Bule Hora University

College of Social Sciences and Humanities

Department of English Language and Literature
Semantics and Pragmatics
Course code: EnLa 308
Credit hours:3

UNIT 1: Introduction: definition of semantics and meaning

Definition of Semantics and Meaning
Semantics is the branch of linguistics and logic concerned with meaning. It deals with the
interpretation and meaning of words, phrases, sentences, and texts. Semantics involves
understanding how language represents concepts and the relationships between these concepts.
Meaning refers to the ideas or concepts that words, phrases, sentences, and texts convey.
Meaning is what is communicated by language, encompassing a wide range of interpretations
depending on context, culture, and usage.

1. What is the primary focus of semantics within linguistics?

The primary focus of semantics within linguistics is to study and understand the meaning of
language. Semantics examines how words, phrases, sentences, and texts convey meaning, and it
explores the relationships between linguistic elements and the concepts they represent. It seeks to
answer questions such as how meaning is constructed, interpreted, and communicated by
language users, as well as how context, culture, and cognition influence the interpretation of
linguistic expressions. Overall, semantics plays a crucial role in deciphering the complexities of
language and in facilitating effective communication among speakers and listeners.

1. How do linguistic elements such as words, phrases, and sentences convey

meaning in language, and what factors influence the interpretation of their
meaning by language users?

2. In what ways does context, culture, and cognition impact the construction,
interpretation, and communication of meaning in language, and how do
linguists study these influences within the field of semantics?

Guide for item 1: Linguistic elements convey meaning through

various semantic mechanisms such as denotation, connotation, and
pragmatic inference. Factors influencing their interpretation include
syntactic structure, lexical semantics, and contextual cues. For
example, the meaning of the word "bank" can vary based on
whether it is used in a financial context or to refer to the side of a
river.

Guide for item 2:Context, culture, and cognition significantly impact the
construction, interpretation, and communication of meaning in language.
Contextual factors such as situational context and linguistic context shape
the interpretation of linguistic expressions. Cultural norms and values
influence the meanings attributed to words and expressions within a
particular community. Additionally, cognitive processes such as memory,
attention, and inference play a crucial role in understanding and
processing linguistic meaning. Semantics explores these influences
through empirical research and theoretical analysis to better understand
how language users derive meaning from linguistic expressions

