Module-5

RKDC -Important questions

1. Explain the working if incremental encoder and absolute encoder with construction
and working and uses.
2. What is Robot control, explain the concepts of point to point and continuous path
control
3. Explain the concepts of Basics of feedback devices. Explain and Differentiate open
and closed loop control.
4. Explain and differentiate the working of Encoders and Resolver
5. Explain the working of Fundamentals of PD and PID controllers.
6. Explain the Linear control schemes in PD and PID control of a single link
manipulator.
7. What is adaptive control ? Explain how it works in robot movement control?
8. Explain the hybrid control and differentiate between adaptive and hybrid control.
9. Explain the general concepts of impedance control .
10. What is Force and Torque Control? Explain the role of adaptive, Hybrid and
impedance control
11. List the advantages of Hybrid control, adaptive control and Impedance control
12. Given a single link robot manipulator with a PD controller derive the control law and
describe its effects
13. Given a single link robot manipulator with a PID controller derive the control law and
describe its effects
14. Explain the working of LVDT with its applications.

1.Explain the working if incremental encoder and absolute encoder with construction and
working and uses.
Incremental Encoder
Construction
An incremental encoder typically consists of:
 A rotating disk with evenly spaced transparent and opaque sections (slots or lines).
 A light source (like an LED) on one side of the disk.
 A photodetector (sensor) on the other side to detect light passing through the slots.
 Sometimes, there are two sensors placed slightly apart to generate two signals (A and
B channels) for direction detection.
Working
 As the disk rotates, the slots allow light to pass through to the sensor, creating a series
of pulses (on/off signals).
 Each pulse represents a small movement (step) of the shaft.
 By counting the pulses, you can determine how much the shaft has rotated.
  If there are two sensors (A and B), the phase difference between their signals can tell
you the direction of rotation.
Uses
 Used in robotics, CNC machines, printers, and motors to measure speed, position,
or direction.
 Good for applications where you only need to know relative movement (how much
something has moved, not its exact position).
Simple Example
Imagine a bicycle wheel with a sticker. Every time the sticker passes a sensor, you count one
rotation. If you lose power, you lose track of the count.

Absolute Encoder
Construction
An absolute encoder also has:
 A rotating disk, but with a special pattern of tracks (concentric circles), each
representing a binary code.
 Multiple light sources and sensors aligned with each track.
Working
 Each position of the disk corresponds to a unique binary code (like 1011, 1100, etc.).
 When the disk rotates, the sensors read the pattern and output the exact position as a
digital code.
 Each track is patterned with transparent and opaque segments, but instead of simple
binary codes, Gray code is often use
 Even if power is lost, when it’s restored, the encoder immediately knows the exact
position.
Uses
 Used in robotic arms, industrial automation, medical equipment, and anywhere
you need to know the exact position at all times.
 Essential for safety-critical or high-precision applications.
Simple Example
Think of a combination lock with numbers. No matter when you look at it, you know the
exact number it’s pointing to.
Summary Table
Feature Incremental Encoder Absolute Encoder
Output Pulses (relative position) Digital code (exact position)
Power Loss Loses position Remembers position
Construction One track, simple slots Multiple tracks, binary pattern
Uses Speed, direction, relative motion Exact position, high precision

2. What is Robot control, explain the concepts of point to point and continuous path
control?
Robot control refers to the methods and systems used to direct a robot’s movements and
actions. It involves sending commands to the robot’s motors and actuators so it can perform
tasks like moving, picking up objects, welding, or painting. The main goal is to make the
robot move in a precise, repeatable, and safe way to achieve the desired task.
Point-to-Point (PTP) Control
Concept
 In point-to-point control, the robot is programmed to move from one specific
position (point) to another.
 The path taken between these points is not important; only the start and end
positions matter.
 The robot moves as quickly as possible between points, without worrying about the
exact path.
Uses
 Used in tasks where only the final position is important, not the path.
 Common in pick-and-place operations, spot welding, machine loading/unloading,
and assembly.
 Example: A robot arm moves from a home position to pick up a part, then moves to
another point to place it.
Simple Example
Imagine you want to move a chess piece from one square to another. You only care about the
starting and ending squares, not the exact path the piece takes. This is pick and place
application.

Continuous Path (CP) Control

Concept
 In continuous path control, the robot’s movement is controlled along the entire path,
not just at the start and end points.
 The robot follows a precise, smooth path with controlled speed and position at every
moment.
 The path and speed are both important and are continuously monitored and adjusted.
Uses
 Used in tasks where the exact path is critical.
 Common in welding (arc welding), painting, gluing, cutting, and drawing.
 Example: A robot arm must follow a specific curve while welding two pieces of metal
together.
Simple Example
Imagine drawing a circle with a pen. You need to control the pen’s movement smoothly along
the entire circle, not just the start and end points.

