Modes of operation/ Operating system techniques

Computers can operate in many different ways requiring different and complex operating
systems.
Real time processing
When the computer has to react within a guaranteed time to an input, a real time
operating system is used. For example, the engine management system within a car uses a
real time operating system in order to react to all the things going on within the engine. A
real time operating system does not necessarily have to be fast. It simply has to be quick
enough to respond to inputs in a predictable way. Embedded computers often contain an
RTOS as many are used to control something. Computers operating in real time are often
dedicated to the control of systems such as industrial processes, planes and space flights.
Another example of real time processing is computer games. For example, when an action is
selected in a game, the data is fed back to the computer and the systems updated.

Multi-programming
Multi-programming is a method of operating such that several programs appear to be
running at once. The jobs are usually given priorities. The operating system switches jobs in
and out of processor time according to priority. For example, while one job is being
allocated printer time, another will be being processed in memory. The processor is so fast
that it seems that many jobs are being processed at the same time.
Multi-tasking
This isn't just about running more than one application at the same time. Multi-tasking
allows multiple tasks to run concurrently, taking turns using the resources of the computer.
This can mean running a couple of applications, sending a document to the printer and
downloading a web page. However, operating systems are not truly multi-tasking - in order
to do this, you would need parallel processors, which are now appearing on personal
computers.
Multiprocessing
An operating system technique which can manage multiple instruction processors,
assigning each to operate upon a different instruction stream (program or job) concurrently.
Multiprocessing is the use of two or more central processing units (CPUs) within a single
computer system. The term also refers to the ability of a system to support more than one
processor and/or the ability to allocate tasks between them. There are many variations on
this basic theme, and the definition of multiprocessing can vary with context, mostly as a
function of how CPUs are defined (multiple cores on one die, multiple chips in one package,
multiple packages in one system unit, etc.). Multiprocessing sometimes refers to the
execution of multiple concurrent software processes in a system as opposed to a single
process at any one instant. However, the terms multitasking or multiprogramming are more
appropriate to describe this concept, which is implemented mostly in software, whereas
multiprocessing is more appropriate to describe the use of multiple hardware CPUs. A
system can be both multiprocessing and multiprogramming, only one of the two, or
neither of the two.
Multi-access or multi-user
 A multi-access (or multi-user) system is one where a number of users are able to use the
same system together. Modern personal computers can allow multi user access i.e. more
than one person can make use of the computer resources at the same time via a LAN.
The central processor deals with users in turn; clearly the more users, the slower the
response time. Generally, however, the processor is so fast that the response time at the
most is a fraction of a second and the user feels they are being dealt with immediately.
Multi-user is a term that defines an operating system or application software that allows
concurrent access by multiple users of a computer. Time-sharing systems are multi-user
systems. Most batch processing systems for mainframe computers may also be considered
"multi-user", to avoid leaving the CPU idle while it waits for I/O operations to complete.
However, the term "multitasking" is more common in this context.
- An example is a UNIX server where multiple remote users have access (such as via
Secure Shell) to the UNIX shell prompt at the same time. Another example uses
multiple X Window sessions spread across multiple terminals powered by a single
machine - this is an example of the use of thin client.
- Management systems are implicitly designed to be used by multiple users, typically
one system administrator or more and an end-user community.
Single-user
Is most commonly used when talking about an operating system being usable
only by one person at a time, or in reference to a single-user software license
agreement. Multi-user operating systems such as UNIX sometimes have a single
user process available for emergency maintenance.

