Agricultural Marketing Handout

I. Introduction
As agriculture and society develop, marketing becomes ever more important. In subsistence agriculture, a farmer will mainly be feeding himself and his neighbors. The local community's taste and requirements are well understood. Transport and post-harvest losses are not serious problems. As the populations of the cities expand farmers have the added responsibility of feeding not only the rural market but the growing distant urban markets. The farmer therefore has to take on commercial and marketing skills. Marketing is the process by which the space between the producer and the consumer is bridged. The process obviously involves transport and techniques for minimizing crop losses. An effective distribution system will also require the establishment of rural businesses such as truck drivers, packaging manufacturers, contractors and wholesalers. The production/marketing chain is a two way process: Produce flows from the rural areas into the cities and money and market information should flow back. As tastes in the city market evolve, the rural community can use this market information to target its production accordingly. 1.1. Agricultural Marketing Defined Kotler and Armstrong in their book entitled Principles of Marketing, tenth edition define marketing as: Marketing is a social and a managerial process whereby individuals and groups obtain what they need and want through creating and exchanging products and value with others. Marketing involves the exchange of products and value in order to satisfy needs and wants. The products exchanged can take different forms which include manufactured goods, services, agricultural products etc. Agricultural marketing, therefore, is a marketing activity that focuses on the exchange of agricultural products. Agricultural products are All plants and animals grown and raised by individuals and groups for human use; and they include crops, livestock, diary, poultry etc. 1.2. Special characteristics of agricultural products There are certain inherent characteristics that make agricultural products and the way they are produced and distributed different from other goods. These include: There are certain inherent characteristics that make agricultural products different from other goods. These include: Uncertainty of Production- In agriculture, nature plays an important role; therefore, agricultural production is bound to be highly uncertain. As a result, the agriculturalist (farmer) has little control over the yield. By Abdulshkur Nuru 1

Agricultural Marketing Handout

Seasonal in nature- Agricultural outputs may vary substantially throughout the year. Nature determines what, when and where the crop must be grown and harvested. The seasonality of production creates so many problems which include the over and under utilization of storage facilities on and off season respectively, and underutilization of capacity by processing firms who relay heavily on agricultural products as their input. Inelasticity of supply- Farmers do not cut production in response to a fall in prices. This is because most of the production cutting methods used by manufacturers do not apply to farmers. Farming is a small scale undertaking employing a comparatively little hired labor. Thus, variable costs are relatively unimportant. Time lag- Switching from the production of one crop to another takes a long time although the period may vary depending on the nature of the product. Examples of products taking a very long time include rubber, coffee, and coconut. This time lag increases the farmers risk and uncertainty. Production mainly for self consumption purposes- In subsistence economies, farmers mainly produce for their own consumption; not for commercial purposes. They might sell a small portion of their produce in order to buy lifes necessities like clothes, oil etc and to meet liabilities like taxes, or to buy fertilizers and seeds. Geographically localized production- Most agricultural products require a certain type of whether and soil which is unique to a given location. Therefore, it is very difficult to grow these products in other locations where the climate and the type of soil are not suitable. As a result, agricultural products are not usually produced where consumers require them; rather they are produced where the climate and the soil are suitable. Bulkiness of the product- Agricultural products tend to be bulky, that is, their weight and volume is very high compared to their monetary value. Therefore, transportation and storage charges for such products are very high. Perishability- Most agricultural products are perishable- meaning, they dont maintain their quality for a long time. This puts a great pressure on the farmer to speed up the transportation process and quickly find buyers for his or her product. 1.3. Importance of Agricultural marketing for developing countries Although agricultural marketing is important for all countries developed or underdeveloped-, it is more important for less developed countries because of the following reasons: Agriculture is a significant sector of the economy both in terms of output and employment In LDCs the consumer frequently spends in excess of fifty percent of the household's income on basic foodstuffs - much of which is inadequate both in quality and nutritional content.

By Abdulshkur Nuru

Agricultural Marketing Handout Whereas in developed countries the poor are relatively few in number, and therefore it is economically possible to establish special food distribution programs to meet their needs, the scale of poverty in most LDCs is such that the commercial marketing system must be relied upon to perform the task of food distribution to poor and not-so-poor alike. Increase in urbanization necessitates the improvement of the efficiencies of agricultural and food marketing The need to improve rural incomes: The potential contribution of agricultural and food marketing toward attempts to improve rural incomes in developing countries should not be over looked. Market liberalization and the competitive implication it has on parastatals and other agricultural marketing institutions So far this discussion has been set in the context of commercial marketing but social marketing should also be acknowledged. Social marketing identifies human needs in non-competitive economies and/or sectors of society and defines the means of delivering products and services to meet these needs. The marketing mix of social marketing strategies is evaluated using quite different criteria from those employed in assessing purely commercial marketing strategies. Criteria such as the percentage of the target population reached with the technology, products, processes or services, quantities produced and distributed and uptake of the product, service or technology are more often employed. Benefits are measured in terms of development goals, such as improved nutritional status or increased rural incomes. The use of economic criteria is usually limited to the later and to selecting the least-cost strategy to achieve a quantitative goal. However, the criteria used to evaluate commercial marketing strategies should not automatically be eliminated, because these improve the efficiency of some aspects of social marketing strategy without preventing the attainment of social objectives. 1.4. Problems of agricultural marketing Basically, there are certain common problems all farmers in LDCs face in marketing their products. These include: Production conditions: In most developing countries, the most persistent problem is source of supply. The great majority of the agricultural output comes from large number of small farms operated independently. This makes the task of assembling, processing and distributing the products very difficult and time consuming. Transport and communication: Many agricultural producers are confined to village markets because appropriate transportation facilities are not easily available. In addition to the transportation problem, farmers have difficulty obtaining the necessary information to conduct their business successfully.

By Abdulshkur Nuru

Agricultural Marketing Handout Handling, packaging, and processing: The handling of perishable goods calls for special care to make sure that they dont lose their quality. But this will mean the farmer needs to incur additional costs. Storage and warehousing: Because most agricultural products are perishable and because there is a time gap between production (harvesting) and consumption (selling), storage is very important in agricultural marketing. But there is a huge storage and warehouse problem because of the seasonality of agricultural products and the additional investment needed to make storages more suitable for agricultural products by making them safe from perishability and spoilage. Sharp price differences and fluctuations- The prices of agricultural products vary significantly from one place to another and they fluctuate seasonally. These price differences between different areas are likely to diminish as transport becomes easier and less expensive and better communications are established. Seed, fertilizer and other inputs- In most developing countries, it is very difficult to ensure a sustainable supply of major agricultural inputs like seeds and fertilizers which negatively affects the marketing efforts of farmers. Existence of too many middlemen- In the marketing of agricultural products, too many middle men are involved; and this leads to consumers paying higher price and farmers (producers) obtaining lower returns. Sale of ungraded products- In most least developed countries there are no well established grading facilities which would have helped in determining the quality level of the produce and paying producers accordingly. As a result, producers do not pay enough attention to the quality of their produce. Mixing and adulteration- Some farmers and most middlemen mix products of different qualities together in order to sell it at a higher price. This practice will lead to customer dissatisfaction and in the long run it will harm the producers profitability and acceptance. Lack of finance- Due to a weak link between producers and financial institutions, enough funds are not made available for the farmer. Therefore, most farmers borrow money from traditional money lenders at a higher interest rate. And this increases the cost of production of the farmer. 1.5. Links between Agriculture and the Food Industry The link between agriculture and food continually evolves. In primitive societies, the farmer and consumer were either the same family or close neighbors who bartered their products and services, but as societies develop other linkages are added. Commodity traders, processors, manufacturers who convert produce into food items and retailers, among others, are interposed between the producer and consumer.

By Abdulshkur Nuru

Agricultural Marketing Handout A more recently introduced link into the chain is the scientist. Scientists as breeders, plant biologists, nutritionists and chemists have made an immeasurable contribution to the development of agricultural production and food manufacture over the past 50 years. It would appear that we have passed through the age of machines in agriculture, and the age of chemicals, on to the age of biotechnology in agriculture. Biotechnology has great potential for the developing countries since it is likely to be less capital intensive and more research and know-how intensive. Thus its benefits can flow faster into the poorer countries that do not have the capital. As the link between food and agriculture continues to evolve, we see the emergence of an agribusiness, i.e., where agriculture and food become a continuum. As disposable incomes increase, the food industry will increase the quality and diversity of the products it produces. They will also start branding their products and advertising intensively to attract loyal customers. As a result, food manufacturers will have certain expectations of agriculture as a supplier of their raw materials, including: Improved Quality: To build a profitable business, food manufacturers seek to establish a preference for their products by differentiating those products in some way which is meaningful to consumers. Brand loyalty is normally only established by delivering high quality consistently. As disposable incomes rise, the market tends to develop more sophisticated needs and the quality of the raw material becomes even more critical. Where agriculture is seeking to serve a food industry, that itself is seeking to meet these more sophisticated needs and wants, it can expect to face increasing emphasis on quality. Equally well, agriculture can expect to share in the better return for innovative improvements in quality. Lowered Cost: Next to quality, comes cost. With an increased capability to search the world for raw materials, the food industry is able to find the lowest cost source for any given level of quality. For the food manufacturer, the country in which he/she manufactures, or markets, need no longer be the source of agricultural produce. Improved transportation and communications mean that the world is becoming his/her source of supply. This is a significant change in the competitive environment of agriculture which the farming community has to realize, because they have, hitherto, been largely cocooned in their respective domestic markets. Non-seasonality: Agricultural products were traditionally seasonal in their production and supply. Modern technology and husbandry practices mean that food manufacturers need not have their production schedules dictated by the seasons. Indeed, the capital intensive food industry cannot afford to incur the high costs of under utilizing its capacity. This means that farmers will have to complete in terms of reducing seasonality or fitting into a pattern of social competitiveness. Increased Reliability: A manufacturer who has invested heavily in building up their brand will be very keen to get reliable supplies in terms of quality, timing and cost. Producers of agricultural produce will be increasingly judged on their reliability in all of these respects. By Abdulshkur Nuru 5

Agricultural Marketing Handout

Processing: Ease of processing will become an increasingly important expectation of the food industry. Like all industries, reductions in the costs of capital equipment, wages and inventories are important objectives. For example, farmers who can deliver on the just-in-time principle will contribute towards reducing a manufacturer's working capital and space requirements. Farmers who can do part of the secondary processing and/or performing functions such as the post harvest treatment of the crop or transporting will be adding another advantage. Crops that are specially bred or designed to facilitate processing (e.g. seedless fruits, featherless chickens, coffee beans without caffeine, low cholesterol meats) are another type of advantage that the food industry could expect from agriculture. In short, the competitive advantage will rest with those able to add most value and can differentiate what they are offering from that of other suppliers. Product differentiation: In competitive brand marketing, the food industry has to innovate continuously to create new products that are different from and superior to existing ones. The scope of innovation has traditionally been at the processing stage. Whilst this will continue to be an important area for innovation, manufacturers will increasingly tend to look for innovative changes in the agricultural produce itself. This may be in terms of novel tastes, improved texture, more attractive shapes, etc. Health considerations: We have already said that in the more sophisticated food markets, healthy eating can become a priority among consumers. Therefore, farmers will have to consider the health connotations of what they choose to grow. There are two aspects of health to be taken into account. First, consumers may be interested in the food itself i.e. low fat, low/no sugar or low/no salt. Second, the consumer may be more, or equally, concerned about the food production methods i.e. the avoidance of chemicals like herbicides, pesticides etc. This may mean a change to the farmer's husbandry practices with implications for the costs of production. The consumer and the food industry will expect the farmer to produce without potentially dangerous chemicals, but at no extra cost to them. This will be another challenge for agriculture.