Table

Path
Control Type What is Controlled? Typical Uses
Important?

Start and end Pick-and-place, spot

Point-to-Point (PTP) No
positions welding

Continuous Path
Entire movement path Yes Painting, arc welding
(CP)
3. Explain the concepts of Basics of feedback devices. Explain and Differentiate open and
closed loop control.
Basics of Feedback Devices
Feedback devices are sensors or instruments that measure a physical quantity (like position,
speed, temperature, or force) and send this information back to the control system. The
control system uses this feedback to adjust its actions and achieve the desired result.
Common feedback devices include:
 Encoders: Measure position or speed of a rotating shaft.
 LVDT: Measures positions
 Potentiometers: Measure angular or linear position.
 Tachometers: Measure speed of rotation.
 Load cells: Measure force or weight.
 Temperature sensors: Measure heat.
Why use feedback?
Feedback helps the system know if it’s doing the right thing. If there’s a difference between
the desired value (setpoint) and the actual value (measured by the feedback device), the
system can make corrections.

Open Loop Control

Concept:
In open loop control, the system sends commands to the actuator (like a motor) without
checking if the desired result is achieved. There is no feedback.
How it works:
 The controller gives a command.
 The actuator acts.
 The system assumes the action is correct, but doesn’t verify it.
Example:
A simple washing machine timer: It runs the motor for a set time, regardless of whether the
clothes are clean.
Advantages:
 Simple and cheap.
 Easy to design.
Disadvantages:
 No correction for errors or disturbances.
 Less accurate and reliable.
Closed Loop Control
Concept:
In closed loop control, the system uses feedback devices to measure the actual output and
compares it to the desired value. If there’s a difference (error), the system automatically
adjusts its actions to correct it.
How it works:
 The controller gives a command.
 The actuator acts.
 A feedback device measures the result.
 The controller compares the actual result to the desired result and makes corrections if
needed.
Example:
A thermostat-controlled heater: The thermostat measures room temperature and turns the
heater on or off to maintain the set temperature.
Advantages:
 More accurate and reliable.
 Can correct for errors and disturbances.
Disadvantages:
 More complex and expensive.
 Requires sensors and more advanced control logic.


Differences
Feature Open Loop Control Closed Loop Control
Feedback No Yes
Accuracy Lower Higher
Correction Not possible Automatic correction
Complexity Simple More complex
Cost Lower Higher
Example Microwave oven timer Air conditioner with thermostat
4. Explain and differentiate the working of Encoders and Resolver
Encoders
Working
An encoder is an electromechanical device that converts the position or motion of a shaft
into an electrical signal, which can be read by a control system.
 Types: The most common are optical encoders (incremental and absolute).
 How it works: An optical encoder has a disk with patterns (lines or slots) and a light
source on one side. As the disk rotates, the light passes through the slots and is
detected by sensors, generating electrical pulses.
 Output: The pulses or digital codes represent the shaft’s position, speed, or direction.
 Provides digital output (pulses or binary codes).
 Can be incremental (relative position) or absolute (exact position).
 Used for precise position and speed measurement.

Resolver
Working
A resolver is an analog rotary position sensor, similar to a transformer, used to measure the
angular position of a shaft.
 Construction: It has a rotor (rotating coil) and stator (stationary coils) arranged at
specific angles.
 How it works: An AC voltage is applied to the rotor winding. As the shaft rotates, the
resolver induces voltages in the stator windings. The amplitude of these voltages
varies as sine and cosine functions of the shaft angle.
 Output: The control system reads these analog signals and calculates the exact angle
using trigonometric relationships.
 Provides analog output (sine and cosine signals).
 Very robust and reliable, especially in harsh environments.
 Commonly used in aerospace, military, and industrial applications.

Differences Between Encoder and Resolver

Feature Encoder Resolver

Output Type Digital (pulses or binary codes) Analog (sine and cosine signals)

Principle Optical or magnetic Electromagnetic (transformer-like)

High, but depends on signal

Accuracy High (especially absolute encoders)
processing

Environment Sensitive to dust, vibration, and light Very robust, works in harsh conditions

Simple to interface with digital

Complexity Requires analog-to-digital conversion
systems

Cost Generally less expensive Usually more expensive

Typical Uses Robotics, CNC, printers, automation Aerospace, military, heavy industry