Batch processing
A batch processing system is where programs or data are collected together in a batch and
processed in one go. Typically the processing of payrolls, electricity bills, invoices and daily
transactions are dealt with this way. This method of operation lends itself to jobs with
similar inputs, processing and outputs where no human intervention is needed. Jobs are
stored in a queue until the computer is ready to deal with them. Often batch processed jobs
are done overnight.
ROLES (functions) OF THE OPERATING SYSTEM
The operating system has various roles:
1. Management of the processor: the operating system is responsible for managing
allocation of the processor between the different programmes using a scheduling algorithm.
The type of scheduler is totally dependent on the operating system, according to the desired
objective.
2. Management of the random access memory: the operating system is responsible for
managing the memory space allocated to each application and, where relevant, to each
user. If
there is insufficient physical memory, the operating system can create a memory zone on
the hard drive, known as "virtual memory". The virtual memory lets you run applications
requiring more memory than there is available RAM on the system. However, this memory
is a great deal slower.
3. Management of input/output: the operating system allows unification and control of
access of programmes to material resources via drivers (also known as peripheral
administrators or input/output administrators).
4. Management of execution of applications: the operating system is responsible for
smooth execution of applications by allocating the resources required for them to operate.
This means an application that is not responding correctly can be "killed".
5. Management of authorisations: the operating system is responsible for security relating
to execution of programmes by guaranteeing that the resources are used only by
programmes and users with the relevent authorisations.
6. File management: the operating system manages reading and writing in the file system
and the user and application file access authorisations.
7. Information management: the operating system provides a certain number of indicators
that can be used to diagnose the correct operation of the machine.
Additional Functions of the operating system:
- Controls and coordinates the computer system
- Scheduling and loading of jobs to provide continuous processing. So that no parts of the
computer system are idle for any significant period of time.
- It is a platform for application programs
- Provides user interface
- Acts as an interface between hardware and application programs
- Provides error correctional routines
- Control over selection and operation of input-output devices & file handling.
- Records details of processing for control analysis
- File management, control the creation, deletion, saving and access of files
- Memory management, allocates memory to various jobs or tasks
- Multiprogramming, multiprocessing, multitasking, timesharing, housekeeping &
handling errors.
- Resource management manages processor time, memory space, disk space and
peripheral devices.
- Reports errors when they occur.
- Task management. Manage the accomplishment of the computing tasks of end users. It
may involve multitasking capability where several computing tasks can occur at the same
time.
- Minimizes the amount of human intervention required during processing.
COMPUTER INTERFACE
Refers to the type of interaction between two elements.
Is part of the operating system that allows you to communicate with it or the computer so
that you can load programs, access files, and accomplish other tasks?
When a person interacts with a computer he uses a User Interface, which can be a screen,
keyboard, mouse, scanners or other input devices.
Command line interfaces (MS-DOS BASED OPERATING SYSTEM)
A command line interface allows the user to interact with the computer by typing in
commands. The computer displays a prompt, the user keys in the command and presses
enter or return. A COMMAND-LINE INTERFACE (CLI) is a mechanism for interacting with a
computer operating system or software by typing commands to perform specific tasks. This
text- only interface contrasts with the use of a mouse pointer with a graphical user interface
(GUI) to click on options, or menus on a text user interface (TUI) to select options.
Features of a command line interface include:
In the early days of personal computers, all PCs used command-line interfaces.
• Commands - usually abbreviated - must be typed correctly and in the right order or the
command will not work.
• Experienced users who know the commands can work very quickly without having to find
their way around menus.
• An advantage of command driven programs is that they do not need the memory and
processing power of the latest computer and will often run on lower spec machines.
• Command driven programs do not need to run in Windows.
• A command line interface can run many programs, for example a batch file could launch
half a dozen programs to do its task.
• An inexperienced user can sometimes find a command driven program difficult to use
because of the number of commands that have to be learnt.
An example of a common command-driven interface is MS-DOS, the original operating
system for all Microsoft-compatible PCs. The MS-DOS command to display all files on drive a
would be:
dir c:\.
Graphical user interfaces (WINDOWS BASED OPERATING SYSTEM)
Graphical user interface is sometimes shortened to GUI. The user chooses an option usually
by pointing a mouse at an icon representing that option. A GRAPHICAL USER INTERFACE
(GUI) is a type of user interface item that allows people to interact with programs in more
ways than typing such as computers; hand-held devices such as MP3 Players, Portable
Media Players or Gaming devices; household appliances and office equipment with images
rather than text commands. A GUI offers graphical icons, and visual indicators, as opposed
to text-based
interfaces, typed command labels or text navigation to fully represent the information and
actions
available to a user.
Features of GUIs include:
• They are much easier to use for beginners.
• They enable you to easily exchange information between software using cut and paste or
'drag and drop'.
• They use a lot of memory and processing power. It can be slower to use than a CLI if you
are an expert user.
• They can be irritating to experienced users when simple tasks require a number of
operations. When discussing user interfaces, it is important to note that Windows XP, OS/X
and Linux are all graphical user interfaces.
A good user interface should:
• be attractive and pleasing to the eye
• allow the user to try out different options easily
• be easy to use
• use suitable colours for key areas
• use words that are easy to understand aimed at the type of user
• have online help
It also should consider the needs of the users. For example, young children are likely to
prefer pictures to words and people with disabilities may benefit from particular input or
output devices
WIMP interface
• Windows, Icons, Menus and Pointer - a method by which a user can interact with a
computer without having to learn lots of special words - it provides a much more intuitive
'view' of the computer and its facilities than non-WIMP operating systems provide
• "Windows, /images/, Menus and Pointer", or "Windows, /images/, Mouse and Pull-down
menus" This is a graphical interface which makes access to computers much more
straightforward and intuitive than the main alternative, the command-line interface. The
WIMP interface has been used on Apple Macintosh computers since they were invented,
and are coming into use on PCs through Microsoft Windows and on Unix and other
workstations through the X Window system.
The user is offered a simple menu from which to choose an option. One menu often leads to
a further menu. Part of the screen may have an instruction followed by a numbered list of
options to choose from.
A full screen menu takes up most of the screen.
A menu bar is the set of options at the top of the screen. When an option is chosen a pull
down menu may be offered.
Features of menu driven interfaces include:
They are easy to use as the user does not have to remember sets of commands.
• They are user friendly - you can often guess your way around the options.
• They can be irritating if there are too many levels of menus to move around - with a
command line interface you can go to the option required immediately.