By Abdulshkur Nuru

Agricultural Marketing Handout

II. Agricultural and Food Marketing Enterprises

The principal components of any marketing system are the institutions and enterprises of which it is comprised. Three of the principal forms of agricultural marketing enterprises to be found in developing countries are: 2.1. Private enterprise Private enterprises are: Businesses owned by an individual or a group of individuals who assume the risks of doing business and take the resulting profit for themselves. The following table highlights several particular strengths of private enterprises: Low operating costs Nothing so concentrates the mind on cost control than ownership. The private entrepreneur has every motivation to contain costs since to do otherwise erode his/her profit margin. Since private enterprise has as its prime objective, profit, everything is done to maximize the use of capital equipment, and thereby lower unit costs e.g. concern is shown to keep factories operating at high levels of capacity utilization, attempts are made to ensure that the firms' vehicles have economic return loads as well as outward loads etc. Decision making within private enterprise tends to be quicker, because of the absence of a weighty bureaucracy, than in public enterprise equivalents.
Table-2.1. the major strengths of private enterprises

Private Companies Marketing Boards Co-operatives

High levels of equipment utilization

Adaptability

By Abdulshkur Nuru

Agricultural Marketing Handout Private enterprises that are owner managed have the following distinguishing characteristics:
Table-2.2. Distinguishing characteristics of owner operated private enterprises

Personal initiative Rapid decision making

The entrepreneurial spirit is in evidence when an individual shows a willingness to accept calculated risks. Decision making within private enterprise tends to be quicker, because of the absence of a weighty bureaucracy, than in public enterprise equivalents. Entrepreneurs need a good deal of self confidence i.e. they must be prepared to back their own judgments rather than rely on the views and support of others. Moreover, it often takes a fair amount of time before market demand can be built up and new markets penetrated and hence the need for tenacity. There is a direct relationship between effort and the level of success in private enterprise. Rarely is the entrepreneur able to rely on others covering for him/her and no-one pursues potential business or seeks to solve management problems with as much vigor as the owner.

Independence of spirit and persistence

Willingness to work hard, for long and/or irregular hours

Most successful private entrepreneurs have experience and/or expertise which others are willing and able to buy. Relevant experience and/or This could be, for example, the ability to judge the quality and quantity of meat a live animal will yield when expertise slaughtered. This of course, relates to agribusinesses and is essential to those seeking to do business with farmers (or fisherman). An Knowing how crops are grown and mature and understanding of understanding the priorities of producers and the agriculture daily/seasonal pressures they face are invaluable in agribusiness.

By Abdulshkur Nuru

Agricultural Marketing Handout The following table shows some of the areas in which private enterprises tend to perform better.
Table-2.3. Areas in which private enterprises can function very well

Perishable Products

This class of product is subject to rapid and extreme fluctuations in supply and demand, and therefore price, as well as considerable variation in quality, both at harvest time and subsequently, due to mechanical, pathological and/or physiological damage. A private company, with its ability to make quick decisions, in response to an ever changing environment and set of market conditions, is in a better position to prosper in the perishable produce market. It is said that the marketing of livestock and meat is dominated by private enterprise. This is explained by the fact that direct decision making gives private enterprise the edge because of the need for skilled judgment in appraising quality and value when the product is so variable. Businesses serving rural customers often have to deal in small quantities of supplies and purchases and this requires a great deal of flexibility on the part of the enterprise. It is usually the smaller, private, enterprise which proves willing and able to conduct business in such a way. The willingness to invest in new and therefore risky ventures or to invest in highly specialized activities is usually the province of the private sector. Committees and government bureaucracies are not especially fond of closing down existing economic activities. They are not much better equipped to generate new ideas or indeed to innovate.

Livestock and meat Combined purchase of produce and sales of farm inputs and consumer goods New and highly specialized activities in marketing

2.2.Marketing boards in developing countries Marketing boards are in most instances, government agencies and/or statutory organizations having the function of intervening in the marketing process, with a view to serving the cause of efficient and orderly marketing. Marketing Boards: Are, in most cases, born out of government policy rather than consensus among commercial parties Have improvement of the income of the small holder, grower and/or livestock farmer as an objective Prior to the adoption of structural adjustment and market liberalization, nearly all marketing boards served as price stabilizing boards Focus on durable products that are controlled or scheduled which usually include millet, sorghum, rice, maize, ground nuts, palm oil, cocoa, cotton, coffee, tea, tobacco and rubber

By Abdulshkur Nuru

Agricultural Marketing Handout Measures of the effectiveness of a Marketing board include: Its contribution to orderly and efficient marketing The reduction in the capacity of intermediaries to manipulate margins at the expense of producers and consumers The generation of producer-oriented monopoly power The following table shows the three major roles marketing boards are expected to play. Change agent Regulatory role Marketing boards can establish marketing practices and procedures for raw and/or processed products. Marketing boards may act as watch-dogs over agreed marketing practices and procedures e.g. credit arrangements, weights and measures, quality control etc. Marketing boards may provide all or some of the facilitating services e.g. credit, market intelligence and risk management. The last of these usually takes the form of the guaranteeing of prices. In the case of tree crops prices are announced in advance of harvest. Prices for annual crops are normally made known before planting or sowing.
Table-1.4. the three major roles of marketing boards

Facilitator

The two basic operations carried out by marketing boards are buying and selling operations: Buying operations of marketing boards Marketing boards would normally buy at fixed prices usually set by the government. Buying takes place at official buying points where there are either appropriate storage facilities for the produce, or transportation. Mobile buying teams to supplement permanent buying points. In some countries the buying points are staffed by board employees, but some governments transfer buying points to local co-operatives, and/or appoint licensed buying agents (LBAs). Selling operations of marketing boards Marketing boards can be classified into two types depending on whether they serve domestic markets or foreign markets: Food marketing boards (FMBs) Export marketing boards (EMBs Food Marketing Boards (FMBs): Handle staple crops such as maize, millet and rice and are concerned with entirely domestic consumer markets

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Agricultural Marketing Handout Governments can and do control the domestic market, and use FMBs to exert influence on the economy Are sometimes instructed by the government to adjust their marketing strategies to meet social and/or political rather than commercial objectives In many developing countries, the FMB's selling price is set by government Concern for the welfare of consumers often encourages governments to set low prices Consumers needs determine the timing of the release of stocks Stockholding is an important but expensive function of FMBs especially immediately after harvest when there is often insufficient storage space for the incoming produce. Conversely, as the stocks are slowly released FMB stores are under capacity for much of the year A common objective of FMBs is basic food security in times of shortage Export Marketing boards (EMBs): Serve export or foreign markets over which the government has little or no control Some export markets are governed by commodity agreements such as the Sugar, Cocoa and International Coffee Agreement, but in the majority of cases they must operate within free or open markets where vigorous competition exists. Tend to favor early sale which is sometimes referred to as a rapid evacuation policy. Practice forward selling which means signing sales contracts well in advance of delivery. Frequent the practice of export parity pricing which means that the producer price is calculated as a residual of the export price minus marketing costs. Some boards do not fit easily into the two categories discussed so far. Produce such as groundnuts, sunflower seed oil and palm oil, have both domestic and export markets. Marketing boards handling these products have mainly been established in countries where a surplus for export exists Nearly everywhere there is a dual marketing system, with a parallel market which allows farmers, traders and consumers to by-pass the FMB. In some countries the parallel market is permitted by the government. Where FMBs have been given a monopoly, parallel markets become black markets, suppression of which has proved impossible. Most marketing boards are used by government as instruments to achieve social and political objectives in addition to commercial objectives. These include: the promotion of agricultural and rural development with social goals overriding commercial objectives as instruments of fiscal policy as a mechanism for containing urban wages through price restraint on staple foods as a device to encourage farmers to grow and sell more food and export crops, by pushing higher producer prices As a means of consolidating power by placing political appointees on to the Board.

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Agricultural Marketing Handout

2.3.Co-operatives in the agricultural and food sector A Co-operative is A system of economic action and business enterprise, characterized by the absence of the profit motive and involving, as its primary function, the distribution of goods and services. Traditionally, it is a movement of consumers who unite on the basis of their mutual interest in reducing living expenses and benefiting from the ownership and control of production facilities and of accommodations shared by all. Some cooperatives, however, serve the interests of people functioning as producers, not as consumers. Producers cooperatives include: Associations of workers who cooperatively own and operate factories or farms, associations of producers for the purposes of economically purchasing supplies and of profitably marketing their produce, and the like The motivation to form co-operatives has three particular aspects: the need for protection against exploitation by economic forces too strong for the individual to withstand alone the impulse for self-improvement by making the best use of often scarce resources The concern to secure the best possible return from whatever form of economic activity within which the individual engages whether as a producer, intermediary or consumer. The underpinning principles of Co-operatives are: Self-help Voluntary participation Equity Democracy And a common bond of common need and purpose. Self interest is the primary motivator in co-operative enterprises with economic gain being the primary objective. Co-operatives differ from capitalist or private enterprises in the way they pursue selfinterest. Thus, Co-operatives reward participation in the co-operative venture rather than rewarding capital The rate of interest paid on share capital is fixed and limited, and not subject to variation according to the amount of profit made. The use and distribution of surplus is restricted to one or more of the following purposes: Allocation to reserves, where it becomes collectivelyowned capital and is thereafter non-distributable

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Agricultural Marketing Handout For use on, or donation to, common-good, community project Distribution to members in proportion to the trade each member has done with the co-operative.

There are two principal forms of co-operative organizations: o Primary co-operative is one in which the shareholders are individuals; each of them having an equal share in its control. o Secondary co-operative (also called union or federal cooperative) is one in which the shareholders are other cooperatives. The following table explains the difference between the two types of co-operatives and the various functions each one provides to its members: In many cases, primary co-operatives will combine several functions: e.g. an agricultural co-operative may provide consumer supplies to its members. Primary co-operatives may also own and run subsidiary enterprises related to their main functions, such as: a consumer co-operative with its own manufacturing/processing or servicing business. While a primary co-operative has individual persons as members, a secondary (or federal) co-operative is one in which other co-operatives are the members. Apart from this basic difference the structure and organization of both types follow a very similar pattern.

Primary cooperatives

Secondary cooperatives

Table-2.5. the major difference between the two types of co-operatives

The control structure of co-operatives is made up of three tiers. o The General Meeting of Members: it makes policy and through it members exercise control. In most countries, there is a legal requirement to hold an Annual General Meeting which has the particular responsibilities of receiving and deciding upon an audited statement of account, deciding how any surplus shall be used and distributed, and of electing a committee o Management committee (board of directors): Elected by the general meeting, it assumes operational control of the cooperative on behalf of its members. One member of this committee is elected chairman or president. o Manager (or secretary): Appointed by the management committee as the chief administrative officer of the co-operative, he/she is accountable to the committee and responsible for the day-to-day control of the business. In small co-operatives, he/she may be a member elected to do the work without pay. Secondary co-operatives can be organized for many different purposes. It is quite possible, and quite common, for a primary co-operative to be a member of several secondary co-operatives, depending on its needs and the local co-operative structure.