Simple Analogy
 Encoder: Like a digital ruler that tells you exactly how far you’ve moved, step by
step.
 Resolver: Like a protractor that gives you a smooth, continuous angle reading, even
in tough conditions.
5. Explain the working of Fundamentals of PD and PID controllers.
6.Explain the Linear control schemes in PD and PID control of a single link manipulator.
For both questions answer is below
Fundamentals of PD and PID Controllers
What is a Controller?
A controller is a device or algorithm that automatically adjusts the input to a system (like a
robot arm) to make its output (like position or speed) follow a desired value (setpoint).
PD Controller (Proportional-Derivative)
 P (Proportional) Term: Reacts to the current error (difference between desired and
actual value). The bigger the error, the bigger the correction.
 D (Derivative) Term: Reacts to the rate of change of the error (how fast the error is
changing). It helps to dampen the motion and reduce overshoot.
PD Control Law:
𝑑𝑒(𝑡)
𝑢(𝑡) = 𝐾 ⋅ 𝑒(𝑡) + 𝐾 ⋅
𝑑𝑡
Where:
  𝑢(𝑡) = control input (e.g., torque to the motor)
 𝑒(𝑡) = error = desired position - actual position
 𝐾 = proportional gain
 𝐾 = derivative gain
PID Controller (Proportional-Integral-Derivative)
 P (Proportional) Term: Same as above.
 I (Integral) Term: Reacts to the sum of past errors. It eliminates steady-state error
(offset).
 D (Derivative) Term: Same as above.
PID Control Law:
𝑑𝑒(𝑡)
𝑢(𝑡) = 𝐾 ⋅ 𝑒(𝑡) + 𝐾 ∫ 𝑒(𝑡)𝑑𝑡 + 𝐾 ⋅
𝑑𝑡
Where:
 𝐾 = integral gain

First Set of Graphs:

1. Controller Response Comparison (Top Left):
o Shows how P-only, PD, and PID controllers respond to a step input (moving
from 0° to 90°)
o P-only: Oscillates and has steady-state error
o PD: Faster settling, reduced overshoot, but still has offset
o PID: Smooth response with zero steady-state error
 2. Error vs Time (Top Right):
o Shows how quickly each controller reduces the error
o PID controller eliminates error completely over time
3. PID Components Breakdown (Bottom Left):
o Proportional term: Directly proportional to current error
o Integral term: Accumulates past errors (eliminates steady-state error)
o Derivative term: Responds to rate of error change (reduces overshoot)
4. Single Link Manipulator Diagram (Bottom Right):
o Visual representation of the robot arm moving from 0° to 90°
Second Set of Graphs:
5. Effect of Gains:
o Kp (Proportional): Higher values = faster response but more overshoot
o Kd (Derivative): Higher values = less overshoot, more damping
o Ki (Integral): Higher values = faster elimination of steady-state error
6. Control Effort Comparison:
o Shows the actual torque/force applied by each controller
7. Steady-State Error Elimination:
o Demonstrates how PID eliminates offset while P-only cannot
8. Performance Comparison Table:
o Summary of characteristics of each controller type

Linear Control Schemes in PD and PID Control of a Single Link Manipulator

What is a Single Link Manipulator?
A single link manipulator is like a simple robot arm with one joint (like a swinging door).
The goal is to control its angle (position) accurately.
Linear Control Scheme
 The system is modeled as a linear system (ignoring nonlinear effects like friction or
gravity for simplicity).
 The controller (PD or PID) calculates the required torque to move the arm to the
desired angle.
Working of PD/PID Control
1. Set a Desired Position: For example, you want the arm to move to 90°.
2. Measure Actual Position: Use a sensor (like an encoder) to get the current angle.
3. Calculate Error: Error = Desired angle - Actual angle.
4. Controller Action:
o PD: Calculates torque based on current error and how fast the error is
changing.
o PID: Adds a term for the sum of past errors to remove any steady-state offset.
5. Apply Torque: The calculated torque is sent to the motor, moving the arm.
6. Repeat: The process repeats rapidly, constantly adjusting the torque to minimize
error.
Why Use PD or PID?
 PD: Good for fast, stable response. Reduces overshoot and oscillation.
 PID: Adds the ability to eliminate steady-state error (the arm will reach and stay at
the exact desired angle).

Simple Example
Suppose you want a robot arm to move from 0° to 90°:
 PD control will move the arm quickly and slow it down as it approaches 90°,
minimizing overshoot.
 PID control will do the same, but if there’s any small error left (the arm stops at
89.5°), the integral term will keep pushing until it reaches exactly 90°.

