Simple switched Ethernet networks, while a great improvement over repeater-based Ethernet, suffer from single points of failure, attacks that trick switches or hosts into sending data to a machine even if it is not intended for it, scalability and security issues with regard to broadcast radiation and multicast traffic, and bandwidth choke points where a lot of traffic is forced down a single link. Advanced networking features in switches and routers combat these issues through means including spanning-tree protocol to maintain the active links of the network as a tree while allowing physical loops for redundancy, port security and protection features such as MAC lock down and broadcast radiation filtering, virtual LANs to keep different classes of users separate while using the same physical infrastructure, multilayer switching to route between different classes and link aggregation to add bandwidth to overloaded links and to provide some measure of redundancy. Networking advances IEEE 802.1aq (SPB) include the use of the link-state routing protocol IS-IS to allow larger networks with shortest path routes between devices.

DSL

Digital subscriber line (DSL, originally digital subscriber loop) is a family of technologies that provide internet access by transmitting digital data over the wires of a local telephone network. In telecommunications marketing, the term DSL is widely understood to mean Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line (ADSL), the most commonly installed DSL technology. DSL service is delivered simultaneously with wired telephone service on the same telephone line. This is possible because DSL uses higher frequency bands for data separated by filtering. On the customer premises, a DSL filter on each outlet

removes the high frequency interference, to enable simultaneous use of the telephone and data. The data bit rate of consumer DSL services typically ranges from 256 kbit/s to 40 Mbit/s in the direction to the customer (downstream), depending on DSL technology, line conditions, and service-level implementation. In ADSL, the data throughput in the upstream direction, (the direction to the service provider) is lower, hence the designation of asymmetric service. In Symmetric Digital Subscriber Line (SDSL) services, the downstream and upstream data rates are equal.

ADSL

Commonly simplified as DSL, Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line (ADSL) is technology for high-speed Internet access. It uses existing copper telephone lines to send and receive data at speeds that far exceed conventional dial-up modems, while still allowing users to talk on the phone while they surf. By contrast, DSL is typically not as fast as cable Internet access. It is generally well-suited for moderate gaming, computer-aided design, streaming multimedia, and downloading large files. ADSL Speed The fastest dial-up modems are rated at 56 kilobits per second (Kbps), and usually operate at about 53 Kbps under good conditions. By comparison, ADSL allows download speeds from 1.5 to 8 megabits per second (Mbps), depending on the grade of DSL service purchased. Cable Internet is capable of supporting up to 30 Mbps. How Does ADSL Work? ADSL uses standard telephone lines to upload and download data on a digital frequency, which sets these datastreams apart from the analog signals that telephones and fax machines use. The telephone can be used at the same time when surfing the Web with DSL service because the signal is operating on a different frequency; this is not true of conventional dial-up Internet access. It may be necessary to install inexpensive filters on each phone or fax line to remove any "white noise" on the line that might be generated from the DSL signals. A compatible Internet service provider (ISP) is necessary to receive DSL service, as is a DSL modem. The modem may be provided by the ISP, or it may be purchased separately by the end-user. Most US-based ISPs that offer DSL service require subscriber contracts of at least one year. DSL is usually more expensive than dial-up service, but the latter is slowly becoming obsolete as user bandwidth requirements rise, due to things like streaming video.