1.1 Approaches to the Explanation of Meaning

There are several approaches to explaining meaning in semantics. Here are some of the primary
ones:
1.1.1 Referential Approach
 Definition: This approach focuses on the relationship between language and the real-
world entities it refers to. Meaning is derived from the actual objects or concepts that
words stand for.
 Example: The word "tree" refers to the physical object with roots, trunk, branches, and
leaves that we see in the environment.
1.1.2 Structural Approach
 Definition: This approach examines the relationships between words within a language.
Meaning is understood in terms of the syntactic and grammatical structures that words
form.
 Example: The meaning of a sentence like "The cat sat on the mat" is understood through
the roles of the words and their syntactic arrangement.
1.1.3 Cognitive Approach
 Definition: This approach focuses on how meaning is constructed in the human mind. It
explores the mental processes and cognitive structures that underlie language
comprehension and usage.
 Example: Conceptual metaphors, such as understanding "time is money," show how
abstract concepts are framed in terms of more concrete experiences.
1.1.4 Pragmatic Approach
 Definition: This approach considers the context in which language is used. Meaning is
influenced by the situational context, speaker intention, and conversational norms.
 Example: The phrase "Can you pass the salt?" is understood as a request rather than a
question about the listener's ability to pass the salt.
1.1.5 Semiotic Approach
 Definition: This approach explores the signs and symbols in language and their meaning.
It examines how meaning is generated through sign processes (semiosis).
 Example: In the statement "A red light means stop," the red light is a sign that conveys
the meaning of stopping in traffic.
1.1.6 Formal Semantic Approach
 Definition: This approach uses formal systems and mathematical models to define and
interpret meaning. It often involves logical languages and theories like predicate logic.
 Example: Using formal semantics, the sentence "All humans are mortal" can be
represented in logical notation to clarify its meaning and infer conclusions.
1.1.7 Functional Approach
 Definition: This approach looks at the functions language performs in communication. It
examines how meaning is related to language use in specific social contexts and
interactions.
  Example: Different speech acts like apologizing, requesting, or promising each carry
specific functional meanings within interactions.
Theories of Meaning: An Overview
1.2 Theories of Meaning
Understanding meaning in semantics involves various theories that offer different perspectives
and methods for analyzing how language conveys meaning. Here are some of the key theories:
1.2.1 The Componential Theory of Meaning
 Definition: This theory, also known as feature analysis or semantic decomposition, posits
that the meaning of a word can be broken down into smaller semantic components or
features.
 Example: The word "woman" can be analyzed into the components [+human],
[+female], [+adult]. Similarly, "girl" can be broken down into [+human], [+female], [-
adult].
1.2.2 The Contextual Theory of Meaning
 Definition: This theory emphasizes the importance of context in understanding the
meaning of words and sentences. According to this view, meaning is not inherent in
words themselves but is derived from the context in which they are used.
 Example: The word "bank" can mean a financial institution or the side of a river,
depending on the context of the sentence: "She deposited money in the bank" vs. "He sat
on the bank of the river."
1.2.3 The Generative Theory of Meaning
 Definition: Rooted in Noam Chomsky's generative grammar, this theory suggests that
meaning is generated through syntactic structures. The rules and principles of syntax play
a crucial role in the formation of meaningful sentences.
 Example: The sentence "The cat chased the mouse" has a specific syntactic structure
(Subject-Verb-Object) that generates its meaning. Rearranging these elements changes
the meaning (e.g., "The mouse chased the cat").
1.2.4 The Truth-Conditional Theory of Meaning
 Definition: This theory asserts that the meaning of a sentence is determined by the
conditions under which it would be true or false. A sentence's meaning is its truth
conditions.
 Example: The sentence "Snow is white" is true if and only if snow is white.
Understanding the meaning involves knowing what the world would be like if the
sentence were true.
1.2.5 The Denotation Theory of Meaning
 Definition: Also known as the referential theory, this theory posits that the meaning of a
word or expression is the actual object or set of objects it refers to in the real world.
 Example: The word "cat" denotes the set of all cats in the world. The meaning of "cat" is
tied to the actual animals that fit the description.
Types of Semantics
1.3 Lexical Sense Relations
Lexical sense relations refer to the ways in which words relate to each other within the lexicon of
a language. Understanding these relationships helps in comprehending meaning and usage of
words.
1.3.1 Types of Lexical Sense Relations
1. Synonymy:
 Definition: Words that have similar or identical meanings.
 Examples:
 "Big" and "large"
 "Begin" and "start"
2. Antonymy:
 Definition: Words with opposite meanings.
 Types:
 Gradable Antonyms: Represent ends of a continuous spectrum (e.g.,
"hot" and "cold").
 Complementary Antonyms: Binary opposites where the presence of one
implies the absence of the other (e.g., "alive" and "dead").
 Relational Antonyms: Pairs where one term implies a relationship and
the other term completes it (e.g., "teacher" and "student").
3. Hyponymy:
 Definition: A hierarchical relationship where the meaning of one word is included
within another.
 Examples:
 "Rose" is a hyponym of "flower".
 "Dog" is a hyponym of "animal".
4. Hypernymy:
 Definition: A word that is more generic and can encompass a set of more specific
words (opposite of hyponymy).
 Examples:
 "Flower" is a hypernym of "rose".
 "Animal" is a hypernym of "dog".
5. Homonymy:
 Definition: Words that are spelled or pronounced the same but have different
meanings.
 Examples:
 "Bat" (an animal) and "bat" (used in sports)
 "Bank" (financial institution) and "bank" (side of a river)
6. Polysemy:
 Definition: A single word that has multiple related meanings.
 Examples:
 "Mouth" (of a river) and "mouth" (part of a face)
 "Head" (of a person) and "head" (of an organization)
7. Meronymy:
 Definition: A part-whole relationship where one term denotes a part of something.
 Examples:
 "Wheel" is a meronym of "car".
 "Leaf" is a meronym of "tree".
8. Holonymy:
 Definition: A whole-part relationship where one term denotes the whole.
 Examples:
  "Car" is a holonym of "wheel".
 "Tree" is a holonym of "leaf".
1.3.2 Sentence Semantics
Sentence semantics refers to how meaning is constructed within sentences, focusing on the
meaning conveyed by sentence structure and word order.
Key Concepts in Sentence Semantics
1. Compositional Semantics:
 Definition: The principle that the meaning of a sentence is determined by the
meanings of its constituent parts and the rules used to combine them.
 Example: The sentence "The cat sat on the mat" derives its meaning from the
meanings of "cat", "sat", "on", and "mat", and their syntactic arrangement.