Table
Use in Manipulator
Controller Terms Used Main Effect Control
PD Proportional, Fast, stable, reduces Good for position and
Derivative overshoot speed control
PID Proportional, Integral, Eliminates steady-state Best for precise
Derivative error, stable positioning

7. What is adaptive control ? Explain how it works in robot movement control?

Adaptive control is a control method used when the system being controlled (the "plant") has
parameters that change over time or are uncertain. Unlike fixed-gain controllers (like standard
PID controllers), adaptive controllers can automatically adjust their parameters to maintain
optimal performance despite these changes.
Idea:
The controller "adapts" to the changing conditions of the plant.
Working:
1. System Identification: The controller estimates the parameters of the plant in real-
time.
2. Control Law Design: Based on the estimated parameters, the controller adjusts its own
parameters to achieve the desired performance.
3. Continuous Adaptation: This process repeats continuously, allowing the controller to
track changes in the plant.
Why Use Adaptive Control?
 Uncertainty: When the plant's parameters are not precisely known.
 Time-Varying Dynamics: When the plant's parameters change over time (e.g., due to
wear, temperature changes, or varying loads).
 Nonlinearities: When the plant has significant nonlinear behaviour that is difficult to
model.

Example: Robotic Manipulator with Varying Payload

Imagine a robotic arm that needs to pick up objects of different weights. The arm's dynamics
(how it moves) change significantly depending on the payload.
Conventional PID Controller:
 If you tune a fixed-gain PID controller for a light payload, it might become unstable or
sluggish with a heavy payload.
 If you tune it for a heavy payload, it might be too slow or overshoot with a light payload.
Adaptive Controller:
1. Parameter Estimation: The adaptive controller continuously estimates the arm's
moment of inertia (which changes with the payload).
2. Control Law Adjustment: Based on the estimated moment of inertia, the controller
adjusts its gains (Kp, Ki, Kd) to maintain consistent performance.
3. Result: The arm can quickly and accurately pick up both light and heavy objects
without needing manual retuning.

08.Explain the hybrid control and differentiate between adaptive and hybrid control.

Hybrid control in robotics is a control strategy that combines both continuous control (such
as position, velocity, or force control) and discrete control (such as logic-based decisions,
switching between modes, or event handling) within a single robotic system. This approach is
essential for robots that must interact with dynamic and unpredictable environments, where
both smooth motion and logical decision-making are required.
 Continuous control manages the robot’s smooth movements (e.g., moving an arm to a
specific position).
 Discrete control handles logical decisions or mode changes (e.g., switching from free
motion to contact mode when the robot touches an object).
 Hybrid control allows the robot to switch between different control strategies based
on sensor feedback or specific events.

Example
A robotic arm assembling parts:
  Uses position control to move toward a part (continuous control).
 When contact is detected, it switches to force control to insert the part gently (discrete
event triggers a mode change).
 The system automatically manages these transitions, ensuring both precision and safety.
Importance of Hybrid control
Hybrid control enables robots to:
 Adapt to complex tasks that involve both movement and decision-making.
 Safely interact with their environment and handle unexpected events.
 Perform tasks like assembly, object manipulation, or walking, where both continuous
and discrete actions are needed.
Differences Table
Feature Hybrid Control Adaptive Control

Combining continuous and discrete Adjusting to changing or unknown

Main Focus
control system dynamics

Control Switches between different modes Continuously tunes controller

Strategy or laws parameters

Typical Use Tasks with both motion and Systems with varying loads or
Case logic/event handling uncertain dynamics

Switching from position to force

Example Adjusting gains for different payloads
control

To task/mode changes (not To parameter changes (not task/mode

Adaptation
parameter changes) changes)

9.Explain the general concepts of impedance control .

Impedance control is a control strategy used in robotics to manage how a robot physically
interacts with its environment, especially during contact tasks. Instead of strictly controlling
position or force, impedance control regulates the relationship between the force the robot
applies and the motion that results from it.

 Mechanical Impedance:
In mechanics, impedance describes how much an object resists motion when a force is
applied. It combines properties like stiffness (springiness), damping (resistance to
speed), and inertia (resistance to acceleration).
 Virtual Model:
Impedance control makes the robot behave as if it has a certain mechanical
impedance—like a virtual spring, damper, and mass. The robot’s response to contact
(how much it moves when pushed or how much force it applies when stopped) is
determined by these virtual properties.
  Control Law:
The controller is designed so that:
𝐹 = 𝑀 ⋅ 𝑥̈ + 𝐵 ⋅ 𝑥̇ + 𝐾 ⋅ (𝑥 − 𝑥 )
Where:
o 𝐹 = force applied by the robot
o 𝑀 = virtual mass
o 𝐵 = virtual damping
o 𝐾 = virtual stiffness
o 𝑥 = actual position
o 𝑥 = desired position
 Compliant Interaction:
The robot can “give” or “yield” when it encounters unexpected obstacles, making it
safer and more adaptable in tasks like assembly, polishing, or working with humans.

Why Use Impedance Control?

 Safety: Prevents excessive force that could damage objects or the robot.
 Flexibility: Allows the robot to adapt to variations in the environment.
 Natural Interaction: Makes the robot’s movements feel more human-like and less
rigid.

