_ Aetivity 1 a Understanding Concept of One- and Onto Func OBJECTIVE ; bas (@ To demonstrate a function which is not one-to-one but ont (®) To demonstrate a function which is one-to-one but not onto. PRE-REQUISITE KNOWLEDGE * A function f: A > B is one-to-one if distinct elements of A have distinct images in + A function f: A > B is not one-to-one if distinct elements of A have the same in in B. + A function /: A — B is onto if every element of B is the image of at least one elem of A. + A function /: A ~ B is not onto if at least one element of B is the image that h no pre-image or the element in A. MATERIALS REQUIRED + Cardboard + Nails + A practical workbo + Strings + Adhesive + Paper strips + A pair of scissors » A geometry box, etc. (@ Demonstrate a function which is not one-to-one but onto. PROCEDURE ; 11. Cut two oval shapes from the paper strip and paste them on the cardboard as s in Fig. 2.1. Name the two strips as A and B. 2. Fix three nails on strip A and mark them : as 1, 2 and 8. Simi ils 0 strip B and mark them as a and b as sh inten, own in Fig, 2.2._mirror images of each other. PRE-REQUISITE KNOWLEDGE + A function f: R > R defined by f (x) = a*, where a > 0 and a # 1 is called the exponential function. * Ifa> 0 and a = 1, then the function defined by f (x) = log, x, x > 0 is called the logarithmic function. * If log, x = y, then x = a” + Concept of coordinate axes and plotting the points on it. MATERIALS REQUIRED * Drawing board * Geometrical instruments *_ Nails * Thin wires * Sketch pens * Graph paper * Adhesive * Pencil * Eraser * Aplane mirror * Squared paper, ete. PROCEDURE 1. Take a drawing board and paste a graph paper of convenient size on it with adhesive. 2. Draw two perpendicular lines X’OX and YOY’, depicting the coordinate axes. 3. Mark graduations on the two axes ie., the X-axis and Y-axis respectively, as shown in Fig. 5.1.Fig. 5.1 4.To draw the graph of y = 2%, x € R, where a = 2 (say), find some points satisfying as: h x 4 =3 2 -1 0 1 2 a 4 ae ar a a 20 2 2 2? 2 Pas (+5) (:3) (73) (-3) en |e | ©), ce] en Plot these points on the graph paper and fix a nail at each point. 5. Join the nails with a thin wire. This will represent the graph of y = 2*. 6. Now to draw the graph of log, x = y which gives x = 2, find some points sati it as: 2 oa €4 | €8 | © 16 2 3 4Plot these points on the same graph paper and fix a nail at each plotted point. Join the nails with a thin wire, This will represent the graph of y = log, «x. ; 7. Draw the graph of line y = x on the same graph paper. 8. Now, place a mirror along the wire representing y = x. You can observe that the two graphs of the given functions are mirror images of each other on the line y = x. OBSERVATIONS on 1. Image of the point (2, 4) on the eat of y = 2* on the line y =X iS «2... .. It lies on the graph of y = 2. Image of the point (8, 3) on is oe y = log, x on the line y = 2 iS «1... AG lies on the graph of y = Repeat this process for some more paints lying on the two graphs. RESULT The functions y = a* and y = log, x; a > 0; a #0 (exponential and logarithmic functions) are the mirror images of each other in the line y = x.{ a 2 Far Bx 63 1 Ai 04 | po } = on . * ) hat for a function f to be continuous at a given point iis # eas Better ih cmatl” provided Ax | is ean PRE-REQUISITE KNOWLEDGE * Areal function / is said to be continuous at a point @ in its domain if the limit of the function at the point a equals the value of the function at a, ie., iim’ F(x) = fla) (ig. 7.1). MATERIALS REQUIRED * Cardboard * Graph paper * Geometry box * Calculator * Adhesive, ete. PROCEDURE 1. Take a cardboard and paste a graph paper on it, 2. Draw a curve of any continuous function y = f(x) as shown in Fig. 7.2. 3. Take x, = 1. 