Geometry

Basic Geometrical Terms

1. Point
A dot (.) represents a point.
It represents an exact location in a plane or space.
It has no length and breadth. We represent a point with a capital letter, as shown
below.

2. Line Segment
Mark two points on a sheet of paper and name them as A and B.

Join these points using a ruler. The figure so obtained is called a line segment. A line
segment has two endpoints. It is named by the endpoints, as line segment AB or

3. Line
A line segment extended on both the sides without an end is called a line.
A line has no endpoints. A line is denoted by taking any two points on it. For
example, consider the line

To name this line, we mark any two points on it, say, A and B. Then, it is named as
(line AB) and represented, as shown alongside.

Generally, we use the word line for a straight line.

Straight line can be vertical, horizontal or slanting.
4. Ray
A ray is a straight path that has one endpoint and goes on and on in one
direction.
This ray begins at point A and goes through point B.
It does not stop at point B. We name the given ray as (ray AB), where the first
letter is always the endpoint.

The symbol → shows that a ray has a fixed endpoint and extends forever in the other
direction.

The rays of light from a torch and the rays of sun are the most common examples of
a ray.

5. Plane
A plane is a flat surface.
In mathematics, a plane means one that goes on and on, in all directions without an
end. We usually work with just a part of a plane. Points and lines lie on a plane. A
plane can be named by using any three points on it. The given figure shows plane
PQR. The order of the points does not matter.
Some representations of a plane surface from your everyday life are:

Types of Lines

1. Parallel lines
The lines on the same plane that never meet, no matter how far they are
extended, are called parallel lines.

They are always the same distance apart. The symbol ‘||’ is used to show ‘‘is parallel
to’’.
Here, line XY is parallel to line PQ and line LM || line AB.

The following are some of the representations of parallel lines in everyday life:

2.

Intersecting lines
The lines that cross each other at a point are called intersecting lines.
In the figure given alongside, intersect at point P.

The following are some examples of the intersecting lines or line segments:

3.

Perpendicular lines
When two intersecting lines meet to form right angles, they are
called perpendicular lines.

They are indicated by the symbol (a square corner) in the diagrams.

Line AB is perpendicular to line CD and is written in short as

The letter ‘L’ is an example of perpendicular line segments. ‘ ⊥ ’ is the symbol for ‘‘is
perpendicular to’’.

Measuring a Line Segment

To Measure the Length of a Line Segment using a Ruler
Let us measure the line segment AB shown below. We follow the steps given below.

Step 1: Place the ruler along the line segment AB.

The zero (0) mark of the ruler should coincide with one end, point A of the line
segment.

Step 2: Read the mark on the ruler at the other end of the line segment, i.e., point B.
Here, point B is at 5.5 cm mark of the ruler. So, the length of the line segment AB
is 5.5 cm.

Drawing a Line Segment

To draw a line segment of a given length, say 6.8 cm, we take the following steps.

Step 1: Take a sheet of paper and mark a point, say A, on it with a sharpened pencil.

Step 2: Place the ruler with its zero (0) mark at point A, as shown.

Step 3: Put your pencil at point A and move the pencil 8 small divisions after 6. This
gives a line segment AB of length 6.8 cm.

Angle
An angle is a figure formed by two rays meeting at a common endpoint
The common endpoint is called the vertex of the angle and the two rays are called
the arms of the angle.
Looking at these pictures, you can form some idea of an angle:
The symbol for the word angle is ‘∠’.

Naming an Angle

You can name an angle in three ways:

1. Using a three-letter name in the order: A point on one ray, vertex and a
point on the other ray as ∠BAC or ∠CAB.
2. Using only one letter name, that is the vertex, ∠A. (This can be used when
there is only one angle with this vertex.)
3. Writing a number or a small letter of the alphabet within the rays of the
angle and naming the angle using this number.
For example, ∠1.