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Agricultural Marketing Handout Examples of secondary co-operative organization would be: A local district union of 3/4 cotton marketing co-operatives to operate a ginning plant A federation of 2, or more, consumer co-operatives to operate a bakery A national union of agricultural co-operatives to manufacture fertilizer A national union of consumer co-operatives to organize wholesaling services and to manufacture merchandise A national federation of co-operatives to run a national bank. Secondary co-operatives are advantageous in that they enable primary cooperatives to organize very large-scale business operations at the national - or even international - level without detriment to the democratic control of the primary co-operatives by their own members. Secondary co-operatives can in turn form other secondary co-operatives - sometimes called tertiary co-operatives. In many countries there is one apex federation representative of all other co-operatives in the country and providing, at the national level, representative, advisory and professional services to the co-operative movement as a whole. These national co-operatives can then be affiliated to international organizations such as the International Co-operative Alliance. A principal policy question in co-operatives is the procedure to be used in selling members' produce. The alternatives are: outright purchase from members Sale on commission. Outright purchase: Members are paid for their produce, at prices fixed by the co-operative, at the time of delivery, and the co-operative takes title to the produce. The co-operative then resells the produce at the most advantageous terms it can secure. Profits made on the transaction will be used first to meet the operating expenses, any surplus balance being used or distributed by decision of the General Meeting. It requires the co-operative to have high levels of funds available. Cash flow problems can be alleviated by a two-stage payment system whereby members are paid part of the sale price at the time of delivery, and the balance after the co-operative has resold the produce. The co-operative can benefit by adding value to the produce before selling. This can be done in three principal ways: Produce can be stored for sale at a later date when prices have improved Value can be added through primary processing of the crop. Opportunity for adding value exists in the packing and presentation of the crop, or in the case of livestock, improvement in condition or quality before sale.

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Agricultural Marketing Handout

Sale on commission: The co-operative serves as the producers' agent with no legal title to the goods. All attendant risks remain with the individual producers. The co-operative collects produce from members and sells in the most advantageous markets. It then deducts a commission at a previously agreed rate from the sale price. Operating expenses are covered from commission income. The co-operative avoids the need to finance crop buying and it minimizes its risks. Much simpler operating procedures are required and expenditure can be more accurately matched to anticipated income. The main disadvantage of sale-on-commission is that neither the member nor the co-operative is able to exploit possible price improvement. There is also the possible delay in the producer receiving cash for his crop. Co-operatives are very important to the economies of LDCs because of the following reasons: Co-operatives can provide the mechanism to organize and mobilize people for self-help action in providing the services they require as a farming and rural community. As self-administered rural institutions, co-operatives have the capacity to reflect, and to respond to the needs of their members; and, at the same time, to help foster attitudes of self-reliance and self-confidence within a framework of mutual aspirations and mutual action. In the delivery of services to their farmer-members, they can provide an essential support to the development objectives of both the farmers themselves, and of national development policy. As business organizations, co-operatives also have the capacity to act directly as development agencies. In their steady accumulation of business assets, the expanding range of their services, the acquisition and use of management skills, the employment of staff, they are involved in a positive and measurable development function. Moreover, the flexibility of co-operative organization, for example through the potential of secondary co-operatives, offers opportunities for collective action in the development of agro-industrial enterprise to help support and strengthen local initiatives, and to give a further boost to rural development. Unfortunately, the potential of co-operatives, and the extent of their development, has, in many cases, fallen far short of expectations. The following are some of the reasons given for the failure of co-operatives in achieving the development objectives set for them: Unrealistic objectives: The mistake frequently made is that of assuming once a co-operative appears to be reasonably well established, injection of loan capital from some external source will permit it to rapidly expand its services. Such hasty injection of loan capital can strain management resources,

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Agricultural Marketing Handout encourage unwise risk-taking, weaken financial judgment, lead to overstocked inventories and promote loss-making enterprise. Conflict between economic and social purposes: Economic success is basic to the achievement of co-operative purpose for, in the long run, unprofitable enterprises cannot be sustained. However, co-operatives are constrained in the extent to which they can mimic the objectives and practices of capitalist enterprise without abandoning the fundamental values of the co-operative movement. Misuse of co-operatives to pursue political objectives: Attempts to divert the purpose and resources of co-operatives to the support of particular political objectives adversely affects the co-operative movement. Management: Because of their organization, working condition, and salaries they offer, co-operative do not attract competent managers to run them successfully.

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Agricultural Marketing Handout

III. The Marketing Concept and Marketing Systems

3.1. The marketing concept and marketing systems Marketing is not simply an extension of the production process but its only purpose is as Adam Smith emphasized when, in his text The Wealth of Nations (1776), he said that: Consumption is the sole end purpose of all production: and the interest of the producer ought to be attended to only so far as it may be necessary for promoting that of the consumer. Dixie relates what he describes as a definition of marketing which is: The series of services involved in moving a product (or commodity) from the point of production to the point of consumption. This is a definition which many organizations, and governments, would recognize as describing their own activities in commodity marketing. Indeed in many developing countries it aptly describes, or in some cases, did in the past describe, the functions carried out by marketing parastatals with respect to staple foods. However, as Dixie himself points out, the definition omits two key elements of any definition of marketing to effuse the marketing concept, i.e. a customer orientation and inbuilt sustainability. Gaedeke and Tootelian offer an alternative definition which overcomes the problems caused by these two omissions: a management orientation focusing all the activities of the organization on satisfying customer needs and wants, thereby helping achieve the organization's longrange objectives. This definition promotes a customer orientation and since the organizations long-term objectives will include its own continued existence it takes account of the need for sustainability. Moreover, this definition of the marketing concept does not preclude nonprofit making organizations. Marketing is just as relevant to development projects, aid agencies, extension service organizations, and the like, as it is to commercial enterprises. Thus the marketing concept is that an organization achieves its goals through the provision of customer satisfaction. Put another way, marketing is the integrative force that matches production to customer needs and satisfaction. Marketing is not an activity to which an organization turns its attention at the end of the production phase of operations. Rather marketing needs to be directing production in accordance with clear signals from the marketplace as what is needed by customers. The marketing concept must be adopted throughout not only the entire organization but also the entire marketing system. A system is a complex of interrelated component parts or sub-systems which have a defined common goal. Thus, an agricultural and food marketing system comprises all of the functions, and agencies who perform those activities, that are necessary in order to profitably exploit opportunities in the marketplace. Each of the components, or sub-systems, is independent of one another but a change in any one of them impacts on the others as well as upon the system as a whole. Figure 3.1 Alternative business philosophies By Abdulshkur Nuru 17

Agricultural Marketing Handout

3.2. Marketing Sub-systems Rosson conceives of agricultural and food marketing systems as consisting of 4 main sub-systems; production, distribution, consumption and regulatory. Figure 3.2 the subsystems of a marketing system

The key players in the chain of activities that connect food and agriculture are the farmer, (or other producers such as fishermen), intermediaries, the food processors, and the consumer. In practice they each see the agricultural/food marketing system from a perspective of self-interest and these interests are sometimes in conflict. Illustrative examples of some of the conflicts which typically arise are given in table 3.1.

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Table3.1 Conflict of interest in agricultural/food marketing systems

Key Players Farmers Manufacturers Traders and retailers Consumers

Interests Maximum price, unlimited quantities Low purchase price, high quality Low purchase price, high quality Low purchase price, high quality

The farmer's interest is focused on getting the best return from his produce, which usually equates to maximum price for unlimited quantities. Manufacturers want least cost, best quality produce from the farmer so that they can sell it at competitive, but profitable, prices. Traders and retailers want high quality and reliable supplies from the manufacturer or farmer, at the most competitive prices. Consumers are interested in obtaining high quality products at low prices. Clearly, there are conflicting interests here. In an ideal world there should be some form of strategic partnership between these key players. It is obvious that, in the long run, any one of the four groups would find it difficult to survive if the others do not. However, in real life, attitudes are not those of the ideal world or of the longer term. It is focused more on the shorter term and in preserving the interests of each group. Only by allowing each group to take care of its interests, can a balanced longer term relationship evolve. This must be borne in mind when considering what the food industry expects from agriculture. Moreover, those expectations will vary according to the level of sophistication of the markets the food industry itself is attempting to serve. 3.3. Marketing functions A little earlier it was said that a marketing system has two distinct dimensions. One of those dimensions is the institutions, organizations and enterprises which participate in a market and the second is the functions that those participants perform. Kohls and Uhl have classified the functions involved in agricultural and food marketing processes as under three sets of functions of a marketing system
A. Exchange Functions 1. Buying 2. Selling 3. Storage B. Physical Functions 4. Transportation 5. Processing 6. Standardization C. Facilitating Functions 7. Financing 8. Risk Bearing 9. Market Intelligence

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Agricultural Marketing Handout Each of these functions adds value to the product and they require inputs, so they incur costs. As long as the value added to the product is positive, most firms or entrepreneurs will find it profitable to compete to supply the service. A. Exchange functions: the exchange functions are those activities involved in the transfer of title to goods. They represent the point at which the issue of price determination becomes very important. These functions are never performed in our economy with out a judgment of the value, usually expressed at least partially as a price, being placed on the goods. Both the buying and selling functions have as their primary objective the negotiation of favorable terms of exchange

i.

ii.

Buying: the buying function is largely one of seeking out the sources of supply, assembling the products, and performing the activities associated with purchase. This function can involve either the assembling of the raw products from the production areas or the assembling of finished product into the hands of other middlemen in order to meet the demands of the ultimate consumer. These procurement activities can be just as important to the profits and success of a farm or food marketing firm as sales activities. Selling: the selling function must be broadly interpreted. It is more than merely passively accepting the price offered. In this function can be grouped all the various activities that sometimes are called merchandising. Most of the physical arrangements of display of goods are grouped here. Advertising and other promotional devices to influence or create demands are also part of the selling function. The decision as to the proper unit of sale, the proper packages, the best marketing channel, and the proper time and place to approach potential buyers are all decisions that can be included in the selling function.

B. Physical functions: the physical functions are those activities that involve handling, movement and physical change of the actual commodity itself. They help solve the problems of when, what, and where in marketing. i. Storage: the storage function is primarily concerned with making goods available at the desired time. It could be a farmer storing grain. It may be the activities of elevators in holding large quantities of raw materials until they are needed for further processing. It may be the holding of supplies of finished goods as the inventories of processors, wholesalers, and retailers. Transportation: the transportation function is primarily concerned with making goods available at the proper place. Adequate performance of this function requires weighing alternative routes and types of transportation as they might affect transportation costs. It also includes the activities involved in preparation for shipment, such as crating and loading. Processing: the processing function is sometimes not included in a list of marketing functions because it is essentially a form-changing activity.

ii.

iii.