DSL is an "always on" service, meaning that as long as the user's computer is powered on, it will automatically stay connected to the Internet unless it is manually disconnected via software or hardware. Family members can share DSL accounts, with a basic monthly fee. Unlike dial-up service, which stipulates that only one session be open at a time, multiple members can be using DSL service at the same time on various computers in the house. A router may also be used with this type of ISP to provide wireless access throughout a home. Asymmetric vs. Symmetric The "asymmetric" in ADSL refers to the fact that the speed at which data is downloaded, the data coming to the end-user's computer from the Internet, is faster than the rate for uploaded data, the data traveling from the user's computer to the Internet. The speed of uploading data is slower because Web page requests are fairly small data strings that do not require much bandwidth to handle efficiently. Consequently, more speed can be dedicated to downloading more bandwidth-intensive data. Some businesses may require matching rates for uploading large files. For them, Symmetric Digital Subscriber Line (SDSL) is an option. "Symmetric" indicates that both datastreams are operating at the same speed of 1.5 to 7 Mbps, depending on the grade of service purchased. SDSL service requires a dedicated telephone line, however, because unlike ADSL, telephone and fax services cannot share a line with this service. Availability ADSL is not accessible to all communities, and coverage is often especially spotty in rural areas. Dedicated DSL providers, or even the local phone company, can verify if service is available in a specific locale. Speeds will vary depending upon the physical distance from local hubs, as well as the number of people using the service at one time in the same area. Some customers who live close to an ISP hub may be able to take advantage of newer varieties of ADSL, called ADSL2 and ADSL2+, which have even greater throughput rates, from 12 to 24 Mbps for downloading and 1 to 3.5 Mbps for uploading. In addition, there are other types of DSL that offer customers other benefits. Rate Adaptive DSL (RADSL) uses a special modem that can adapt to changing line conditions, changing the speed as needed. Very high bit-rate DSL (VDSL) offers download speeds of up to 52 Mbps, but is not as widely available and is only able to achieve such high speeds very close to a hub. Is DSL Ever as Fast as Cable? Under identical conditions, cable has a strong speed advantage over ADSL; however, identical conditions rarely exist. In a given locale, cable speeds can suffer if they are too far from the nearest hub, or may suffer a bottle-neck if too many users are online at once. Artificial bandwidth caps placed on service at times of heaviest usage are not uncommon either. While the same factors are true of DSL, it does mean that in certain markets, some DSL providers may actually be able to provide faster service than some cable providers especially if newer technologies like VDSL are available. As a result, whether DSL is as fast as cable is not always obvious, and it is a good idea for people looking for an ISP to

research the local market and read customer reviews before committing to a particular provider.

FDDI
Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI) Background The Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI) specifies a 100-Mbps token-passing, dual-ring LAN using fiber-optic cable. FDDI is frequently used as high-speed backbone technology because of its support for high bandwidth and greater distances than copper. It should be noted that relatively recently, a related copper specification, called Copper Distributed Data Interface (CDDI) has emerged to provide 100-Mbps service over copper. CDDI is the implementation of FDDI protocols over twisted-pair copper wire. This chapter focuses mainly on FDDI specifications and operations, but it also provides a high-level overview of CDDI. FDDI uses a dual-ring architecture with traffic on each ring flowing in opposite directions (called counter-rotating). The dual-rings consist of a primary and a secondary ring. During normal operation, the primary ring is used for data transmission, and the secondary ring remains idle. The primary purpose of the dual rings, as will be discussed in detail later in this chapter, is to provide superior reliability and robustness. Figure 8-1 shows the counterrotating primary and secondary FDDI rings. Figure 8-1: FDDI uses counter-rotating primary and secondary rings.

Standards FDDI was developed by the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) X3T9.5 standards committee in the mid-1980s. At the time, high-speed engineering workstations were beginning to tax the bandwidth of existing local area networks (LANs) based on Ethernet and Token Ring). A new LAN media was needed that could easily support these workstations and their new distributed applications. At the same time, network reliability had become an increasingly important issue as system managers migrated mission-critical applications from large computers to networks. FDDI was developed to fill these needs.