4. Take a point P(1, 0) on the positive side of the X-axis and co: mark a point Q(1, 2) on the curve. Take points L, M and N on the right side of P so that | Ax, | > | Axy Also, take points A and B on the left side of P so that | Ax, | > | Ax, Now, draw perpendiculars from L, M, N, A A’ and BY respectively. responding to this point, Si [>| Ax, | L and B which meet the curve at I’, M, ple - Draw a horizontal line parallel to the X-axis that passes through the point Qa intersects the drawn perpendiculars at different points.7 9. Name these intersecting points as L”, M’, N’, A” and BY Wy, tively. 10. Now, identify and measure the distances | Ay, |, | Ay |, | Ays b. | A941) shown in Fig. 7.2. MINES = Seale: 20 small divisions = 1|unit on both the : j 5 #t © oni OBSERVATIONS 0 ait iJ a09 1. From the above graph, we prepare the following table: | Ax, | = 1.45 | Ax, | = 0.75 | Ax, |= 0.55 | Ax, | = 0.25 1 Ay, |= 0.75 | yy | = 0.25 attPRE-REQUISITE KNOWLEDGE + Increasing function: A real function f(x) defined on (a, b) is said to be increasing on (a, b) ifx, f(x,) < f(x.) for x,, x» € (a, b), ie. the value of f does not decrease as x increases. Also, the function is increasing if /’(x) > 0 in the given interval. Decreasing function: A real function f(x) defined on (a, b) is said to be decreasing on (a, b) if x, 90°. MATERIALS REQUIRED * Pieces of wire of different lengths * Piece of plywood of suitable size + White sheets of paper * Adhesive * Geometry box © ‘Trigonometric tables, ete. P PROCEDURE 1. Take a piece of plywood of any suitable size and paste a white sheet of paper on it. 2. Take two pieces of wires of length (say) 25 em each. E 3. Fix the wires on the white paper to represent X-axis and Y-axis respectively. 4, Take two more pieces of wire, each of suitable length, and bend them in the shape of curves representing functions /, and fy. Fix them on the paper as shown in Fig. 10.1.& aaa Ld icinknncsitninsntesiaiaaeteiasitintaanont Fig. 10.1 5. Take two straight wires each of suitable length for the purpose of showing ti at different points on the curves. DEMONSTRATION 1, Take one straight wire and place it on the left curve such that it is tangent to curve at point say S, and makes an angle o., with the positive direction of the X= 2, As oy is an obtuse angle, so tan a, is negative, ie. the slope of the tangent at (derivative of the function f, at S,) is negative. 3, Take two more points, say Sp and S, on the same curve, and make tangents using same wire at S, and S, making angles a, and o, respectively with the posit direction of the X-axis. 4, Here again as angles a and 6, are obtuse, therefore slopes of the tangents tan a3 tan o, are both negative, i.e. derivatives of the function f, at S, and S, are negal Hence, the function given by the left curve is a decreasing function. 5. On the right curve, take three points 7,, 7,, T, and using the other straight form tangents at each of these points making angles B,, B,, By respectively with positive direction of the X-axis, as shown in Fig. 10.1. The angles f,, B, and all acute.Therefore, the derivatives of the function at these points are positive. Hence, the function given by the right curve is an increasing fon OBSERVATIONS on— Use a protractor to measure the angles and fill in the blanks FeO > 90°, a, tan a, = Thus, the function is . PL = amet SCID, (8s Secon Thus, the function is «00.0.0... RESULT By this activity, it is verified that a function is: (@ increasing if tangent makes an acute angle with the positive direction of X-axis. (ii) decreasing if tangent makes an obtuse angle with the positive direction of X-axis.Rate of Change : Quantities © To find the time when the area of a length is decreasing and the breadth PREREQUISITE KNOWLEDGE + Ify =f), then ay dx 2 = rate of change of y w.r.t. x at x rate of change of y w.r.t. x MATERIALS REQUIRED * Chart paper * Paper cutter * Scale © Pencil * Eraser * Cardboard, ete. PROCEDURE 1. Take a rectangle R, (say) of dimensions 16 cm x 8 cm. 2. Suppose that the length of the rectangle is decreasing at the rate of 1 cm/second and the breadth is increasing at the rate of 2 cm/second. 