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Agricultural Marketing Handout However, in the broad view of agricultural marketing the activity cannot be omitted. The processing function would include all those essentially manufacturing activities that change the basic form f the product, such as converting live animals into meat, fresh peas into canned or frozen peas, or wheat into flour and finally into bread. C. Facilitating functions: The facilitating functions are those that make possible the smooth performance of the exchange and physical functions. These activities are not directly involved in either the exchange of title or the physical handling of products. However, without them the modern marketing system would not be possible. They might aptly be called the grease that makes the wheels of the marketing machine go round. i. Standardization: the standardization function is the establishment and maintenance of uniform measurements. These may be measurements of both quality and quantity. This function simplifies buying and selling, because it makes the sale by sample and description possible. It, therefore, is one of the activities that make possible mass selling, which is so important to a modern economy. Effective standardization is basic to an efficient pricing process. A consumer-directed system assumes that the consumers will make their wants known to producers through price differentials. These differentials must then be passed back through the marketing channel so that marketing agencies and producers can know what is wanted. Only if a commodity is traded in welldefined units of quality and quantity can a price quotation do this job effectively. Standardization also simplifies the concentration process, because it permits the grouping of similar lots of commodities early in movement from the producing points. After their establishment, the use of standards must be policed. Such activities as quality control in processing plants and inspections to maintain the standards in the marketing channel can be considered part of this function. ii. Financing: the financing function involves the use of money to carry on the various aspects of marketing. To the extent that there is a delay between the times of the first sale of raw products and the sale of finished goods to the ultimate consumer, capital is tied up in the operation. Anywhere that storage or delay takes place; someone must finance the holding of goods. The period may be for one year or more, as in the operations of the canning industries, or a relatively short time, as in the marketing of perishables. Financing may take the easily recognizable form of credit from various lending agencies or the more subtle form of tying up the owners capital resources. In either instance, it is a necessary activity in modern marketing. iii. Risk taking: the risk bearing function is the accepting of the possibility of loss in the marketing of a product. Economic risks can be classified into two broad classifications- physical risks and market risks. The physical risks are those that occur from destruction or deterioration of the product itself by fire, accident, wind, earthquakes, or other means. Market risks are those that occur because o changes in value of a product as it is marketed. An unfavorable movement in prices might result in high inventory losses. A change in consumer taste might reduce the desirability and price of the product. A new

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Agricultural Marketing Handout marketing strategy of competitors might result in a loss of customers for other firms. All these risks in varying degrees must be considered in the marketing of a product. Risk bearing may take a more conventional form, such as the use of insurance companies in the case of physical risks or the utilization of futures exchanges in the case of price risks. Or, the entrepreneur may bear the risk without the aid of any of these specialized agencies. The function of risk bearing is often confused with the function of finance. Their differences can be kept clear, however, if it is remembered that the need for financing arises because of the time lag between the purchase and sale of products, whereas the need for risk bearing arises because of the possibility of loss during the holding period. Market intelligence: the market intelligence function is the job of collecting, interpreting, and disseminating the large variety of data necessary to the operation of the marketing process. Efficient marketing cannot operate in an information vacuum. An effective pricing mechanism is dependent on wellinformed buyers and sellers. Successful decisions on how much to pay for commodities or what kind of pricing policy to use in their sale require that a large amount of market knowledge be assembled for study. Profitable storage programs, an efficient transportation service, and an adequate standardization program all depend to a considerable extent on good information. As with other functions, this function may be performed by those who specialize in its performance. On the other hand every one in the marketing structure who buys and sells products evaluates available market data and therefore performs this function to some degree.

iv.

3.4. Agricultural Marketing Middlemen Middlemen are those individuals or business concerns who specialize in performing the various marketing functions involved in the purchase and sale of goods as they are moved from producers to consumers. Agricultural and food marketing middle men are classified as follows: A. Merchant middlemen: these middlemen take title to, and therefore own, the products they handle. They buy and sell for their own gain. And they include retailers and Wholesalers. Retailers purchase and merchandise agricultural and food products for final consumers. Their task is to provide a wide variety of products at a single location, making it convenient for consumers to assemble a desired market basket of goods. These may include supermarkets, restaurants, convenience food store, specialty meat and fruit and vegetable sores, dairies, or bakeries. Wholesalers sell to retailers, other wholesalers, and industrial users, but do not sell in significant amounts to final consumers. Wholesalers make up a highly heterogeneous group of firms with varying sizes and characteristics. One common group of wholesalers is the buyers or country assemblers who buy goods in the producing area directly from farmers and ship the products o the larger cities where they are sold to other wholesalers and processors. In this group are such agencies as grain elevators and local livestock buyers. Another group of wholesalers is

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Agricultural Marketing Handout located in the large urban centers. These may be full-line wholesalers who handle may different products or those who specialize in handling a limited number of products. They may be cash-and-carry wholesalers or service wholesalers who will extent credit and offer delivery and other services. Such terms as jobbers and car-lot receivers are often used synonymously with wholesalers. B. Agent middlemen: these middlemen act only as representatives of their clients. They do not take title to, and therefore do not own, the products they handle. Whereas merchant wholesalers and retailers receive their incomes from a margin between the buying and the selling prices, agent middlemen receive their incomes in the form of fees and commissions. Agent middlemen provide services to buyers and sellers. In many instances, the principal service of the agent middleman is market knowledge and the know-how necessary to bring the buyer and seller together. Their services are often retained by buyers or sellers of goods who feel that they do not have the knowledge or power to bargain effectively for them selves. Agent middlemen can be divided into two major groups, commission men and brokers. Commission men are usually granted broad powers by those who consign goods to them. They normally take over the physical handling of the product, arrange for the terms of sale, collect, deduct their fee, and remit the balance to the seller. Brokers, on the other hand, usually do not have physical control or ownership of the product. They follow the directions of buyers and sellers and have less influence in price negotiations than commission men. Livestock commission firms and grain brokers are good examples of these two classifications of food industry agent middlemen. C. Speculative middlemen: these are those who buy and sell products with the major purpose of profiting from price movements. All merchant middlemen, of course, speculate in the sense that they must face uncertain conditions, usually, however, wholesalers and retailers attempt to secure their incomes through handling and merchandising their products and holding risks to a minimum. Speculative middlemen, on the other hand, seek out and specialize in taking these risks and usually do a minimum of handling and merchandising. Several names are given to these middlemen, such as traders, scalpers, and spreaders. They often attempt to earn their profit from short-run fluctuations in prices. For example, the grain scalper may buy and sell grain futures several times within a trading day, hoping to profit from small price moves. D. Food processors and manufacturers: they are among the best known food marketing firms. They specialize in adding time, form, place, and possession utility to raw farm products. For example, they convert wheat into flour and bread. They combine food ingredients to make complete frozen dinners. They process livestock into the meat products that consumers desire. Food processors perform a number of marketing functions. They are important buyers of farmers products and most also

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Agricultural Marketing Handout wholesale their finished products to food retailers. Their packaging, branding, and promotional activities may be viewed as a form of market information as well as important influences on consumers choices. E. Facilitative organization: they aid the various middlemen in performing their tasks. Such organizations do not, as a general rule, directly participate in the marketing processes either as merchants, agents, processors, or speculators. They may furnish the physical facilities for the handling of food products or for the bringing of buyers and sellers together. They establish the rules of the game that must be followed by the trading middlemen, such as hours of trading and terms of sale. They may also aid in grading and in arranging and transmitting payment. They receive their incomes from fees and assessments from those who use their facilities. Examples of this group are the stockyard companies, grain exchanges, and fruit auctions. Trade associations are another such group. The primary purpose of a large majority of these organizations is to gather, evaluate and disseminate information of value to a particular group or trade. They also may act as unofficial policemen in preventing practices that might be considered unfair or unethical.

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Agricultural Marketing Handout

IV. Commodity Marketing

The term commodity is commonly used in reference to basic agricultural products that are either in their original form or have undergone only primary processing. Examples include cereals, coffee beans, sugar, palm oil, eggs, milk, fruits, vegetables, beef, cotton and rubber. A related characteristic is that the production methods, post harvest treatments and/or primary processing to which they have been subjected, have not imparted any distinguishing characteristics or attributes. Agricultural commodities are generic, undifferentiated products that, since they have no other distinguishing and marketable characteristics, compete with one another on the basis of price. Commodities contrast sharply with those products which have been given a trademark or branded in order to communicate their marketable differences. This chapter is largely descriptive and is intended to merely give an overview of commodity marketing. Five categories of commodity are discussed in this chapter: grains, livestock and meat, poultry and eggs and fresh milk. 4.1. Stages in a commodity marketing system A commodity marketing system encompasses: All the participants in the production, processing and marketing of an undifferentiated or unbranded farm product (such as cereals) including farm input suppliers, farmers, storage operators, processors, wholesalers and retailers involved in the flow of the commodity from initial inputs to the final consumer. All the institutions and arrangements that effect and coordinate the successive stages of a commodity flow such as the government and its parastatals, trade associations, cooperatives, financial partners, transport groups and educational organizations related to the commodity. The major linkages that hold the system together such as transportation, contractual coordination, vertical integration, joint ventures, tripartite marketing arrangements, and financial arrangements. The marketing systems differ widely according to the commodity, the systems of production, the culture and traditions of the producers and the level of development of both the particular country and the particular sector within that country. This being the case, the overview of the structure of the selected major commodities marketed, which follows, is both broad and general. The major commodities whose marketing systems will be discussed in this chapter are: large grains, livestock and meat, poultry and eggs, and milk. Table 4.1 below identifies the main stages of agricultural marketing and this provides a loose framework around which to structure the discussion of the marketing of these commodities.

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Agricultural Marketing Handout Stage Stage 1: Assembly Examples Commodity buyers specializing in specific agricultural products, such commodities as grain, cattle, beef, palm oil, cotton, poultry and eggs, milk

Independent truckers, trucking companies, railroads, Stage 2: Transportation airlines etc. Stage 3: Storage Stage 4: Grading and classification Stage 5: Processing Stage 6: Packaging Stage 7: Distribution and retailing Grain elevators, public refrigerated warehouses, controlled-atmosphere warehouses, heated warehouses, freezer warehouses Commodity merchants or government grading officials Food and fiber processing plants such as flour mills, oil mills, rice mills, cotton mills, wool mills, and fruit and vegetable canning or freezing plants Makers of tin cans, cardboard boxes, film bags, and bottles for food packaging or fiber products for Independent wholesalers marketing products for various processing plants to retailers (chain retail stores sometimes have their own separate warehouse distribution centers)

Table 4.1 Stages of agricultural marketing

4.2. Grain marketing

Grain is a common name for the fruit of certain cereals of the grass family. The seed like fruits are major sources of carbohydrates in human diets worldwide. Leading grains include barley, corn, oats, rice, rye, and wheat. Other grains are millet, sorghum, wild rice, and triticale (the first cereal produced scientifically by combining wheat and rye). A number of non grass plants are often called grains, such as buckwheat, flax, and the soybean, a legume. Grain marketing systems The principal participants in grain marketing systems are producers, marketing boards, grain elevators, brokers, millers, livestock farmers, animal feed processors, millers, other food manufacturers, grain exchanges and exporters.