After completing the FDDI specification, ANSI submitted FDDI to the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), which created an international version of FDDI that is completely compatible with the ANSI standard version. FDDI Transmission Media FDDI uses optical fiber as the primary transmission medium, but it also can run over copper cabling. As mentioned earlier, FDDI over copper is referred to as CopperDistributed Data Interface (CDDI). Optical fiber has several advantages over copper media. In particular, security, reliability, and performance all are enhanced with optical fiber media because fiber does not emit electrical signals. A physical medium that does emit electrical signals (copper) can be tapped and therefore would permit unauthorized access to the data that is transiting the medium. In addition, fiber is immune to electrical interference from radio frequency interference (RFI) and electromagnetic interference (EMI). Fiber historically has supported much higher bandwidth (throughput potential) than copper, although recent technological advances have made copper capable of transmitting at 100 Mbps. Finally, FDDI allows two kilometers between stations using multi-mode fiber, and even longer distances using a single mode. FDDI defines two types of optical fiber: single-mode and multi-mode. A mode is a ray of light that enters the fiber at a particular angle. Multi-mode fiber uses LED as the lightgenerating devices, while single-mode fiber generally uses lasers. Multi-mode fiber allows multiple modes of light to propagate through the fiber. Because these modes of light enter the fiber at different angles, they will arrive at the end of the fiber at different times. This characteristic is known as modal dispersion. Modal dispersion limits the bandwidth and distances that can be accomplished using multi-mode fibers. For this reason, multi-mode fiber is generally used for connectivity within a building or within a relatively geographically contained environment. Single-mode fiber allows only one mode of light to propagate through the fiber. Because only a single mode of light is used, modal dispersion is not present with single-mode fiber. Therefore, single-mode is capable of delivering considerably higher performance connectivity and over much larger distances, which is why it generally is used for connectivity between buildings and within environments that are more geographically dispersed. Figure 8-2 depicts single-mode fiber using a laser light source and multi-mode fiber using a light-emitting diode (LED) light source. Figure 8-2: Light sources differ for single-mode and multi-mode fibers.

FDDI Specifications FDDI specifies the physical and media-access portions of the OSI reference model. FDDI is not actually a single specification, but it is a collection of four separate specifications each with a specific function. Combined, these specifications have the capability to provide high-speed connectivity between upper-layer protocols such as TCP/IP and IPX, and media such as fiber-optic cabling. FDDI's four specifications are the Media Access Control (MAC), Physical Layer Protocol (PHY), Physical-Medium Dependent (PMD), and Station Management (SMT). The MAC specification defines how the medium is accessed, including frame format, token handling, addressing, algorithms for calculating cyclic redundancy check (CRC) value, and errorrecovery mechanisms. The PHY specification defines data encoding/decoding procedures, clocking requirements, and framing, among other functions. The PMD specification defines the characteristics of the transmission medium, including fiber-optic links, power levels, bit-error rates, optical components, and connectors. The SMT specification defines FDDI station configuration, ring configuration, and ring control features, including station insertion and removal, initialization, fault isolation and recovery, scheduling, and statistics collection. FDDI is similar to IEEE 802.3 Ethernet and IEEE 802.5 Token Ring in its relationship with the OSI model. Its primary purpose is to provide connectivity between upper OSI layers of common protocols and the media used to connect network devices. Figure 8-3 illustrates the four FDDI specifications and their relationship to each other and to the IEEE-defined Logical-Link Control (LLC) sublayer. The LLC sublayer is a component of Layer 2, the MAC layer, of the OSI reference model. Figure 8-3: FDDI specifications map to the OSI hierarchical model.

FDDI Station-Attachment Types One of the unique characteristics of FDDI is that multiple ways actually exist by which to connect FDDI devices. FDDI defines three types of devices: single-attachment station (SAS), dual-attachment station (DAS), and a concentrator. An SAS attaches to only one ring (the primary) through a concentrator. One of the primary advantages of connecting devices with SAS attachments is that the devices will not have

any effect on the FDDI ring if they are disconnected or powered off. Concentrators will be discussed in more detail in the following discussion. Each FDDI DAS has two ports, designated A and B. These ports connect the DAS to the dual FDDI ring. Therefore, each port provides a connection for both the primary and the secondary ring. As you will see in the next section, devices using DAS connections will affect the ring if they are disconnected or powered off. Figure 8-4 shows FDDI DAS A and B ports with attachments to the primary and secondary rings. Figure 8-4: FDDI DAS ports attach to the primary and secondary rings.