Example
If a robot arm is programmed to press against a surface with impedance control:
 If the surface moves or is softer than expected, the arm will move with it, maintaining
a gentle force.
 If the surface is hard, the arm will not push too hard, avoiding damage.

Impedance control lets a robot “feel” and respond to its environment by controlling how it
reacts to forces, making interactions smoother, safer, and more adaptable—just like how your
hand gently presses or yields when touching different objects

10. What is Force and Torque Control? Explain the role of adaptive, Hybrid and
impedance control.
Force and torque control in robotic manipulators refers to controlling not just the position
or speed of the robot’s joints or end-effector, but also the amount of force (linear) and torque
(rotational force) the robot applies when interacting with its environment.
This is crucial when a robot must:
 Push, pull, or press objects with a specific force
 Assemble parts without damaging them
 Maintain a gentle grip or apply a precise tightening torque

Why is it Needed?
 Delicate tasks: Such as inserting a peg into a hole, polishing, or handling fragile
objects
 Interaction with environment: When the robot must sense and respond to contact,
not just follow a path
  Safety: Prevents excessive force that could damage parts or the robot itself

How Does It Work?

1. Sensors
 Force/torque sensors are usually mounted at the robot’s wrist or joints to measure the
actual forces and torques being applied.
2. Control Schemes
 Impedance control: The robot behaves like a virtual spring-damper system,
controlling how “stiff” or “compliant” it is when it meets resistance.
 Admittance control: The robot’s motion is adjusted based on the measured
force/torque, making it move more or less depending on the force applied.
 Direct force/torque control: The controller directly regulates the force or torque
output to match a desired value.
3. Feedback Loop
 The controller continuously compares the desired force/torque with the measured
value and adjusts the robot’s actuators to minimize the difference.

1. Hybrid Control in Force and Torque Control

Hybrid control combines both position (motion) control and force/torque control, switching
between or blending them as needed.
 How it works:
The robot operates in different modes depending on the task or environment. For
example, it uses position control to move freely in space, and when it makes contact
with an object, it switches to force/torque control to regulate the interaction force.
 Example:
A robot arm moves to insert a peg (position control). When the peg touches the hole,
the controller switches to force control to gently push the peg in without jamming or
breaking it.
 Benefit:
Enables robots to handle tasks that require both precise movement and sensitive force
application, such as assembly, surface finishing, or handling fragile objects.

2. Adaptive Control in Force and Torque Control

Adaptive control automatically adjusts its parameters in real-time to maintain desired force
or torque, even if the robot or environment changes (e.g., different payloads, tool wear, or
unknown surface properties).
 How it works:
The controller continuously estimates the system’s dynamics (like stiffness, mass, or
friction) and updates its control law to ensure the desired force/torque is applied,
regardless of changes.
  Example:
A robot polishing surfaces of varying hardness. The adaptive controller adjusts its
force output to maintain a constant polishing force, even as the surface properties
change.
 Benefit:
Maintains consistent force/torque performance in uncertain or changing
environments, improving quality and safety.

3. Impedance Control in Force and Torque Control

Impedance control makes the robot behave like a virtual mechanical system (spring,
damper, and mass), controlling the relationship between force/torque and motion.
 How it works:
Instead of directly controlling force or position, the controller sets a desired
“impedance” (stiffness, damping, inertia). The robot responds to contact by moving
compliantly, as if it had a certain mechanical flexibility.
 Example:
When a robot arm presses against a surface, impedance control allows it to “give”
slightly, absorbing shocks and maintaining a smooth, controlled force.
 Benefit:
Provides safe, natural, and stable interaction with the environment, especially useful
for tasks involving contact, such as human-robot collaboration, assembly, or surface
following.

Control
How It Works Example Task Benefit
Method

Hybrid Switches/blends position and Peg-in-hole Handles tasks needing

Control force/torque control assembly both modes

Adaptive Adjusts control parameters in Polishing Maintains performance

Control real-time variable surfaces in uncertainty

Impedance Sets virtual stiffness/damping for Surface Safe, stable, natural

Control compliant motion finishing, HRI interaction

9.List the advantages of Hybrid control, adaptive control and Impedance control
Advantages of Adaptive Control
 Handles Uncertainty: Automatically adjusts to changes in system parameters (like
mass, friction, or payload).
  Consistent Performance: Maintains desired performance even when the robot or
environment changes.
 Reduces Manual Tuning: No need to manually retune controller gains for different
conditions.
 Improves Robustness: Can deal with modeling errors and unknown disturbances.
 Ideal for Variable Tasks: Useful in applications where the robot faces different or
unpredictable tasks.