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Figure 4.1- a typical grain marketing system

Important grain marketing functions The most important marketing functions performed by a grain marketing system include grain storage, grain grading, and grain processing. Grain storage Whether storage takes place on the farm or in silos off the farm, increases in the value of products due to their time utility must be sufficient to compensate for costs at this stage, or else storage will not be profitable. Storage costs include: Heating, lighting, and chemical treatments costs Store management and labor Capital investment in storage and handling equipment Interest charges and opportunity costs relating to the capital tied up in stocks The risks attached to storage like fall in demand, shrinkage due to pilferage, pests, fungal growths, and loss of quality due to ageing.

There are two types of grain storage facility, namely: the bulk storage facility and the bag system. Bulk Storage Cereals are stored in concrete and/or metal bins. The advantage of a bulk over a bag storage system is that it is more efficient because it: reduces congestion at the depots by not allowing for bagged maize to be dumped all over the depot yard reduces handling costs saves foreign exchange on bags, tarpaulin and fumigation, and Lowers storage losses.

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Agricultural Marketing Handout Its disadvantages are: the initial invest is high, with a significant foreign currency component it is inflexible in terms of not being easily expandable to cope with changes in intake and off-take levels it relies heavily on an efficient transport system because a silo complex is only economically viable when throughput is at least 1.6 times its capacity, and It needs skilled manpower to run and maintain the entire system. Bag Storage The crop is stored either inside a warehouse or in the open and then covered by tarpaulin sheets. It overcomes all the disadvantages of a bulk storage facility that are listed above. Its main disadvantages are: higher quality losses in storage due to insect pests and rodents higher demand for foreign exchange associated with the purchase of bags Tarpaulin and fumigation sheets. The depot manager controls the day-to-day operations of the depot. The duties of the depot manager include accepting, checking the quality, recording the quantity and storing the produce brought in by the farmers. Each depot's record of accepted and stored produce is then sent to headquarters for necessary action. With this information in hand, inter-depot or inter-district transfers can be made.
Grading of grains

It is important to have a grading system which accurately describes products in a uniform and meaningful manner. Since the value of a commodity is directly, affected by its grade, disputes can and do arise. The government may establish grading services to serve as a disinterested third party. Grading typically occurs at the assembly stage or when a product moves into storage, during storage, or just before it leaves storage. Grading is not normally a separate marketing stage, although it has been separately identified in table 4.1 in this chapter. It is a function provided by the storage firm or the commodity merchant or the government. Prescribed procedures for grading are set forth by the trade members of commodity markets or else are stated in governments regulations. Grading may be undertaken by a member of the trade specializing in a particular commodity. Several lots of grain, oilseeds, and cotton are combined to produce a grade level required for a particular sale. This gives rise to what are known as house grades. A merchant's primary marketing advantage may be a reputation for house grades of consistent quality. Usually samples of different sizes (depending on the size of the load) are taken from each lot delivered to the depot of the buyer and these are tested for compliance with the acceptance standards. The results determine the grade into which the whole lot from which the sample came is classified to determine the price to be paid to the grower.

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Agricultural Marketing Handout Typical variables used in grading grain include: the moisture content of the grain the percentage of broken kernels degree of discoloration in the grain the percentage of material other than grain (MOG) in a sack or load Example: In Sub-Saharan Africa maize is received in 4 grades, A to D, with A being the highest grade and D the lowest. The system allows for the farmer to dispute the grade awarded to his crop. In such cases, the farmer has to submit a written request within a specific time to the depot through which his crop was delivered. Typically, after grading is effected, the farmer is issued with a receipt showing details of the type, quantity and grade of the maize delivered. The receipt constitutes an acknowledgment by the agency that it is indebted to the farmer up to the value of the crop detailed on it. From that point on, the marketing risk attached to the crop passes from the producer to the agency/parastatal. Grain processing Grain processing is about the most important activity from the final consumer's stand point. Grain, for human consumption, is usually milled into flour or meal. Usually two types of grain flour are processed in each country, namely: The refined, white and sifted (powdery) flour produced by industrial roller mills The unrefined and colored grain flour produced by hammer-mills The highly refined grade of meal is generally consumed by urban dwellers, while the hammer-mill grain meal is a low-grade whole maize meal favored by rural consumers and the urban poor. In many countries, the milling industry is highly concentrated, usually with one major company controlling over eighty percent of the grain mill trade. For example, in Kenya, grain milling is controlled by the Mercat Group of Companies (Unga Ltd, etc) (90 percent); while in Malawi, it is GRAMIL, a subsidiary of ARMARC which processes eighty three percent of the grain in that country. In Tanzania, the National Milling Corporation, (NMC) handled about eighty five percent of all grain milled before it fell into financial difficulties in the early 1990s and was allowed to go out of business; in Zimbabwe it is the National Foods which controls eighty percent of grain milling in the country until progressive liberalization of the market increased the level of competition during the first five years of the 1990s. Grains can also undergo secondary processing and be converted into more sophisticated products such as baked foods, breakfast cereals, baby foods, cooking oils, starches, sugars etc. A considerable amount of grain is also converted to animal feed. Due to this versatility in end use, the marketing chain for grains tends to be long and complex.

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Agricultural Marketing Handout

Challenges for grain marketing systems

The following are some of the challenges faced by grain marketing systems in LDCs: Depot network and distribution of production problems arise because crop production is rarely evenly distributed across a country. Excess stock problems tend to develop because of relatively high producer prices which the governments of the countries concerned establish in order to compensate farmers whose cost for production are high. Fluctuating grain supply problem results from the crop's susceptibility to weather conditions; which determines the level of harvest and, therefore, the export market supply. A low level of intra-regional trade between developing countries is explained by subsidies paid to producers. This masks any competitive advantage in grain production that growers in one country may have over those in neighboring countries.

4.3. Livestock and meat marketing

Animal Husbandry (Livestock Raising) is the act of breeding, feeding, and management of animals, or livestock, for the production of food, fiber, work, and pleasure. Modern methods concentrate on one type of animal in large, efficient farming units that generate animal products at the highest rate of return for investment. Intensive husbandry conditions include: Large numbers of animals in small lots Enriched feed Growth stimulation by various means, and Vaccination against disease. Most of the worlds domestic animals, however, are raised in small units under less efficient conditions and at lower rates of return.

Figure 4.2 the economic importance of animal by-products

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In this section the livestock under discussion are cattle, pigs, sheep and goats. Poultry is treated separately because the structure of this sub-sector, the scale of operation and methods of production are distinctly different from larger farm animals. Producer attempts to adjust livestock production in keeping with demand often result in adverse market effects. The problem for livestock farmers is the inevitable lags, between changes in demand and adjustments to supply. The links between livestock and grains, with reference to both production and marketing, are close and direct. Some writers observe that: Livestock are protein converters, transforming vegetable protein into animal protein. These protein factories are a form of food processing. Moreover, livestock feeding can be viewed as an alternative way for the grain farmer to market grain. Thus, relative prices between grains for human consumption and that of animal feeds will have a direct bearing upon one another. Moreover, the price of grains converted to feed will influence the costs of meat production and, therefore, the price of meat. These interrelationships are as important to government policy makers as they are to the participants in the livestock and meat marketing systems. The complexity of livestock marketing systems varies greatly. In the most sophisticated systems their is a high degree of specialization in the production and marketing of livestock and meat as there is, for example, in the case of beef consumed in Japan (see Figure 4.3).

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Figure 4.3 the high degree of specialization in Japanese cattle and beef marketing system

The various operations involved in livestock production and marketing could be performed by one farm and in many countries mixed farming, i.e. grain-livestock, is common place. Alternatively, breeding, fattening, slaughtering and packing can be undertaken by specialized farms and other forms of agribusiness. Specialization in production and marketing helps: In achieving economies of scale, Increases the return-on-investment, and Allows the enterprise to become highly experienced in a narrow range of activities In a specialized marketing system: The consumer is supplied with high quality products at affordable prices. It is characterized by longer channels and a high degree of complexity. There has to be good communications and a steady flow of relevant information between market participants if they are to operate effectively as a system.

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Agricultural Marketing Handout In countries where the communications infrastructure is poor or marketing information systems have not been put in place it would be difficult for the system to become highly specialized. In contrast to the highly specialized and complex livestock and meat marketing systems to be found in countries like Japan, there are much simpler, shorter and less sophisticated channels such as that of Indonesia's marketing system for small ruminants.

Figure 4.4 Indonesia's marketing system for small ruminants

The Indonesian livestock and meat marketing systems is simpler because some of the production and marketing functions are combined and carried out by fewer enterprises and some are not carried out at all. For instance, there is no formal animal feed sector at the production end and the slaughtering, cutting and boning is often done by the consumer. Put another way, the production and marketing system is shorter, and simpler, because it offers fewer services to both producers and consumers. As disposable incomes increase, in developing countries, meat consumption tends to increase too and the demand for additional services gains in strength. According to some writers, this is precisely the pattern which is emerging in Indonesia. Assembly of livestock and meat Depending upon complexity of the particular marketing system, cattle are assembled to serve one of the following purposes: For slaughter, For fattening, or For breeding herds There are various types of livestock assemblers and assembling institutions; some of which are shown on table 4.2.

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Agricultural Marketing Handout

The level of farmer-to-farmer trade can be substantial. Where there is a degree of specialization within the livestock and meat marketing system, for example when some farmers concentrate on breeding or fattening, amount of farmer-to-farmer trade can be very high. Usually these are independent entrepreneurs. As described in the reference to Indonesia's small ruminant marketing system, these may have established business premises or simply travel around a defined geographical territory buying from farmers and selling on to fatteners, auctions, order buyers, abattoirs or terminal markets. Function largely as shipping agencies, collecting small lots from producers and shipping them forward in economic sized batches to terminal markets. Some have diversified and offer a broader range of services and often merchandise their livestock direct to packers and other buyers. Purchase fattened stock on behalf of abattoirs and meat processors, from farmers, local traders, auctions and terminal markets, in return for a fee. Do not take legal title to the livestock but obtain a commission when they make a sale. Public auctions offer livestock or deadweight meat for sale to the highest bidder. Auctions are almost exclusively attended by the trade and not the general public. In some countries there may be various types of auctions operating. Some auctions serve breeders and those wishing to procure animals for fattening. Other auctions are attended by retail butchers, meat packers, traders etc. Large central markets which both the trade and the public may patronize. The municipal authority or private organization providing the facilities of the market does not engage in trade but profits from charging fees for the use of these facilities. Farmers, and others, may trade on their own account in these markets or may appoint commissioning agents. Some packing plants are located near terminal or auction markets and have their own cattle buyers. These have combined the assembly and processing functions.
Table 4.2- types of livestock assemblers and assembling institutions

Farmers

Rural traders

Local cooperatives

Order buyers Commissioning agents

Auctions

Terminal public markets

Meat packers

The grading of livestock and carcasses In grading carcasses, there are three dimensions: The differing values attached to cuts of meat The quality of those cuts The carcass yield The first of these classes of criteria is, in some measure, objective. Depending upon the country and the culture, different parts of the animal are more favored than others, or are in shorter supply, and therefore attract higher prices. The measures of meat quality, and even yield, are rather more subjective. With respect to the second dimension of meat value, i.e., the quality of the meat, the European Union's carcass classification system illustrates the point.