2. Truth Conditions:
 Definition: Conditions under which a sentence can be considered true or false.
 Example: The sentence "The cat is on the mat" is true if, in reality, the cat is
indeed on the mat, and false otherwise.
3. Entailment:
 Definition: A relationship between sentences where the truth of one sentence
guarantees the truth of another.
 Example: The sentence "All dogs are animals" entails that "Some dogs are
animals".
4. Presupposition:
 Definition: Background assumptions that must be true for the sentence to make
sense.
 Example: The sentence "Jane stopped smoking" presupposes that "Jane used to
smoke".
5. Implicature:
 Definition: Information implied by a sentence even though it is not explicitly
stated.
 Example: Saying "John managed to solve the problem" implies that the problem
was difficult.
6. Thematic Roles:
 Definition: The roles that entities play in the action described by the sentence.
 Examples:
 Agent: The doer of the action (e.g., "The boy" in "The boy kicked the
ball").
 Theme: The entity affected by the action (e.g., "the ball" in "The boy
kicked the ball").
 Experiencer: The entity that experiences an event (e.g., "She" in "She felt
happy").
 Instrument: The means by which the action is performed (e.g., "with a
key" in "He opened the door with a key").
1.4 Semantic Fields and Collocation
1.4.1 Semantic Fields
Definition:
A semantic field (or lexical field) is a set of words grouped by meaning referring to a specific
subject. These words share a common domain and are related by their meaning.
Characteristics:
 Thematic Grouping: Words in a semantic field relate to a specific theme or topic.
 Conceptual Relationships: Words are linked through conceptual associations.
 Hierarchical Structure: Often organized from general to specific (hypernyms to
hyponyms).
Examples:
1. Color:
 Red, blue, green, yellow, purple, etc.
2. Family:
 Father, mother, brother, sister, uncle, aunt, cousin, etc.
3. Vehicles:
 Car, bike, bus, truck, motorcycle, van, etc.
Importance:
 Language Learning: Helps in expanding vocabulary by learning words in context.
 Translation and Interpretation: Facilitates finding appropriate words in different
languages.
 Linguistic Analysis: Aids in understanding how words are related and how meanings
evolve.
1.4.2 Collocation
Definition:
Collocation refers to the habitual combination of words that frequently occur together in a
language. These combinations can be predictable and are often used naturally by native speakers.
Types of Collocations:
1. Adjective + Noun:
 Example: "Strong tea", "heavy rain", "fast food"
2. Verb + Noun:
 Example: "Make a decision", "take a break", "give a speech"
3. Noun + Noun:
 Example: "Data analysis", "software development", "traffic jam"
4. Adverb + Adjective:
 Example: "Highly unlikely", "deeply disappointed", "fully aware"
5. Verb + Adverb:
 Example: "Run quickly", "speak fluently", "drive carefully"
Characteristics:
 Fixed Combinations: Certain words naturally pair together and are often not
interchangeable with synonyms.
 Frequency: Commonly used in everyday language by native speakers.
 Idiomatic Nature: Some collocations have meanings that are not directly deducible from
the individual words.
Importance:
 Fluency: Using correct collocations enhances natural and fluent language use.
  Comprehension: Understanding collocations aids in better comprehension of texts and
spoken language.
 Writing and Speaking: Improves the quality of written and spoken communication by
using appropriate word combinations.
Examples of Common Collocations:
 Adjective + Noun: "Deep sleep", "rich history", "strong argument"
 Verb + Noun: "Take a risk", "pay attention", "set a goal"
 Noun + Noun: "Team effort", "business plan", "energy crisis"
 Adverb + Adjective: "Perfectly clear", "utterly ridiculous", "completely satisfied"
 Verb + Adverb: "Work hard", "listen carefully", "perform well"