Interior and Exterior of an Angle

The inside of an angle, that is, the region between the rays, is called the interior of
the angle. Point P is in the interior of ∠ABC.
Points A, B, C, D and E are on the arms (also called sides) of the angle. The points of
the plane that do not lie on the arms or in the interior of the angle lie to
the exterior of the angle. The points Q and R are to the exterior of ∠ABC.

Open and Closed Shapes

1. Open Shapes
The shapes which do not begin and end at the same point are called open shapes.

Look at the following open shapes:

2. Closed Shapes
The shapes which begin and end at the same point are called closed shapes.

Observe the following closed shapes:

(i) Simple Closed Figures

Look at the following figures:

Which of the figures given above could you draw by starting at some point, never
lifting your pencil from the paper and end at the starting point?
Obviously, A, B, C, D, G and H. Such figures are called closed figures.
Out of these, which figures can you draw without having the figure crossed itself?
Ans: A, B, D, G and H. Such figures are called simple closed figures.
Polygon
A closed figure such as the one shown at the right is a special kind of plane figure
called a polygon. It is made up of more than two line segments.

The line segments that form a polygon are called the sides of the polygon. The
intersection of two sides is called a vertex of the polygon.

Naming a Polygon
The name of a polygon depends on the number of sides it has. Some examples of
polygons are given below.

Triangle
A triangle is a polygon formed by three line segments as its sides.
The point of the intersection of two sides is called the vertex (plural: vertices).

Naming a Triangle
A triangle is named by naming its vertices.
Thus, to name a triangle whose vertices are A, B and C, we say “triangle ABC” and
denote it as ΔABC.
Δ is the symbol of a triangle. Other names for ΔABC are ΔACB, ΔBAC, ΔBCA, ΔCAB,
ΔCBA.
Thus, the order of vertices does not matter while naming a triangle.
AB or BA, BC or CB, CA or AC are the three sides of triangle ABC.
∠ABC, ∠BCA and ∠CAB are the three angles of the triangle ABC.

Quadrilateral

A quadrilateral is a polygon formed by four line segments as its sides.

Quadrilateral
In the given figure, A, B, C and D are the vertices of a quadrilateral. We can name the
given quadrilateral as quadrilateral ABCD, BCDA, CDAB, DABC, BADC, ADCB, DCBA
and CBAD. AB, BC, CD and DA are the four sides of the quadrilateral ABCD.
The two sides, like AB and BC, which have a common vertex B, are called adjacent
sides. The other pairs of adjacent sides are AB, AD; AD, DC and DC, BC.
AB and CD are opposite sides. The other pair of opposite sides is AD and BC.
A line segment joining two non-consecutive vertices is called a diagonal. AC and BD
are the two diagonals of the quadrilateral ABCD.

∠A, ∠B, ∠C and ∠D are the four angles of the quadrilateral ABCD.
Special Triangles
Some triangles are given special names in regard to their angles and sides.
Scalene Triangle
A triangle that has no two sides equal is called a scalene triangle.
Scalene triangle
ΔABC is a scalene triangle.

Isosceles Triangle
A triangle that has two equal sides is called an isosceles triangle.

Isosceles triangle
ΔXYZ is an isosceles triangle.

Equilateral Triangle
A triangle in which all three sides are equal is called an equilateral triangle.

Equilateral triangle
ΔPQR is an equilateral triangle.
Special Quadrilaterals
Quadrilaterals whose opposite sides are parallel and are often used have been given
special names.

Parallelogram
A quadrilateral that has both the pairs of opposite sides, parallel is called
a parallelogram.

ParallelogramRectangle
A parallelogram whose opposite sides are equal and all four angles are right angles
is called a rectangle, i.e., AB || DC, AD || BC;
AB = DC, AD = BC and ∠A = ∠B = ∠B = ∠D = 90°.

Rectangle

Square
A square is parallelogram in which all angles are right angle and all sides are equal,
i.e., AB || DC, AD || BC; AB = BC = CD = DA and ∠A = ∠B = ∠C = ∠D = 90°.