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Agricultural Marketing Handout The system uses two factors: The shape of the carcass, known as conformation The amount of fat in the carcass Conformation influences the meat yielded by a carcass and the trend in Europe is towards reducing the amount of fat in human diets. Therefore, the classification systems for meats rate low fat carcasses higher than those with greater amounts of fat. The European system recognizes seven categories of fatness (categories 4 and 5 being subdivided into higher and lower), and eight categories of conformation. The leanest carcasses would be in category 1 and the best conformation class is E.

Figure 4.5 Beef carcass classification in the European Union

The idea of the EEC's carcass classification system is that it enables the marketplace to send clear signals to producers with respect to the type of carcasses the market wants. Figure 6.6 shows how conformation and fatness combine to influence the amount of salable meat in a carcass, in percentage terms. The data was compiled by the UK's Meat and Livestock Commission (MLC) using standard methods of butchering and trimming. For simplicity, data is given here for only conformation class R and fat class 4L.

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Figure 4.6 the EU's carcass classification system: conformation, fatness and percentage yield of salable meat

The MLC have also provided illustrative data to show the price differentials, expressed as percentages that are paid to producers supplying various grades of carcass.

Figure 4.7 the EU's carcass classification system: conformation, fatness and percentage price differentials

The figures show that in these markets, fatness has a greater influence on price than conformation. Nevertheless, livestock and meat grades and their usage by the trade are often cited as a major problem for developing countries who find it difficult to meet the specifications. Meat packers purchase most of their livestock on a live weight basis. This requires buyers to estimate the carcass yield and quality of live animals in order to arrive at an offer price. Buying is an art rather than a science, and there can be significant variations in buyer and

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Agricultural Marketing Handout seller estimates of the value of a particular animal. This is a frequent source of conflict in the livestock marketing channel. Moreover, the fact that reliable judgments of livestock can only be acquired over a period of years, can act as a barrier to competition since the inexperienced are effectively barred from entry to the distribution channel. Livestock and meat processing In contrast with all other sectors of the food industry, the meat packing industry is a process of disassembling. While other food manufacturers combine simple raw materials into a complex and composite product, meat packers breakdown a complex raw product (livestock) into its constituent parts. This reverse manufacturing process nevertheless adds form utility to livestock products. An animal carcass is in reality a bundle of products, each with different markets, demands and values. On average somewhere between fifty five to sixty two percent of a beef animal's live weight is recovered as meat products. For a pig's carcass the figures are seventy to seventy five percent. The carcass yields other by-products of course such as hides, pelts, lard, offal, fertilizers and industrial products. In some tropical countries slaughtering facilities are closely supervised by government appointed inspectors. This is not so much a system of quality control as a measure to ensure that only disease-free animals are introduced into the human food system. Livestock and meat consumption Meats are a versatile food representing a variety of consumer attributes. Meats can be purchased ready to eat, ready to cook or in forms requiring substantial preparation. Most meat is sold fresh, in LDCs, but increasingly such processed items as canned meats are becoming available and these are giving the consumer additional choice. Food processors can combine meats with other foods to add further to consumer choice. The income elasticity of demand for beef in particular, and other meats in general, tends to be strongly positive in LDCs. As per capita incomes rise in developing countries, the demand for the principal livestock products meat, milk and eggs also rises. In addition to rising incomes, the rate of urbanization is a fundamental influence upon the demand for livestock food products. An example, again supplied by Abbott, is that of Dar Es Salaam where urban expansion of eight percent doubled meat demand within nine years. However there are constraints to the development of livestock industries in developing countries in the form of traditional techniques of food preparation and shopping behavior. In many cultures it is customary to cook meat for a very long time, especially if the favored dishes are curries and stews and in these circumstances little interest is shown in paying premium prices for more expensive cuts of meat. Religious factors may also have some bearing on purchasing behavior. Muslim countries importing from non-Muslim countries frequently prefer to receive supplies on-the-hoof to ensure that Halal methods are employed in the slaughtering methods. Demand for meat tends to be highly seasonal in tropical countries. It is greatly affected by religious By Abdulshkur Nuru 37

Agricultural Marketing Handout festivals like Ramadan, the feast of the ld (Moslem festival) and by the sale of cash crops in places like Ethiopia and Nigeria where demand rises significantly following the coffee and groundnut harvests. Poultry and eggs marketing Poultry farmers have three distinct types of bird from which to select their flocks: In addition to pure chicken breeds, specialized breeders sell chickens which are first crosses and multiple crosses The latter are known as hybrids. These gain weight more quickly and lay more eggs than pure breeds and are therefore generally used by poultry producers. They are only suitable for commercial food production, having an excellent food/meat conversion ratio. Mature females should weigh in excess of 2.75 kg. Young broilers mature rapidly and are ready for market at 12 weeks of age. These give good carcasses when slaughtered but only moderate egg production. A mature female can be expected to weigh around 2.25 kg. This type of bird has the advantage of rarely exhibiting cannibalism and is hardy against disease. However, they do tend to go broody and egg production, consequently, can fall off. Dual purpose birds are often recommended for farmers new to poultry keeping. Their lower yields, both in meat and eggs, is offset by their hardiness in relation to disease resistance and poor weather.

Hybrid broilers

Dual purpose birds

These are bred for egg production. Lightweights have excellent food conversion rates and rarely go broody. However, they do need good management and, therefore, Lightweight birds are only recommended to experienced poultry keepers. They are a nervous bird and inclined towards cannibalism. A mature female is likely to weigh less 2.25 kg.

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Agricultural Marketing Handout Poultry enterprises pass through distinct stages of development. These are outlined in the following figure.
Item 1st Stage Backyard poultry 2nd Stage Farm flock 3rd Stage Commercial poultry farm 4th Stage Specialized egg production 5th Stage Integrated egg production

Day-old chick pullet growing feed production, Subdivision of mixing culled egg production hens egg and manure integrated on farms Main Natural management hatching characteristics Type of farming Labor Subsistence farming Part-time

Hatchery production separate from farming

Chicken meat production Feed becomes production independent of separate from poultry poultry farms production in the form of the broiler industry Egg processing plant

Separate enterprises reintegrated as a business

Artificial hatching and sexing Mixed farming Part-time

Feed mixing

Controlled environment houses Egg complex Separate daily work and random work

Joint egg and Eggs industry meat (single production commodity) Full-time Division of management of labor

Building

Free range

Water feeder

Egg belt Manure disposal automatically Water feeder equipment controlled house

Table 4.3 Development stages of poultry enterprises

Assembly of poultry and eggs It is the case, in most developing countries, that the poultry and egg sector is highly fragmented. Production is, for the most part, carried out by a large number of farmers, each with a very small flock. A minority of farmers have sizeable flocks. Much of the production is sold on markets in the immediate vicinity of the farm. Egg grading The principal external features of an egg, which collectively determine its quality, are: Shell texture, Color, Shape, and Condition In some countries standards have been established for each of these external physical features for an egg.

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Agricultural Marketing Handout The internal condition of the egg is also of interest when assigning a grade to eggs. These include: The position of the yolk within the shell and its color The extent of blood spots, if any, and The translucence and firmness of the albumen (white) The size of the air cell inside the shell The internal condition of an egg can be established using destructive or non-destructive tests. The most accurate interior test is to break the egg open on to a glass so that the contents can be inspected. This of course would be done on a sampling basis. Alternatively the non-destructive test of candling can be applied. This simply involves holding the egg before a strong lamp so that the position of the yolk, size of the air cell etc can be seen. By spinning the egg, in the hand, the solidity of the albumen can also be observed. The following table illustrates the kind of quality specifications which might be established: The shell must be clean, unbroken and practically normal in shape and texture. The air cell must not exceed 9.5 mm in depth and may First grade move freely but not be broken or bubbly. The yolk may appear offcentre but only slightly enlarged, and may show only slight embryonic development. No foreign objects may be present. Second grade The shell must be unbroken but may be somewhat abnormal in shape and texture. Only slight stains and marks are permitted. The yolk may appear dark and enlarged and may show embryonic development but not at the blood vessel stage or beyond. Blood spots less than 6 mm are permitted. Other edible eggs, that is, those not rotted, sour, moldy or musty; not incubated to the blood vessel stage, not containing insects, worms or blood spots 6 mm in diameter, or diffused blood.
Table 4.4 egg quality specifications

Third grade

Poultry grading Attributes considered when grading the bird include: Weight, which varies by breed, sex, age, and feeding regime The eating quality of poultry meat including tenderness, juiciness and flavor Skin color with differing preference to white or yellow carcass around the world The quality of poultry meat is greatly affected by methods of production. The nature of the feed used has a major influence on the final product. Overcrowding and a lack of veterinary care slows the rate of growth of the birds and increases the incidence of disease and infestation by parasites which, in turn, adversely affect the quality of dressed poultry

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Agricultural Marketing Handout In the industrialized countries detailed standards and grades for dressed birds (i.e. feathers and blood removed) have been established. These grading systems take account of conformation of the carcass, the presence of pinfeathers, skin condition, integrity of bones, and carcass color/discoloration. However, in most developing countries grading is more informal, less systematic and more subjective. Possibly the two most important quality criteria, in the tropics, are age and sex. Younger birds, although lighter, generally enjoy a price premium over older poultry. In the same way, female birds are more highly valued than male birds of the same age. These criteria apart, market intermediaries usually catch a sample of the birds on offer and feel the breast flesh through the feathers and make a professional judgment as to the consumer appeal of the bird. Poultry and eggs consumption In the industrialized world poultry, and to a slightly lesser extent eggs, is less of a commodity than they were at one time. Originally these products exhibited a high degree of homogeneity but producers have since differentiated both of them. This is done through: Manipulating the feed given to poultry and altering the test characteristics and the appearance of the birds Offering different cuts of birds Pre-cooking Coating in bread and in a variety of herbs With product differentiation producers and food manufacturers have taken the opportunity to brand their poultry and poultry products. The differentiation of eggs has chiefly centered on boxing the eggs and branding them. Some producers, and more particularly food companies, operating in developing countries, have followed suit and have differentiated their poultry products. Eggs, however, continue to be marketed as an undifferentiated commodity. 4.5. The marketing of fresh milk Whilst milk can be converted to a range of dairy products, such as cheese, butter, yogurt, dried powders etc., these are not commodities. It is generally the case that the processing of milk into these products involves a measure of product differentiation. That is, the methods, techniques and technologies, used in manufacturing dairy produce, tend to impart unique characteristics to the finished product. For this reason only milk will be discussed in this chapter. Milk is an extremely important human food. Not only is it a relatively cheap source of protein, it is also rich in minerals such as calcium and vitamins A, D and B2. The quality of milk is usually judged according to its butterfat content. In addition, buyers are also concerned that it should be free from diseases like tuberculosis. The relationship between beef and dairy production is an important one. In many countries, beef production is subsidiary to dairy production with sometimes as much as sixty to seventy percent of cattle sold for beef being animals culled from the dairy herd.