Advantages of Hybrid Control

 Combines Strengths: Merges the benefits of both continuous (motion) and discrete
(logic/event) control.
 Task Flexibility: Enables robots to handle complex tasks that require both smooth
movement and logical decisions.
 Efficient Mode Switching: Automatically switches between control strategies (e.g.,
from position to force control) as needed.
 Enhanced Safety: Can quickly change to safe modes in response to unexpected
events.
 Suitable for Real-World Applications: Well-suited for assembly, manufacturing, and
environments with both physical and logical requirements.

Advantages of Impedance Control

 Safe Interaction: Allows robots to interact safely with humans and delicate objects
by yielding to unexpected forces.
 Compliant Motion: Provides natural, flexible, and smooth responses during contact
tasks.
 Reduces Damage: Minimizes risk of damaging parts, tools, or the robot itself during
contact.
 Adaptable to Environment: Easily accommodates variations in surface stiffness or
position.
 Improves Task Quality: Ideal for tasks like assembly, polishing, or force-sensitive
operations where both force and motion matter.

12.Given a single link robot manipulator with a PD controller derive the control law and
describe its effects
a single link robot manipulator with a PD controller:
1. System Model
A single link manipulator (like a simple robot arm) can be modeled as a rigid body rotating
about a joint. Ignoring gravity and friction for simplicity, the equation of motion is:

𝐽𝜃̈(𝑡) = 𝜏(𝑡)
Where:
 𝐽 = moment of inertia of the link
 𝜃(𝑡) = angular position (output)
 𝜏(𝑡) = applied torque (input)

2. PD Controller
A PD (Proportional-Derivative) controller generates the control input (torque) based on the
current error and its rate of change:
𝜏(𝑡) = 𝐾 ⋅ 𝑒(𝑡) + 𝐾 ⋅ 𝑒̇ (𝑡)

Where:
 𝑒(𝑡) = 𝜃 (𝑡) − 𝜃(𝑡) (position error)

 𝑒̇ (𝑡) = 𝜃̇ (𝑡) − 𝜃̇(𝑡) (velocity error)

 𝐾 = proportional gain

 𝐾 = derivative gain

3. Control Law Derivation

Substitute the control law into the manipulator’s equation:

𝐽𝜃̈(𝑡) = 𝐾 [𝜃 (𝑡) − 𝜃(𝑡)] + 𝐾 [𝜃̇ (𝑡) − 𝜃̇(𝑡)]

Rearrange:

𝐽𝜃̈(𝑡) + 𝐾 𝜃̇(𝑡) + 𝐾 𝜃(𝑡) = 𝐾 𝜃̇ (𝑡) + 𝐾 𝜃 (𝑡)

Or, in terms of error dynamics (assuming constant desired position and velocity, so their
derivatives are zero):
𝐽𝑒̈ (𝑡) + 𝐾 𝑒̇ (𝑡) + 𝐾 𝑒(𝑡) = 0

4. Effects of the PD Controller

  Proportional Term (𝐾 ):
Increases the response speed and reduces the steady-state error. Higher 𝐾 means the
system reacts more strongly to errors, but too high can cause overshoot or instability.
 Derivative Term (𝐾 ):
Adds damping, reducing overshoot and oscillations. It makes the system respond to
how quickly the error is changing, smoothing the motion.
 Combined Effect:
The PD controller makes the manipulator move quickly and smoothly to the desired
position, with minimal overshoot and oscillation. It does not eliminate steady-state
error if there are constant disturbances (for that, an integral term is needed).

5. Table
Term Effect on System
𝐾 Faster response, less error

𝐾 Less overshoot, more stability

The PD control law for a single link manipulator is:

𝜏(𝑡) = 𝐾 [𝜃 (𝑡) − 𝜃(𝑡)] + 𝐾 [𝜃̇ (𝑡) − 𝜃̇(𝑡)]

It ensures the robot arm moves quickly and smoothly to the target position, balancing speed
and stability.

13.Given a single link robot manipulator with a PID controller derive the control law and
describe its effects
1. System Model
For a single link manipulator (like a simple robot arm), the equation of motion (ignoring
gravity and friction for simplicity) is:

𝐽𝜃̈(𝑡) = 𝜏(𝑡)
Where:
 𝐽 = moment of inertia of the link
 𝜃(𝑡) = angular position (output)
 𝜏(𝑡) = applied torque (input)
2. PID Controller
A PID (Proportional-Integral-Derivative) controller generates the control input (torque)
as:

𝜏(𝑡) = 𝐾 𝑒(𝑡) + 𝐾 𝑒 (𝜏)𝑑𝜏 + 𝐾 𝑒̇ (𝑡)