1.5 Ambiguity and vagueness

1.5.1 Ambiguity
Definition:
Ambiguity arises when a word, phrase, or sentence has multiple meanings or interpretations. It
can occur at different levels of language, such as lexical, syntactic, and semantic.
Types of Ambiguity:
1. Lexical Ambiguity:
 Definition: When a single word has more than one meaning.
 Examples:
 "Bank" can mean the side of a river or a financial institution.
 "Bat" can refer to a flying mammal or a piece of sports equipment.
2. Syntactic Ambiguity:
 Definition: When a sentence can be parsed in multiple ways due to its structure.
 Examples:
 "I saw the man with the telescope." (Who has the telescope? The speaker
or the man?)
 "Visiting relatives can be annoying." (Are the relatives visiting, or is the
act of visiting them annoying?)
3. Semantic Ambiguity:
 Definition: When a sentence or phrase has multiple possible meanings.
 Examples:
 "He ate the cookies on the couch." (Did he eat cookies that were on the
couch, or did he eat cookies while sitting on the couch?)
 "She noticed the man with the binoculars." (Is the man using the
binoculars, or did she use the binoculars to notice the man?)
Importance:
 Language Processing: Ambiguity is a central issue in natural language processing and
understanding.
 Humor and Literature: Often used in jokes, poetry, and literature to create double
meanings or play on words.
 Communication Clarity: Identifying and resolving ambiguity is crucial for clear and
effective communication.
1.5.2 Vagueness
Definition:
Vagueness occurs when a word or phrase lacks precise boundaries or has an indeterminate
meaning. It often involves general or imprecise language that can lead to misunderstandings.
Characteristics of Vagueness:
 Borderline Cases: Terms with unclear boundaries, leading to uncertainty about whether
an instance falls under the term.
 Gradable Terms: Words that exist on a spectrum without clear-cut divisions.
 Context Dependence: The meaning can change depending on the context or perspective.
Examples:
 Adjectives: Words like "tall," "old," "rich," and "expensive" are vague because they
depend on context and comparison.
 "Tall" can vary based on whether we're talking about a person, a building, or a
tree.
 Quantifiers: Words like "some," "few," "many," and "several" are inherently vague
without specific numerical definitions.
 "Few" can mean different numbers to different people.
 Nouns: Terms like "heap," "crowd," and "bald" can be vague because there's no clear
point at which a collection of items becomes a "heap" or a person becomes "bald."
Importance:
 Everyday Communication: Vagueness is often used in everyday language to avoid
being overly precise or when precision is not necessary.
 Legal and Technical Language: Vagueness can be problematic in legal and technical
documents where precise definitions are required.
 Philosophical Discussions: Vagueness is a significant topic in philosophy, particularly in
discussions about language, logic, and categorization.

Distinguishing Ambiguity and Vagueness:

 Ambiguity involves multiple specific interpretations, each clearly defined but different.
 Vagueness involves a lack of clear definition or boundaries, with interpretations that are
imprecise or indeterminate.