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Agricultural Marketing Handout This can have a significant influence on the characteristics and quality of red meat products since breeds and production methods which give the best milk yields rarely give corresponding results in terms of beef production; or vice versa. Whether it is dairy production which influences beef production, or the reverse, the important point is that the products of one will be determined, to some extent, both in form and quality, by what happens in the other sector; product development and technological change in one will have implications for the other. In all parts of the world, milk production is seasonal but the peaks and troughs are higher in the tropics. Production in the tropics peaks just after the rains when there is lush pasture available and progressively declines the further into the dry season. As in the case of beef production, milk producers have to take into account the lengthy biological lags when trying to match the supply and to the demand for liquid milk. When there is an over-supply of milk then it might be possible to channel some of the excess into making butter, cheese, yogurts and other processed dairy produce. However, the market for these products is finite too and although dairy products can be stored longer, higher levels of capital are tied up and interest charges are higher for storing these value added products, in comparison to milk. Assembly of fresh milk In the case of fresh milk, the assembly level resembles that of poultry. Milk goes directly from dairy farms to the processing plant. Bulk tanker trucks, visit farms on a regular schedule and collect the milk. It is then moved to a processing plant. Hauling may be done either by the dairy company's own vehicles or by independent truckers under contract to the processor or the dairy farmer. The collection of milk is most often undertaken either by a marketing board or a cooperative. In the case of marketing boards many of these are now being turned from loss making parastatals into commercial enterprises under economic structural adjustment programs (ESAP). In the foreseeable future some of these boards will be privatized either in whole or in part. The transportation of fresh milk Whilst the tankers which carry the chilled milk from the farm to the factory are becoming ever larger, the major constraint remains that of the inadequate road infrastructure. During the wet season, many roads become impassable and the milk simply is not collected. Whereas the trucks used to transport other agricultural commodities can be used to move a variety of different types of product, milk tankers cannot. This affects the economics of milk transportation. A hauler moving grain in one direction can often get a return load since the type of truck used can carry any kind of aggregate; be it an agricultural commodity or some other load such as backfill for road building. Milk tankers, by contrast, travel empty in one direction and full on the return journey.

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Agricultural Marketing Handout Fresh milk grading Fluid milk is usually separated into at least two grades. For the purposes of this discussion these will be referred to as grades A and B. Grade A would be passed as fit for human consumption. Grade B would be passed only for use in processed dairy products. Grade B milk is processed at much higher temperatures than fluid milk passes through when being pasteurized and this is why it can be approved for human consumption, albeit if only in the form of processed dairy products. In general fluid milk attracts higher prices than milk destined for use in processed products. In part, this is explained by the need to compensate market participants for the additional costs of marketing a highly perishable product and moving and storing a very bulky commodity. The second explanatory factor is the fact that fluid milk has a lower elasticity of demand than do processed products. The following tables outline the tests carried out by Kenya Cooperative Creameries on raw and processed liquid milk. These are fairly standard throughout the world: Organoleptic test Lactometer reading Resazurin test Butterfat This simply means that the sense of smell is used to detect sour odors and perhaps tasted too. Visual inspection reveals the presence of foreign matter This test is conducted to detect any adulteration of the milk like the adding or skimming of fat The bacterial count of the milk is measured giving an indication of the standards of hygiene at the farm. Fat content is the principal criteria used in deciding the level of payment to individual farmers. Raw milk is expected to have a fat content of at least 3.25%
Table 4.5 tests on raw milk obtained from farmers

Level of acidity Butterfat content Solids other than fat Total plate count Presence of califorms

Not more than 0.15% Not less than 2.25% Not less than 8.5% Not more than 100,000 grams Not more than 10 per gram

Efficiency of Photophatese test pasteurizations Table 4.6 tests on processed milk at the factory In many developing countries, milk processing has been monopolized by a marketing board or other state marketing agency. Even where markets are liberalized, the structure of the milk industry has more often been oligopolistic rather than perfectly competitive.

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Agricultural Marketing Handout Fresh milk consumption In rural areas many households either own a cow to provide milk for their own households, and perhaps to make some informal sales to neighbors, or they will purchase milk from a local farmer. If there are localized cooling facilities, and health and hygiene laws permit, untreated milk will be made available in local stores. In Zimbabwe, the Dairiboard, helped establish cooling facilities in remote rural areas. In doing so, Dairiboard helped ensure that rural farmers could sell their milk locally and guaranteed rural consumers a supply of milk. The move also helped Dairiboard reduce its costs since it was previously charged with delivering milk to these remote territories. This involved high transport costs and low volumes. In addition to these rural exchanges, four channels for distributing fresh milk can be identified, as follows: Depot salesmen Marketing boards, large cooperatives and large dairy companies often employ their own sales force. These sales personnel operate out of depots. As the number of sales outlets increases there emerges a need for intermediaries to operate between the sales force and retailers. This is what happened in Kenya as the number of small kiosks increased dramatically in response to urban growth. Contractors are appointed to routes which in most cases would be uneconomical for the marketing board, cooperative or dairy company to service itself. In some urban centers there is a tradition of doorstep deliveries of milk

Wholesalers

Contractors Home deliveries

In Middle Eastern and African countries, fermented milk rather than fresh milk has been the traditional food. This may be consumed as a drink or as a relish with cereal porridge. Even in this form, the main criteria of quality have been the butterfat content.

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Agricultural Marketing Handout

V. Marketing mix strategies for agricultural products

One of the most important concepts in marketing is that of the marketing mix. The elements of this mix are: pricing, the product, promotion and distribution. Altering one or more of these ingredients changes the nature of the market offering. The challenge to marketing management is to find the mix which simultaneously optimizes customer utility and help the organization achieve its objectives. Discussion of the four elements of the marketing mix begins, in this chapter, with an account of product management decisions. Having stressed the need to move away from a product orientation in the third chapter, it; therefore, may appear to be a contradiction to deal with the product first among the four elements since this implies an order of priority. However, although the product is only one part of the overall marketing mix, decisions about the other three elements, price, promotion and distribution, centre on the product offered. Thus, there is a natural logic in beginning the discussion of the marketing mix with the product. Even though the decisions discussed here are the same decisions dealt with when marketing any product, the special characteristics agricultural products have presents a unique challenge. And, it is this unique challenge that will be the focus of this chapter. Chapter Objectives This chapter is intended to provide: An understanding of the various decisions to be made in managing agricultural products An explanation as to how the prices of agricultural products are set, and what factors might influence the pricing decision. An overview of the challenges faced in distributing and promoting agricultural products. 5.1. Managing agricultural products The Product Many enterprises take too myopic a view of what their product actually comprises and, therefore, their view of how it can be marketed is similarly myopic. We should think of a given product on three levels: the core product, the tangible product and the augmented product. The base level is the core benefit which, in essence, is what the customer really buys. It is productive to think of a product as merely the mechanism by which the benefit the customer is demanding is delivered. Thus, people do not buy toothpaste (the product), they buy confidence that their breath is inoffensive to others (the benefit); the farmer doesn't buy fertilizer, he buys extra grain in the store; a mother does not buy baby food, she demonstrates the virtues of a loving and conscientious mother, and a buyer of premium priced foods is not simply satisfying his/her hunger for food but also,

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Agricultural Marketing Handout perhaps, a hunger for status; hence, the need to know what the customer is buying and market those benefits, not products. Care must be taken that any benefit that is marketed is valued by the potential consumer. Manilay relates how, in the Philippines, an improved milling machine which produced a better quality end product and reduced grain losses failed in the market place because broken and discolored rice kernels were not perceived to be a problem by consumers, who were more interested in rice varieties and aromas. This example illustrates that it is the consumer and not the engineer, scientist or marketer who decides, in the market place, what is of benefit to him/her. The core benefit has to be converted into a tangible product to become the carrier of the benefit. Corn oil, cotton shirts, poultry feeds, seed planters and meat pies are all tangible products. According to Kotler, tangible products have as many as five characteristics: a quality level, features, styling, a brand name and packaging. These too can be marketed to potential customers if they differentiate the product from that of competitors, so long as this differentiation is both meaningful and valued by consumers.

Figure 5.1 the product concept Additional services and benefits might need to be offered to differentiate a product from that of competitors to give it a competitive edge. That is, an augmented product is offered. The cotton available to international buyers from the Zimbabwe Cotton Marketing Board is also available from other countries and suppliers. However, Zimbabwe's CMB have augmented their product with an advisory service to merchants and spinners which help them choose the right cotton for a specific application. Similarly, the agrochemical manufacturer who builds in a metering device into his product's packaging is augmenting his product; the tractor manufacturer/dealer that gives an extended warranty or performs a pre-delivery inspection is augmenting his product, and the food manufacturer who offers wholesalers/retailers a sale-or-return deal on products which they carry is augmenting the product offered.

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Agricultural Marketing Handout Product augmentation reflects a wider view of what the customer wants. Levitt suggests that: The new competition is not between what companies produce in their factories, but between
what they add to their factory output in the form of packaging, services, advertising, customer advice, financing, delivery arrangements, warehousing and other things that people value.

Thus we see that products can be marketed on several levels. If it is found that the product is perceived, by potential customers, to be similar to those of competitors at one level then the offensive differentiation can take place at another level. The key questions are whether the basis of our product differentiation is meaningful and valued by our prospective customers. The product mix Single product organizations are, in practice, fairly rare. One reason for the rarity of single product firms is the inherent seasonality of agricultural products. Another major reason for offering a complementary range of products is to gain entry to the channels of distribution. Most distributors will want to handle a product range rather than a single item. A product mix is an assortment of types of products and product lines. A product line is a series of related products. For example, a dairy company might offer a product line of full fat milk, semi-skimmed milk and skimmed milk. The same dairy company might have a second, and distinct product line of yoghurts, plain yoghurt, vanilla flavored yoghurt and yoghurt with nuts. Figure 5.2 illustrates the difference between a product line and a product mix.

Figure 7.2 the product line and the product mix

The width of a product mix refers to how many different product lines an organization carries (in this illustration there are three product lines). Product line depth indicates the number of product variations within a particular product line (here we have three product lines and three product variations within each). Product line extensions The decision as to whether a given product line should be extended is a strategic issue. There are several reasons why firms would consider adding to the number of product lines (breadth) and/or to the number of variants (depth) within a product mix:

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Agricultural Marketing Handout By extending the range of products offered, a company might gain entry to a new segment of the market It may be necessary to attract distributors who are interested in offering a full product line The business may have spare productive capacity and wish to increase the contribution to fixed costs by increasing the level of capacity utilization. They may need to bring in products to support other product lines, or As part of their competitive strategy they want to fill gaps in the market which otherwise might give others a foothold in their market. Whatever the motivation for extending the product line or mix, it has to be recognized that supplying more products (or product variations) carries costs as well as opportunities: The organization's inventories, and those of its distributors, will increase; There is added complexity in production scheduling and the costs of production/manufacturing, with larger stocks of raw materials and work-inprogress. Rather than expanding its markets, the product additions merely cannibalize the sales of its own existing product lines. Rather than offering the consumer greater choice, a plethora of similar products could have the negative effect of causing customer confusion. Clearly, the product mix must be managed carefully. At any point, the product or marketing manager must know the sales (in volume and value terms) and profit for each product line and item. He/she must also be aware of the percentage of both sales and profits which each product contributes. Management must be aware of how each product within the portfolio is positioned against those of competitors. This is essential for the development of an effective marketing strategy. A simple, but useful, approach is to draw a two dimensional grid, like that illustrated in figure 5.3, and label the axis according to what market research has shown are key product attributes. The company's product(s) within a given category can then be mapped against those of competitors. The product map allows management to visualize the intensity of competition in each segment of the market and perhaps also to identify new market opportunities in segments where there is little, or even no competition.

