Code Scheduling in Compiler Design

Code scheduling is a compiler optimization technique used to improve instruction-level parallelism (ILP) and
overall program execution speed by reordering instructions without changing the program's output. It aims to
minimize stalls caused by data dependencies, control dependencies, and resource conflicts.

Types of Code Scheduling

1. Local Scheduling

 Optimizes instruction ordering within a single basic block (a straight-line sequence of code with no
branches except at the end).
 Limited scope but effective in reducing pipeline stalls.

2. Global Scheduling

 Optimizes instruction scheduling across multiple basic blocks, considering control flow structures such
as loops and branches.
 More complex but can achieve better performance improvements than local scheduling.

Global Scheduling Techniques

1. Trace Scheduling

 Selects a "trace" (a frequently executed path through the program) and schedules instructions optimally
along that path.
 Uses speculative execution by moving instructions above branches.

Example:

c
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if (A > B) {
C = D + E;
}
F = G + H;

Before Scheduling:

sql
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CMP A, B
JLE ELSE
ADD C, D, E // Only executes if A > B
ELSE:
ADD F, G, H

After Scheduling (Trace Scheduling):

less
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ADD F, G, H // Moved before the branch
CMP A, B
JLE ELSE
ADD C, D, E

Now, ADD F, G, H executes regardless of the branch outcome, reducing delay.

2. Software Pipelining

 Mainly used for loops, it schedules instructions across multiple iterations to keep functional units busy.

Example:

c
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for (i = 0; i < N; i++) {
A[i] = B[i] + C[i];
}

Without Software Pipelining (Sequential Execution):

css
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Load B[i]
Load C[i]
ADD A[i], B[i], C[i]
Store A[i]

With Software Pipelining (Overlapping Iterations):

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Load B[i] // Load next iteration’s B while computing the current one
Load C[i]
ADD A[i], B[i], C[i]
Store A[i]

This ensures continuous execution without stalls.

3. Percolation Scheduling

 Moves instructions across basic blocks, even past branches, while ensuring correctness.
 Used in Very Long Instruction Word (VLIW) architectures.

Example:
If an instruction depends on a previous one but can be executed earlier, it is moved before the branch condition
evaluation.

Conclusion

Global scheduling techniques like trace scheduling, software pipelining, and percolation scheduling improve
execution efficiency by reordering instructions across multiple basic blocks. These techniques are crucial for
optimizing modern high-performance computing applications.
You said:

Parallelism, types and levels

ChatGPT said:

Parallelism in Computing
Parallelism refers to the ability to execute multiple tasks or instructions simultaneously, improving
computational speed and efficiency. It is widely used in modern computing architectures to maximize
performance.

Types of Parallelism
1. Instruction-Level Parallelism (ILP)

 Executes multiple instructions from a single thread simultaneously.

 Achieved through techniques like pipelining, out-of-order execution, and superscalar execution.
 Example: Modern processors with multiple execution units process different instructions at the same
time.

2. Data Parallelism

 The same operation is performed on different pieces of data simultaneously.

 Common in SIMD (Single Instruction, Multiple Data) architectures like GPUs.
 Example: Applying the same mathematical function to all elements of an array in parallel.

3. Task Parallelism

 Different tasks (or functions) are executed simultaneously on different cores or processors.
 Tasks may operate on different data or perform different functions.
 Example: A web server handling multiple user requests at the same time.

4. Thread-Level Parallelism (TLP)

 Multiple threads within a program execute independently but may share data.
 Common in multi-threaded applications running on multi-core CPUs.
 Example: A video editing software rendering multiple effects on different cores.

5. Pipeline Parallelism

 Divides a process into stages, where different stages execute in parallel.

 Used in CPU instruction pipelines and deep learning model training.
 Example: Assembly lines in a factory, where different workers perform specific tasks simultaneously.
Levels of Parallelism
1. Bit-Level Parallelism

 Processes multiple bits simultaneously within a single instruction.

 Example: A 64-bit processor handling 64-bit operations in a single cycle instead of multiple 8-bit
operations.

2. Instruction-Level Parallelism (ILP)

 Executes multiple instructions at the same time within a CPU cycle.

 Example: Superscalar processors dispatch multiple instructions per clock cycle.

3. Data Parallelism

 Distributes data across multiple processors or cores to execute the same operation in parallel.
 Example: Vectorized operations in GPUs for matrix multiplication.

4. Task-Level Parallelism

 Different tasks run in parallel, either on separate processors or within the same processor using multi-
threading.
 Example: A web browser rendering a webpage while downloading a file in the background.

5. Distributed Parallelism

 Tasks are executed across multiple machines in a distributed system.

 Example: Cloud computing and high-performance computing (HPC) clusters.

Conclusion
Parallelism is essential for modern computing, ranging from bit-level optimizations to large-scale distributed
computing. Different types and levels of parallelism are combined to maximize performance across different
hardware architectures.

You said:

Data dependencies with examples

ChatGPT said:
Data Dependencies in Computing
Data dependencies occur when instructions in a program rely on the results of previous instructions. They can
limit instruction-level parallelism (ILP) and affect performance in pipelined and parallel architectures.

Types of Data Dependencies

1. True Dependency (Read After Write - RAW)

Occurs when an instruction needs the result of a previous instruction before it can execute.

Example:

assembly
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A = B + C # Instruction 1
D = A * E # Instruction 2 (depends on A)

Here, Instruction 2 must wait for Instruction 1 to complete because it depends on A.

2. Anti-Dependency (Write After Read - WAR)

Occurs when an instruction writes to a register or memory location that a previous instruction reads from.

Example:

assembly
Copy
A = B + C # Instruction 1 (reads B)
B = D * E # Instruction 2 (writes to B)

Here, Instruction 2 writes to B, but Instruction 1 needs to read B first. If executed out of order, it could
lead to incorrect results.

3. Output Dependency (Write After Write - WAW)

Occurs when two instructions write to the same register or memory location.

Example:

assembly
Copy
A = B + C # Instruction 1 (writes to A)
A = D * E # Instruction 2 (writes to A)

Here, if Instruction 2 executes before Instruction 1 finishes, it overwrites the value of A, leading to
incorrect results.
4. Control Dependency

Occurs when an instruction depends on the outcome of a previous branch instruction.

Example:

assembly
Copy
if (X > Y) {
A = B + C; # Dependent on branch outcome
}
D = E * F;

Here, A = B + C executes only if X > Y, meaning its execution is dependent on the branch instruction.

Solutions to Data Dependencies

1. Pipeline Forwarding (Bypassing)

 Passes data directly between pipeline stages instead of waiting for memory writes.
 Example: Forwarding the result of A = B + C directly to the next instruction instead of waiting for it to
be written and read from memory.

2. Register Renaming

 Resolves WAR and WAW dependencies by assigning different registers.

 Example: Instead of writing to A in both instructions, rename them as A1 and A2 to avoid conflicts.

3. Loop Unrolling

 Reduces dependencies by executing multiple iterations of a loop at once.

 Example: Instead of processing one element at a time, process multiple elements in parallel.

4. Speculative Execution

 Executes instructions before knowing the final branch decision and rolls back if needed.
 Example: Modern CPUs use branch prediction to guess outcomes and execute instructions ahead of
time.

Conclusion
Data dependencies impact parallel execution and pipeline performance. Techniques like forwarding, register
renaming, and speculative execution help mitigate these dependencies, improving overall efficiency.