An FDDI concentrator (also called a dual-attachment concentrator [DAC]) is the building block of an FDDI network. It attaches directly to both the primary and secondary rings and ensures that the failure or power-down of any SAS does not bring down the ring. This is particularly useful when PCs, or similar devices that are frequently powered on and off, connect to the ring. Figure 8-5 shows the ring attachments of an FDDI SAS, DAS, and concentrator. Figure 8-5: A concentrator attaches to both the primary and secondary rings.

FDDI Fault Tolerance FDDI provides a number of fault-tolerant features. In particular, FDDI's dual-ring environment, the implementation of the optical bypass switch, and dual-homing support make FDDI a resilient media technology. Dual Ring FDDI's primary fault-tolerant feature is the dual ring. If a station on the dual ring fails or is powered down, or if the cable is damaged, the dual ring is automatically wrapped (doubled

back onto itself) into a single ring. When the ring is wrapped, the dual-ring topology becomes a single-ring topology. Data continues to be transmitted on the FDDI ring without performance impact during the wrap condition. Figure 8-6 and Figure 8-7 illustrate the effect of a ring wrapping in FDDI. Figure 8-6: A ring recovers from a station failure by wrapping.

Figure 8-7: A ring also wraps to withstand a cable failure.

When a single station fails, as shown in Figure 8-6, devices on either side of the failed (or powered down) station wrap, forming a single ring. Network operation continues for the

remaining stations on the ring. When a cable failure occurs, as shown in Figure 8-7, devices on either side of the cable fault wrap. Network operation continues for all stations. It should be noted that FDDI truly provides fault-tolerance against a single failure only. When two or more failures occur, the FDDI ring segments into two or more independent rings that are unable to communicate with each other. Optical Bypass Switch An optical bypass switch provides continuous dual-ring operation if a device on the dual ring fails. This is used both to prevent ring segmentation and to eliminate failed stations from the ring. The optical bypass switch performs this function through the use of optical mirrors that pass light from the ring directly to the DAS device during normal operation. In the event of a failure of the DAS device, such as a power-off, the optical bypass switch will pass the light through itself by using internal mirrors and thereby maintain the ring's integrity. The benefit of this capability is that the ring will not enter a wrapped condition in the event of a device failure. Figure 8-8 shows the functionality of an optical bypass switch in an FDDI network. Figure 8-8: The optical bypass switch uses internal mirrors to maintain a network.

Dual Homing Critical devices, such as routers or mainframe hosts, can use a fault-tolerant technique called dual homing to provide additional redundancy and to help guarantee operation. In dual-homing situations, the critical device is attached to two concentrators. Figure 8-9 shows a dual-homed configuration for devices such as file servers and routers. Figure 8-9: A dual-homed configuration guarantees operation.

One pair of concentrator links is declared the active link; the other pair is declared passive. The passive link stays in back-up mode until the primary link (or the concentrator to which it is attached) is determined to have failed. When this occurs, the passive link automatically activates. FDDI Frame Format The FDDI frame format is similar to the format of a Token Ring frame. This is one of the areas where FDDI borrows heavily from earlier LAN technologies, such as Token Ring. FDDI frames can be as large as 4,500 bytes. Figure 8-10 shows the frame format of an FDDI data frame and token. Figure 8-10: The FDDI frame is similar to that of a Token Ring frame.

FDDI Frame Fields

GIGABIT ETHERNET
In computer networking, Gigabit Ethernet (GbE or 1 GigE) is a term describing various technologies for transmitting Ethernet frames at a rate of a gigabit per second (1,000,000,000 bits per second), as defined by the IEEE 802.3-2008 standard. It came into use beginning in 1999, gradually supplanting Fast Ethernet in wired local networks where

it performed considerably faster. The cables and equipment are very similar to previous standards, and by the year 2010, were very common and economical. Half-duplex gigabit links connected through hubs are allowed by the specification, but fullduplex usage with switches is much more common.