Where:
 𝑒(𝑡) = 𝜃 (𝑡) − 𝜃(𝑡) (position error)
 𝐾 = proportional gain

 𝐾 = integral gain
 𝐾 = derivative gain

3. Control Law Derivation

Substitute the PID control law into the manipulator’s equation:

𝐽𝜃̈(𝑡) = 𝐾 [𝜃 (𝑡) − 𝜃(𝑡)] + 𝐾 [𝜃 (𝜏) − 𝜃(𝜏)]𝑑𝜏 + 𝐾 [𝜃̇ (𝑡) − 𝜃̇ (𝑡)]

Rearrange:

𝐽𝜃̈(𝑡) + 𝐾 𝜃̇(𝑡) + 𝐾 𝜃(𝑡) + 𝐾 𝜃 (𝜏)𝑑𝜏

= 𝐾 𝜃̇ (𝑡) + 𝐾 𝜃 (𝑡) + 𝐾 𝜃 (𝜏)𝑑𝜏

Or, in terms of error dynamics (assuming constant desired position and velocity, so their
derivatives are zero):

𝐽𝑒̈ (𝑡) + 𝐾 𝑒̇ (𝑡) + 𝐾 𝑒(𝑡) + 𝐾 𝑒 (𝜏)𝑑𝜏 = 0

4. Effects of the PID Controller

 Proportional Term (𝐾 ):
Increases the system’s response to errors, making it react more quickly.
 Integral Term (𝐾 ):
Eliminates steady-state error by accumulating past errors and applying correction until
the error is zero.
 Derivative Term (𝐾 ):
Adds damping, reducing overshoot and oscillations by responding to the rate of error
change.
  Combined Effect:
The PID controller ensures the manipulator moves quickly and smoothly to the
desired position, with minimal overshoot and no steady-state error, even in the
presence of constant disturbances.

5. Summary Table
Term Effect on System
𝐾 Faster response, less error

𝐾 Eliminates steady-state error

𝐾 Less overshoot, more stability

The PID control law for a single link manipulator is:

𝜏(𝑡) = 𝐾 [𝜃 (𝑡) − 𝜃(𝑡)] + 𝐾 [𝜃 (𝜏) − 𝜃(𝜏)]𝑑𝜏 + 𝐾 [𝜃̇ (𝑡) − 𝜃̇(𝑡)]

It provides fast, stable, and accurate movement to the target position, with zero steady-state
error.
14. Explain the working of LVDT with applications:
An LVDT is an electromechanical sensor used to measure linear displacement (movement
in a straight line). It is highly accurate, reliable, and widely used in industrial and scientific
applications.

Construction

An LVDT consists of:

  A primary coil (centered)
 Two secondary coils (symmetrically placed on either side of the primary)
 A movable ferromagnetic core- called as armature (connected to the object whose
position is being measured)
 The coils are wound on a hollow cylindrical form, and the core moves inside this
cylinder.

Working Principle
1. AC Excitation:
An alternating current (AC) is applied to the primary coil, generating an alternating
magnetic field.
2. Induced Voltages:
The magnetic field induces voltages in the two secondary coils. These coils are
connected in series opposition (their outputs subtract from each other).
3. Core Position:
o Central (Null) Position:
The core is exactly in the center. The induced voltages in both secondary coils
are equal and opposite, so the output voltage is zero.
o Core Moves Top:
The core is closer to the top secondary coil. The voltage in the top coil
increases, and the output voltage is positive and proportional to the
displacement.
o Core Moves Bottom:
The core is closer to the bottom secondary coil. The voltage in the bottom coil
increases, and the output voltage is negative and proportional to the
displacement.
4. Output Signal:
The output is an AC voltage whose amplitude is proportional to the distance the core
has moved, and whose phase indicates the direction of movement.

Applications of LVDT
 Industrial Automation:
Measuring the position of machine parts, valves, or actuators.
 Aerospace:
Monitoring the movement of control surfaces or landing gear.
 Robotics:
Feedback for precise linear positioning.
  Material Testing:
Measuring deformation or displacement in test specimens.
 Civil Engineering:
Monitoring structural movement or settlement.
 Medical Devices:
Measuring small displacements in medical instruments.

Advantages
 High accuracy and repeatability
 Frictionless operation (no physical contact between core and coils)
 Long life and reliability
 Wide measurement range

Also refer the assignment questions as given below

1. Explain the working of incremental encoder with diagram

An incremental encoder is an electromechanical device that converts the angular

position or motion of a shaft or axle to digital signals. It is widely used in industrial
automation for position and speed feedback.

Working Principle

An incremental encoder consists of a rotating disk with evenly spaced transparent and
opaque segments, a light source (like an LED), and a photodetector / photodiode. As the
disk rotates, the light passes through the transparent segments and is blocked by the
opaque ones, creating a series of light and dark pulses. These pulses are converted into
electrical signals.