Square
Rhombus
A rhombus is a parallelogram in which all four sides are equal i.e., AB || DC, AD || BC
and AB = BC = CD = DA.

Rhombus

You will find many things around you which have the shape of a rectangle:
Each page of your notebook is a rectangle.

Squares are also very commonly used.

Many floor tiles have the shape of a square.

Floor Tiles

A chessboard has squares on it.

Chessboard
Properties of a Parallelogram
Draw any parallelogram as PQRS.

Measure its sides.

Now, complete the following table.

Do you observe that

1. the opposite sides of a parallelogram are equal?

2. the opposite angles of a parallelogram are equal?

Since a rectangle is a parallelogram, therefore, the opposite sides of a rectangle are

equal.

Thus, in the rectangle ABCD shown here, AB is parallel to DC and AD is parallel to

BC.
Also, AB = DC and AD = BC.
A square, also being a parallelogram, has all the properties of a parallelogram.
Also, in square PQRS,

(a) PQ = QR = RS = SP

(b) PQ is parallel to SR and PS is parallel to QR

Circle
Look at the following objects.

Which shape do all of the above objects remind you of?

All these objects are in the shape of a circle.
A circle is a simple closed curve.
Tips: A circle is not a polygon as it is not made up of straight lines.

Drawing a Circle
We can draw a circle using any one of these methods.

Method

1. Take any circular object such as a coin, bottle cap, bangle, etc., and trace its
outline. You will get the shape of a circle.
2. Take a piece of thread and tie a pencil to one end of the thread. Fix the
other end of the thread to the paper with a pin. Hold the thread tightly and
rotate the pencil. The shape you get will be a circle.
3. Using compasses which has a metal-pointed edge at A circle is not a
polygon as it is not made up of straight lines. one end and a pencil holder on
the other end.

To draw a circle using compasses:

Step 1: Fix the pencil to the compasses tightly. Adjust the pencil such that the needle
and the pencil edge are at the same level.

Step 2: Fix the needle of the compasses on the sheet of paper.

Step 3: Stretch the other arm of the compasses which is holding the pencil.

Step 4: Move the pencil around to draw a circle.

Parts of a Circle

• Centre
In the figure given alongside, O is the point where we put the metal end of
the compasses to draw a circle. O is called the centre of the circle.

• We name the circle with its centre.

• Radius
The line segment joining the centre of the circle to any point on the circle
is called the radius of the circle.

• In the figure, line segment OB is the radius of the circle.

• Chord
The line segment joining any two points on a circle is called a chord.

In the figure, XY and MN are the chords of the circle.

• Diameter
A chord that passes through the centre is called a diameter of the circle.

Here, AB and CD are the diameters of the circle O.

• Circumference
The length of the boundary of a circle is called its circumference.
Relation between Radius and Diameter of a Circle
In the given figure, AB is the diameter of the circle. AO and OB are the two radii of
the circle.

Measure OA, OB and AB. OA = ____ cm, OB = ____ cm, AB = ___ cm

You will find that AB = 2OA or 2OB = 2 × radius

Interior and Exterior of a circle

• The points O and P are in the interior of the circle.

• The point M is on the circle.
• The point Q lies to the exterior of the circle.

To Draw a Circle of Given Radius

You must use a pair of compasses to draw neat and accurate circles. Suppose, you
have to draw a circle of radius 3 cm. You can do so by following these steps.

Step 1: With the help of your ruler, open the arms of your compasses to 3 cm length.
Step 2: Mark any point O on a piece of paper.

Step 3: Place the steel end of the compasses on the dot marked O. Hold the head of
the instrument between the thumb and the forefinger such that the pencil end of the
compasses may touch the paper. Now, turn it completely round so that the pencil
end traces a circle. You will get a circle of radius 3 cm, with centre O.