3. Cut other rectangles Ry, Ry, Ry, Ry, Ry, Rr, Ry, Re, etc. of dimensions 15 em x 10 cm, 14 cm x 12 em, 13 em x 14 cm, 12 cm x 16 em, 11 cm x 18 cm, 10 em x 20 cm, 9 cm x 22 cm, 8 cm x 24 cm respectively (Fig. 13.1). 4. Paste these rectangles on a cardboard.19 SBAANS Fig. 13.4 5. Length of the rectangle is decreasing at the rate of 1 cm/s and the breadth is at the rate of 2 cm/s. * 6. Area of the given rectangle R, = 16 = 8 = 128 cm* (at 0 sec.) 7. Area of the rectangle R, = 15 x 10 = 150 cm? (after 1 sec.) 8. Area of the rectangle R, = 14 x 12 = 168 cm? (after 2 sec.) ‘9. Area of the rectangle R, = 13 x 14 = 182 cm? (after 3 sec.) 10. Area of the rectangle R, = 12 = 16 = 192 cm? (after 4 sec.) 11. Area of the rectangle R, = 11 x 18 = 198 em? (after 5 sec.) 12. Area of the rectangle R, = 10 x 20 = 200 cm? (after 6 sec.) 13. Area of the rectangle R, = 9 x 22 = 198 cm? (after 7 sec.) 14. Area of the rectangle R, = 8 x 24 = 192 cm? (after 8 sec.) and so on.P ‘This can also be represented in the following table. 128 | 150 | 168 | 182 | 192 | 198 | 200 | 198 | 192 Plot these values on a graph paper as shown in Fig. 13.2. i 4 a] 7] Scale: 10 small divisions = 1 second on ans, {| 10-small divisions = 10,m: on V-axis ‘Maximum area (6: 200) (611198), By wate 192) uet_|.of e (3, 182); [a sSile at 72082 9.1.10) © Time (in seconds) Fig. 13.2 Thus, the area of the rectangle is maximum after 6 sec. Alternatively: Let length and breadth of the rectangle be a and b respectively. zi The length of the rectangle is decreasing at the rate of 1 cm/s and the breadth is increasing at the rate of 2 cm/s. d Length of the rectangle after ¢ seconds = a ~ t. Breadth of the rectangle after ¢ seconds = b + 2t. Area of the rectangle (after ¢ sec) = A() = (a ~ 1) (b + 24) = ab — bt + 2at — 2 A) =~ b + 2a — 4t iv For maxima or minima, put A’(O =0, ie. -b + 2a - 4¢=0 Es 2 and oA 4 A =-4 1598 » (2a ~ A (=) = —4, which is negative.a baiseotidg! Thus, A() is maximum at ¢ = By this activity, we have a= 16cm and 6 =8 cm. “From (1), t= 4 = 4 = 6 seconds. Hence, after 6 seconds, the area will become maximum. t lav OBSERVATIONS Observation Table . OO} Ola} a!) ml}! ro] p Thus, @ the maximum area of the rectangle is (i area of the rectangle is maximum after second(s). Palit RESULT i oe We have learnt to find the time when the area of a rectangle of given’ becomes maximum. 8 it' Geometrical Intery PBF be Sear: aU OBJECTME seit PRE-REQUISITE KNOWLEDGE + Knowledge of integration + Knowledge of representation of curve on graph + Knowledge to find area of trapezium ie. Area of a trapezium = fa +b)h, where a and b are lengths of the twolnen sides and h is the distance between the parallel sides. MATERIALS REQUIRED * Cardboard * White sheet of papers Coloured wires + Pencils ° Graph paper © Nails ° Glue, etc. PROCEDURE 1. Take a cardboard of any convenient size and paste a graph paper on it. 2, Draw two perpendicular lines to represent coordinate axes X’OX and YOY’. 3. Along both the axes i.e., X-axis and Y-axis, take 1 unit = 100 small divisions. 4, Draw a circle of radius 1 unit from centre O(, 0) within the first quad ie., positive X-axis and Y-axis. 5. Let the given definite integral be [7 J1—x? dx. °Oy Yer Yat Yo Yeo York ¥74 Yeuk Yous TP PLe PS Pe! Pra Py i Pel Pig Poe Fig. 15.1 6.y= f=x?, 0 /1—x?ax me eNtse® 1 [Ease tee] =1+5 penta] [gvi-0+5 i 0] [=r [ gun aa]- {0+0] m_ 3.14 a Xo 74 = 9.785, sa. unit. , Thus, the area of ee quadrant as a limit of a sum is approximately the area obtained by actual integration. Note: If we take more number of equal strips, then area of the curve will be the area obtained by actual integration. OBSERVATIONS 1, Function representing the arc of the quadrant of the circle is y = 2, Area of the quadrant of @ circle with radius 1 unit = [* Ji a%de = 3. Area of the quadrant as a limit of a sum [) yi-x*dx = 4, The two areas are nearly the .... RESULT We have evaluated the definite integral fi vi=x? dx as the limit of a sum a also been verified by actual integration.PRE-REQUISITE KNOWLEDGE Se ENO + Knowledge of circle, its properties and Pythagoras theorem. + Addition of vectors (® Triangle law of addition (ii) Parallelogram law of addition « Difference of vectors * Multiplication of vectors MATERIALS REQUIRED + Cardboard + White sheet of paper + Adhesive + Pens * Geometry box + Eraser + Wires + Paper arrowheads = Drawing pins, ete. PROCEDURE 1. Take a thick cardboard of any convenient size. 2. Paste a white sheet of paper of the same size on the cardboard using an adhesive. 