Typically, an incremental encoder provides two output signals, A and B, which are 90
degrees out of phase (quadrature signals). This phase di erence allows the detection of
both the position and the direction of rotation. Some encoders also provide a third signal,
Z (or index), which gives a single pulse per revolution for reference.
2. What are the functions of PD and PID controller.

Functions of PD and PID Controllers

PD Controller (Proportional-Derivative Controller)

A PD controller combines two actions: proportional (P) and derivative (D).

 Proportional (P) Action: Produces an output proportional to the current error
(difference between setpoint and process variable). It helps reduce the overall
error.
 Derivative (D) Action: Produces an output based on the rate of change of the
error. It predicts future error and provides a damping effect, improving system
stability and reducing overshoot.
Function:
A PD controller improves the speed of the response and reduces overshoot and
oscillations, but it cannot eliminate steady-state error completely.
PD Controller Equation:
 𝑑𝑒(𝑡)
𝑢(𝑡) = 𝐾 𝑒(𝑡) + 𝐾
𝑑𝑡
where 𝑢(𝑡) is the controller output, 𝑒(𝑡) is the error, 𝐾 is the proportional gain, and
𝐾 is the derivative gain.
PID Controller (Proportional-Integral-Derivative Controller)

A PID controller combines three actions: proportional (P), integral (I), and derivative
(D).
 Proportional (P) Action: Reduces the present error.
 Integral (I) Action: Eliminates steady-state error by integrating the error over
time.
 Derivative (D) Action: Predicts future error and improves stability.
Function:
A PID controller provides fast response (P), eliminates steady-state error (I), and
reduces overshoot and oscillations (D). It is the most widely used controller in
industry due to its versatility and effectiveness.
PID Controller Equation:
𝑑𝑒(𝑡)
𝑢(𝑡) = 𝐾 𝑒(𝑡) + 𝐾 ∫ 𝑒(𝑡)𝑑𝑡 + 𝐾
𝑑𝑡
where 𝐾 is the integral gain.
 PD Controller: Faster response, less overshoot than P, but may have steady-
state error.
 PID Controller: Fast response, minimal overshoot, and zero steady-state
error.

3. Explain the block diagram of open loop and closed loop controller.

Open Loop Controller

An open loop controller is a control system where the output has no effect on the
control action. The system does not use feedback to determine if the desired output is
achieved.

Block Diagram:
The reference input (setpoint) is given to the controller, which generates a control
signal for the process (plant). The process produces the output. There is no feedback
from the output to the controller, so the system cannot correct any errors or
disturbances.

Closed Loop Controller

A closed loop controller (also called a feedback controller) uses feedback from the
output to adjust the control action. This allows the system to automatically correct
errors and achieve the desired output.

Block Diagram:

The reference input is compared with the feedback signal (which is a measurement of
the output). The difference (error) is sent to the controller, which adjusts the control
signal to the process. The output is continuously monitored and fed back, allowing the
system to correct any deviation from the setpoint.
 Summary Table
Feature Open Loop Controller Closed Loop Controller

Feedback No Yes

Error Correction Not possible Possible

Accuracy Lower Higher

Complexity Simple More complex

4. Explain the concept of hybrid controller.

A hybrid controller is a control system that combines two or more di erent
control strategies or technologies to achieve better performance, flexibility, or
robustness than any single method alone. The term "hybrid" typically refers to
the integration of both continuous (analog) and discrete (digital or logical)
control actions within the same system.
Key Features and Concept
A hybrid controller leverages the strengths of di erent control approaches. For
example, it may combine:
 Continuous control (like PID controllers) for smooth, real-time
adjustments.
 Discrete control (like logic-based or rule-based controllers) for handling
events, switching, or decision-making.
 Switching logic to select or blend between di erent controllers based on
operating conditions.
This combination allows the system to handle complex processes that involve
both continuous dynamics (such as temperature or speed) and discrete events
(such as on/o switching, mode changes, or safety interlocks).
Typical Applications
Hybrid controllers are commonly used in:
 Industrial automation where processes have both continuous and batch
operations.
 Robotics for tasks that require both precise motion control and logical
decision-making.
 Automotive systems such as hybrid electric vehicles, where engine
control (continuous) and gear shifting (discrete) must be coordinated.
Block Diagram (Conceptual)
The hybrid controller receives inputs from both continuous and discrete
controllers, processes them (sometimes with a supervisor or switching logic),
and sends the appropriate control signal to the process.

A hybrid controller integrates continuous and discrete control strategies to

manage complex systems more e ectively. This approach provides improved
performance, adaptability, and reliability in environments where neither pure
continuous nor pure discrete control is su icient.