Unit two: Pragmatics: definition and explanation

Definition of Pragmatics
Pragmatics is a branch of linguistics concerned with the ways in which context contributes to
meaning. It examines how language users understand and produce communicative acts in real-
life situations. Unlike semantics, which deals with the meaning of words and sentences in
isolation, pragmatics focuses on the use of language in social interactions.
Explanation of Pragmatics
Key Concepts in Pragmatics
1. Context:
 Linguistic Context: The discourse that precedes the utterance and provides
background for interpreting it.
 Physical Context: The physical setting in which the communication takes place.
  Social Context: The social relationship and roles of the participants in the
communication.
 Cultural Context: The cultural background and shared knowledge of the
participants.
2. Speech Acts:
 Definition: Actions performed via utterances, such as making statements, asking
questions, giving commands, or making promises.
 Types:
 Locutionary Act: The act of saying something with a specific meaning.
 Illocutionary Act: The intended function of the utterance (e.g., promising,
ordering, apologizing).
 Perlocutionary Act: The effect the utterance has on the listener (e.g.,
persuading, frightening).
3. Implicature:
 Definition: Information that is implied by the speaker but not explicitly stated.
 Conversational Implicature: Inferences made based on the assumption that
speakers follow certain conversational principles (Grice's maxims).
4. Deixis:
 Definition: Words and phrases that cannot be fully understood without contextual
information.
 Types:
 Person Deixis: References to people (e.g., "I", "you", "he", "she").
 Place Deixis: References to location (e.g., "here", "there", "nearby").
 Time Deixis: References to time (e.g., "now", "then", "soon").
5. Politeness Theory:
 Definition: The strategies used by speakers to maintain social harmony and avoid
offending others.
 Concepts:
 Face: The public self-image that a person wants to maintain.
 Positive Politeness: Strategies to make the listener feel good about
themselves (e.g., compliments, showing interest).
 Negative Politeness: Strategies to avoid imposing on the listener (e.g.,
apologies, indirect requests).

Importance of Pragmatics
1. Communication Efficiency:
 Pragmatics helps in understanding the implied meanings, intentions, and
contextual nuances, leading to more effective communication.
 It allows speakers to convey more than what is explicitly stated, saving time and
effort.
2. Interpretation of Meaning:
 Pragmatics aids in interpreting utterances that are ambiguous or vague by
considering the context and the speaker’s intentions.
 It helps in resolving ambiguities and understanding indirect speech acts.
3. Social Interaction:
  Pragmatics plays a crucial role in social interactions, as it involves understanding
and adhering to social norms and cultural expectations.
 It helps in maintaining politeness, managing relationships, and navigating social
hierarchies.
4. Language Learning:
 Understanding pragmatics is essential for language learners to achieve
communicative competence.
 It enables learners to use language appropriately in various social contexts and to
understand native speakers' intentions.
Examples of Pragmatic Phenomena
1. Indirect Speech Acts:
 "Can you pass the salt?" (A request, not a question about ability)
 "It's cold in here." (An indirect request to close the window)
2. Conversational Implicature:
 A: "Did you finish the report?" B: "I had a lot of work yesterday." (Implying that
the report is not finished)
3. Deixis:
 "I will meet you here at 3 PM." (Understanding "I", "you", "here", and "3 PM"
depends on the context)
4. Politeness Strategies:
 "Would you mind closing the window?" (Negative politeness to minimize
imposition)
 "Great job on the presentation!" (Positive politeness to show appreciation)