3. Draw a circle of radius 5 cm, with centre O. 4, Draw a diameter AB of this circle. 5. Take a point P on the circumference of the circle (Fig. 17.1). 6. Fix four drawing pins at points A, P, B and O. 7. Using wires, join OP, OA, OB, AP and BP. 8. Now, stick paper arrowheads along OP, OA, OB, AP and BP to show them as vectors (Fig. 17.1),Fig. 17.2 Fig. 17.1 . Draw another circle of radius 5 cm, with centre O and repeat steps 4 points as shown in Fig. 17.2. 3» ae 10. Using a protractor, measure the angle between the vectors AP. and ou ty ot 11. Similarly, measure the angle between the vectors AQ and BQ, ie, ZAQB 12. You will find that ZAPB = ZAQB = 90°. : 13, Repeat the above process by taking some more points on the measure the angles. 14. The angle formed between two vectors in a semi-circle is a right angle. oda Alternatively: SMe e—pe ey mbna: Let — OA =OB =a = OP =P a) See See Ss OA =-a, OB=a, OP=p AP =-OA+OP = a+p, BP=OP-OB = p-a (to Therefore, the angle APB between the vectors AP and BP is a right an; Similarly, AQ-B@ = 0, s0, ZA@B = 90° and so on. 54. D DIP Angle in a semi-circle is RESULT Using the vector method, it is verifie|ECTIVE nae we easy AA Ht PRE-REQUISITE KNOWLEDGE + Concept of coordinate geometry * Coordinates of a point in space: Let P be a point in space (Fig. 18.1). draw three planes parallel to the coordinate planes to meet the axes on A, respectively. Let OA = x, OB =y and OC = z. These three real numbers order determined by the point P are called the coordinates of the point. written as (x, y, 2). The coordinates x, y and z are positive or negative when meas along positive or negative directions respectively of the coordinate axes. oF ne C0.0.2) x (0. ¥, 0) B > ‘A(x, 0, 0) c Fig. 18.1Distance formula: Let P(x, y,, z,) and \ pete ibe nts in space, then distance between the two panies 8G) ce q Pp 4 a Ye 2) (a Yo?) Fig. 18.2 1PQ1= le ==)? +0, - 9 Ga? ie, WATERIALS REQUIRED | » Drawing board dita oto 0 A Aebemipeaen «Paper arrows A white sheet of paper, etc. JURE pROCEDURE 1. Take a drawing board and paste a white sheet of paper on it. 2. Draw two lines X’OX and YOY to represent X- and Y-axes respectively (Fig. 18.8). 3, Fix a wire through O, in the vertical direction, representing the Z-axis. er scale on each axis starting from O. Take 1 unit equal to 1 cm. 4, Graduate numb« 4) and M(4, 5) in the XY-plane as shown in Fig. 18.3. 5. Draw two points L(3, — B-1, -2, 2) 2em| (1, -2))----4 Fig. 18.36. Fix a nail of length 4 cm at L, upward and parallel to the Z-axis, represents the point A(3, —4, 4) as shown in Fig. 18.3. 7. Fix another nail of length 8 cm at M, upward and parallel to the Z-axi this nail represents the point B(4, 5, 8) as shown in Fig. 18.3, @ 8. By actual measurement (using a scale), distance AB = 9.9 cm. 9. By distance formula, AB = \(4—3)? +(6 +4)? +(8-4)? = 98 = 9.899. Thus, the distance AB obtained by actual measurement is a the distance ep tinad by using ihe gists formula. OBSERVATIONS Coordinates of the point C = ee — Coordinates of the point D =. On actual measurement: AC = AD Using the distance formula: AC BC AD cD BD RESULT Thus, the distance between two points in space obtained on actual meas using the distance formula is approximately the same.PRE-REQUISITE KNOWLEDGE + Skew lines: Two straight lines in space which are neither parallel _ nor intersecting are called skew lines. + Shortest distance: If, and I, are two skew lines, there is one and only one line perpendicular to each of the lines J, and 1, which is known as the line of the shortest distance. * The shortest distance (S.D.) between two non-parallel lines r=a,+Ab, and 7 =a, +b, is given by 1G; xby) (a, ~ a) S.D.= > > 1, xby | Fig. 21.4 + Condition for two given lines to intersect: If the lines r=a F =a, +ub; intersect, then the’ shortest distance between them will be aad Mex by) (a ie => & xb) (az-a,) = 18, xbs| MATERIALS REQUIRED + A piece of plywood » White sheet of paper + Threads + Scale * Adhesive * Pen/pencil, etc.goCEDURE ~ 1, Paste a sheet of white pape on a piece of plywood. 2, Draw two mutually perpendicular lines XOX’ and YOY on the paper. 3, Fix a wire through O in’ the Vertical direction) representing thé Z-axis. 4, Graduate number scale on each axis Starting from O, each unit equal to 1 cm. 5, Draw four points A(5, -3); BC4, 6); C1, 3) and D(-1, -6) in the XY-plane as shown in Fig. 21.2. 6. Fix a nail of length 2 cm at A ‘upward and parallel to the Z-axis. The tip of this nail represents the point P(5, -3, 2) as shown in Fig. 21.2. 7, Similarly, fix other nails of lengths'4 em, 7cm/and 5 em at‘points B, C’and D upward respectively. The tips of these nails represent the points @Q(-4, 6,4); R(, 3, 7) and S(-1, -6, 5). 8. Using threads, join the points P and Q; and R and S as shown in Fig. 21.2. Fig. 21.2 9. Now, the straight lines (made by threads) PQ and RS are the skew lines. These lines €ppear to be intersecting, but in space these aré neither parallel nor intersecting. 10. Place a scald in between'lines PQ and RS so that the scale is perpendicular to both the lines PQ and RS. Let this line be MN. 1l-Now, measure’ the distance MN on the scale, which isthe shortest distance (6.D.) between the two skew lines PQ and RS. This distance is 3.6\cm. Since, the points Mand N are in space, the distance MN in Fig. 21.2 may differ from 3.6 cm.oa . rarer ted shortest distance (S.D.) between the skew lines PQ oa %, é& othe 1. Line PQ passes through points PC, 3, 2) and QCA, 6, 4) a :. Equation of PQ is: yee) = 6-3) 4-2 1 pel On+6, (y= 9N= Bz pexttop+zk Now, 4 n x = (-9A'+ 5) + (92-3) + (204 Qk =i -37 + 2k + M9 +9 + 2h) =a where a, = 8°-3j+2h and 6, =-9+9j+2h. This is the vector equation of PQ. 2. Line RS passes through points R(, 8, 7) and S(-1, -6, 5). 2. Equation of RS is: or or Std y=Out+3, 2= 247 n= Now, xityj+zk (Qu+Di+(Qu+3)j+(Qn4DR ~ = 24974 7h + wal +9} +26) = ay 4) where 4 =i+3j+7h and b,=2/ +9} +28. This is the vector equation of RS. ‘gp ul onza yr - We know that the shortest distance (S.D,) = Her%b2)- (a2 7a) ares s ibe 1B, xB | ale (Aah esol Here, Baal" shah ja 292 1 ous Vibe = 118 ~18)~ j(-18 4) + &(-81-18) =18; xb, | = \@2?+o9F = 484+ 9801 = ¥10285 =101 (Approx.) a a fargo = +37 +7k)— (67-3) + 28) = -4i +6] +5k b, = * * al) 1G. (x23): (ay ~@,) = (OF +22 -998)-(-48 + 6) +58) =0 + 132 — 495 = - 363 -363| _ 363 §.p, = [£8681 363 _ 10m Aoi rs 4 ble Observation Tal 7 “Se, -6, 5) RG, 3, 72) ef We have understood the concept of measuring the shortest distance between two skew s and verified it analytically.Activity tivity) O Conditional Probability "To compute the conditional probability Of a given event A, when event B has already , through an example of throwing a pair of dice (singular — die). PREREQUISITE KNOWLEDGE eo SEE + Probability of an event: If there are n elementary events associated with a random experiment and m of them are favourable to an event A, then the probability of happening or “Occurrence of ASis) denote dsp y=Re) smd ised seni quae es ™ O B. This is shown by s dark coloured box (Fig. 22.3). - neeat us find the conditional prob é Let A be the event jumber of outcomes favourable to ‘umber of outcomes favourable to A c nA o B)=1 eeOBSERVATIONS Observation Table = aaa Tae Case-I A =Event of getting 4 on both the dice — iB = Event of getting 4 at least one of the dice P(A) C PB) PA OB) apie D5) eS UEU We have computed the conditional probability of a given event A, already occurred i.e., P(A/B), by this activity.