2.1 Sentence meaning and utterance meaning

Definition:
Sentence meaning refers to the literal or conventional meaning of a sentence, derived from the
meanings of the words and the grammatical structure. It is concerned with the semantic content
of the sentence as an abstract unit, independent of any particular context.
Characteristics:
 Compositionality: The meaning of a sentence is determined by the meanings of its individual
words and the rules used to combine them.
 Syntax and Semantics: The grammatical structure plays a crucial role in determining sentence
meaning.
 Context-Independent: Sentence meaning is understood without considering the specific context
in which the sentence is used.
Examples:
 "The cat is on the mat."
 The sentence meaning is understood as a cat being located on a mat.
 "She sells sea shells by the sea shore."
 The sentence meaning involves a female subject selling sea shells near a shore.
Utterance Meaning
Definition:
Utterance meaning refers to the meaning conveyed by a speaker when they produce a sentence in
a particular context. It includes the literal meaning of the sentence (sentence meaning) and
additional pragmatic elements such as the speaker's intention, tone, and situational context.
Characteristics:
  Context-Dependent: Utterance meaning relies on the specific context in which the
sentence is uttered, including who the speaker and listener are, where and when the
utterance occurs, and any shared knowledge.
 Speaker Intentions: The speaker’s intentions and the communicative goals play a crucial
role in determining the utterance meaning.
 Pragmatic Factors: Tone of voice, body language, and situational factors influence the
meaning of an utterance.
Examples:
 "The cat is on the mat."
 In one context, it might be a simple statement of fact.
 In another context, it could imply that the cat should not be on the mat, depending
on the speaker’s tone.
 "Can you pass the salt?"
 As an utterance, it is typically understood as a request rather than a question about
the listener's ability to pass the salt.
Key Differences:
1. Literal vs. Intended Meaning:
 Sentence Meaning: Focuses on the literal, dictionary-based meanings of the
words and their syntactic arrangement.
 Utterance Meaning: Focuses on what the speaker intends to convey in a specific
context, which may include implied meanings.
2. Context Dependence:
 Sentence Meaning: Generally context-independent; the meaning remains
constant regardless of the situation.
 Utterance Meaning: Highly context-dependent; the meaning can change
significantly based on the context and the speaker’s intentions.
3. Compositionality vs. Pragmatics:
 Sentence Meaning: Based on compositional semantics, where the meaning is
derived from the combination of words according to grammatical rules.
 Utterance Meaning: Involves pragmatic factors such as implicature, speech acts,
and deixis.
Importance in Linguistics:
 Understanding Communication: Differentiating between sentence meaning and
utterance meaning is crucial for understanding how people communicate effectively.
 Natural Language Processing: For computational models to understand human
language, they must account for both the literal meanings of sentences and the context-
specific meanings of utterances.
 Language Learning: Language learners need to grasp both the conventional meanings of
sentences and how these sentences can convey different meanings in different contexts.
2.2 Deixis
Deixis is a linguistic phenomenon where the meaning of certain expressions relies on the context
in which they are used. Deictic expressions, or deictics, "point" to the time, place, or person
involved in the discourse, requiring contextual information for interpretation.

2.2.1 Spatial Deixis

Definition:
Spatial deixis refers to expressions that indicate specific locations relative to the speaker's or
listener's position in space.
Key Terms:
 Here: Refers to a location close to the speaker.
 There: Refers to a location farther from the speaker, often closer to the listener or distant
from both.
 This: Indicates an object or location near the speaker.
 That: Indicates an object or location farther from the speaker.
Examples:
 "Please come here."
 "Here" indicates the location near the speaker.
 "The book is over there."
 "There" refers to a location away from the speaker.
 "This is my favorite mug."
 "This" points to a mug near the speaker.
 "Can you hand me that pen?"
 "That" refers to a pen farther from the speaker.
Importance:
 Understanding Directions: Helps in giving and understanding directions.
 Establishing Context: Provides spatial context in communication, clarifying where
objects or people are located.
2.2.2 Person Deixis
Definition:
Person deixis refers to expressions that indicate specific participants in a conversation, typically
using pronouns.
Key Terms:
 First Person: Refers to the speaker (e.g., "I", "we").
 Second Person: Refers to the listener (e.g., "you").
 Third Person: Refers to others not directly involved in the conversation (e.g., "he",
"she", "they").
Examples:
 "I am going to the store."
 "I" refers to the speaker.
 "You need to finish your homework."
 "You" refers to the listener.
 "He is my brother."
 "He" refers to a person not directly involved in the conversation.
Importance:
 Clarifying Roles: Distinguishes between different participants in the conversation.
 Managing Turn-Taking: Helps in managing who is speaking and who is being
addressed.
2.2.3 Social Deixis
Definition:
Social deixis refers to expressions that indicate social relationships and roles between
participants in a conversation, often reflecting social hierarchy, respect, or familiarity.
Key Terms:
 Titles and Honorifics: Words like "Mr.", "Mrs.", "Dr.", "Sir", "Madam" that show
respect or social status.
 Pronouns: Formal and informal pronouns in languages that differentiate based on social
context (e.g., "tu" vs. "vous" in French).
Examples:
 "Dr. Smith will see you now."
 "Dr." is an honorific indicating professional status and respect.
 "Can I help you, Sir?"
 "Sir" shows respect towards the addressed person.
 In Spanish, "¿Cómo está usted?" vs. "¿Cómo estás?"
 "Usted" is a formal address, while "tú" is informal.
Importance:
 Conveying Respect: Indicates the level of respect or familiarity between speakers.
Cultural Norms: Reflects and adheres to social and cultural norms regarding politeness and
formality.