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Agricultural Marketing Handout

Figure 5.3 Product map of competing yoghurt lines

In the case of this hypothetical yoghurt example, there is fairly intense competition in both the long-life and pasteurized sectors of the market, especially in the flavoredpasteurized segment. With such intense competition, profit margins are likely to be low and management would want to look closely at their product in this segment to assess its sales and profit contributions. At the same time, relatively little competition exists within the live yoghurt markets and no competitor currently offers a fresh fruit live yoghurt. Marketing research would have to be carried out to determine if these segments represented a profitable market opportunity. The product map would have given direction to the company's marketing research efforts. Product line deletions Adding new products to a company's portfolio is a positive and creative course of action and most marketing managers find this easier to do than deleting products from their range. There are many reasons for this, but perhaps foremost among them is the reluctance to prune products from the line whilst they make some, even if modest, level of profit/contribution. In the end, however, sick dogs and problem children will sap an organization's resources. Quelch and Kenny cite the following costs of product line proliferation: Fragmentation of the overall marketing effort and dilution of the brand image Increased production complexity resulting from shorter production runs and more frequent line change-over More errors in forecasting demand and increased logistics complexity, resulting in increased remnants and larger buffer inventories to avoid stock outs Increased supplier costs due to rush orders and the inability to buy the most economic quantities of raw materials and Distraction of the research and development group from new product development. Where items within a product line no longer have a clear role, it is in the long term interests of the organization to either harvest or divest themselves of these items. Branding products

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Agricultural Marketing Handout

According to the American Marketing Association a brand is a name, term, sign, symbol or design, or a combination of them intended to encourage prospective customers to differentiate a producer's product(s) from those of competitors. Branding can add value to a product and is, therefore, an important aspect of product management. For example, most farmers would perceive Monsanto's herbicide brand Roundup as a quality product from a reliable company; but the same chemical formulation in an unmarked drum is unlikely to gain the same level of farmer confidence. Historically, most unprocessed agricultural outputs have been sold as generic products i.e. unbranded. Agricultural product is frequently marketed as a commodity where within particular grade bands a product from one source is considered identical to that from another source. For example, Blue Mountain Arabica from Kenya is a perfect substitute for Blue Mountain from Colombia, and vice versa. Similarly, the same grade of B.O.P. (Broken Orange Pekoe) from Sri Lanka and from India is ready substitutes for one another. Until relatively recently, most fruit and vegetables were largely unbranded. The exceptions have been fruit and vegetables marketed by multinational companies like United Fruits with the Chiquita brand and Geest. Some country exporters such as South Africa (Cape brand) and Israel (Jaffa and Carmel brands) broke from tradition at an early stage and adopted a strategy. Recently there has been a remarkable increase in the interest in branding amongst other exporting countries. A few years ago, Algeria decided to brand their dates so that consumers could identify both the variety and the country of origin. Previously most of their date exports went to France where they were mixed with dates from other regions and branded by the French. Benefits of branding: Branding ones products benefits both the customer and producer in a number of ways. Benefits to the customer include: Brand names tell the consumer something about the product's characteristics and assure them that if they buy the same brand they will get the same product characteristics each time. As the number of competing products increases branding can increase the shoppers' efficiency by helping them to differentiate between products and identify that which best meets their needs. Brand names also help draw consumers' attention to new products which might meet, or better meet, their needs. Producer and supplier benefit include:

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Agricultural Marketing Handout Branding makes it easier for a producer or seller to match his/her products to the customers' needs. The ultimate objective is to establish a measure of loyalty among consumers towards the brand. After all, a product will only prove profitable if a sizeable proportion of the market can be persuaded to repeatedly purchase it. A distinctive seller's brand name and trademark make it possible to legally protect unique product features. Branding also provides a basis for non-price competition by removing a product from the commodity category. Lastly, market segmentation and target marketing are made more effective because branding enables the producer to serve separate markets with separate products. Disadvantages of branding: There are also potential disadvantages attached to branding, for both producers and consumers. In the case of the consumer, there are at least two possible disadvantages: Higher prices: In most cases branded products carry higher retail prices than their generic equivalents. In part, the higher price is explained by the additional production costs and marketing expenditures incurred by the supplier in developing and supporting the brand. The higher price sometimes also carries a premium for the unique benefits and/or features of the brand. Brand proliferation: Whilst consumers generally like to have a degree of choice when buying products, there is a real danger, with so many brands on offer, that the consumer becomes confused. The dangers of brand proliferation are only realized when the differences between brands are either marginal or are not meaningful to the consumer and yet, the supplier continues to support the brand rather than let market forces dictate that it ought to be deleted from the organization's product portfolio. The possible disadvantages of branding for manufacturers, producers or suppliers include: Higher costs: Branded products tend to require heavy promotional support and more stringent quality control to ensure the consistency of the brand. However, if the brand is truly distinctive and offers potential buyers benefits and/or features which they value, then additional costs can usually be recovered through premium pricing. Adverse publicity: Brands which fail in the market place can place a stigma on an organization which makes distributors and consumers cautious about handling or purchasing new products/brands which that organization subsequently launches. It is for this reason that pre-market testing must be all the more rigorous in the case of branded products. Branding Decisions: Figure 5.4 below shows some of the important branding decisions marketers must make.

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Agricultural Marketing Handout

Figure 5.4 Branding decisions

Should the product be branded? There are some basic product characteristics which will help determine whether branding is feasible: First, it must be possible to identify at least one unique dimension in the product that is meaningful and important to the target market. This can be in the core benefit, the product features and/or in the augmented product. E.g. There is little point in seeking to brand a maize seed if the only distinguishing feature is that it is dyed blue, unless the market displays a penchant for blue maize seed. Second, it must be possible to consistently replicate the distinguishing characteristics of the brand. E.g. If a cheese brand is sold on the basis of its sharp taste, due to the high acidity of the cheese, but the manufacturer's production processes cannot guarantee that exact same level of acidity in every batch, then the reputation of the brand will quickly suffer. As shown above, a marketer must answer a number of successive questions once the decision to brand the product has been made: Who should own the brand? There are three possibilities. The product can carry a manufacturer's brand name, that of a middleman (often termed a private brand, a distributor's brand or a dealer's brand) or the manufacturer might put some of the product under his/her own name and some under that of a middleman. How much quality should be incorporated in to the brand? When developing a brand, the manufacturer has to choose a quality level that will support the brand's position in the target market. Some markets are more quality conscious than others and even within the same market some consumers will prefer premium brands (i.e. high quality, high priced) and others will choose economy brands. What brand name strategy should be pursued? Choices include: Individual brand names, e.g. Coca Cola, Nescaf, Johnny Walker Black Label, Roundup, and Outspan; A blanket family name for all products, e.g. Heinz, Bayer, Massey-Ferguson; Company branding: trade name combined with individual product names, e.g. Nestl Gold Grain,

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Agricultural Marketing Handout Nestl Rice Krispies, and Nestl Raisin Brain. Which strategy a company uses depends on a number of factors: If a company has a distinctive product with actual or potential sizeable demand it is probably best to develop a separate brand identity for each such product. Using a blanket family name reduces the costs of introducing the product because there is no need to create brand recognition or preference. Moreover, if the manufacturer's name is strong the product will achieve a certain level of immediate acceptance. When a company produces a range of quite different products it is best to use family brand names for each product line. Some manufacturers elect to preface all brand names with the company name to benefit from the carry-over effect of an established and trusted corporate identity. How should the brand be positioned? The position of a product in the market place is multidimensional in nature: E.g. A food manufacturer could develop a milk-based drink which is fortified with vitamins. The product could be positioned in one of several markets. It could be promoted as an infant food, a health food or a food for those active in sport. Whichever market is selected, the product could be priced at the top, middle or bottom end of the market and it could be formulated as a powder, fresh or UHT milk, skimmed, semi skimmed or full fat. Once a brand is positioned a certain way, there may be a need to change its position as a response to changes in customer preference and perception, and competition. Further more, it is usually easier and cheaper to reposition an existing product rather than introducing a new one. Are there any brand extension opportunities? A brand extension strategy is one where an already successful brand name is used to launch new or modified products. E.g. The Jaffa brand which was originally attached solely to oranges from Israel, and then later was extended to grapefruit, has more recently been used to gain consumer acceptance of a new fruit which is a cross between an orange and a grapefruit and branded Jaffa Sweetie. The Jaffa brand name has been franchised to the food giant Gerber for use on a range of fruit juices. Should the company pursue multi-branding? A multi-brand strategy is one where the producer develops two or more brands in the same product category. Benefits of multi branding include: Very useful in market segments where there is a good deal of brand switching among consumers because it offers an alternative brand buyers can switch to without changing the supplier. It creates healthy competition between brand managers within the organization and It allows each brand to be developed to present different attributes and appeals to the market place.

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Agricultural Marketing Handout However, there is always the danger of cannibalizing its own sales. This means that a new brand gains market share primarily at the expense of the firm's own established brand(s) rather than from competitors' brands. What desirable features does a good brand name possess? A good brand name: Should suggest something about the product's benefits and qualities Should be easy to pronounce, recognize and remember Should be distinctive and not easy to confuse with others Should translate easily into foreign languages when exporting. It remains the case, however, that no matter how good a product's brand name, it will not compensate for inadequacies in that product, but an unimaginative or inappropriate brand name can adversely affect the prospects of a good product. Packaging Coles and Beharrell state that: It is the package that communicates more to the consumer than the actual product, at the point of purchase where the consumer decides. Whilst this comment was made in the context of consumer food products, it also has validity with respect to agricultural inputs. When the farmer visits the agricultural merchant it is the package which conveys the features, benefits, applications and, sometimes, quality of inputs such as seeds, agrochemicals, animal feeds, dairy hygiene and animal health products. Packaging Levels: There are usually four levels of packaging: Primary packaging: i.e. that which comes into direct contact with the product Secondary packaging: i.e. that containing the primary packaging Display packaging: e.g. crates/boxes, pallet, roll container and Shipping packaging: e.g. container.

Packaging functions: a package performs a number of important functions which include: Product protection: Packaging provides physical protection for the product. The typical product is handled many times between production and consumption. This makes it susceptible to spoilage, contamination, product tampering and theft (pilferage). E.g. oversized packages, tamper resistant packages, and resealable packaging are some of the measures companies are taking to enhance both product and consumer protection. Helping in the distribution of the product: Packaging design is capable of contributing to the improved performance of the supply chain in a variety of ways. E.g. By altering the shape and dimensions of the packaging, more products can be displayed on retailers' shelves. The stacking strength of outer packaging can be increased so that warehouse space is optimized and other elements of the physical distribution system, such as roll cages, pallets, and transport containers, can be better utilized.

By Abdulshkur Nuru

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Agricultural Marketing Handout Product promotion: The above statement by Coles and Beharrell emphasizes this particular function of packaging. A products package can help communicate essential information about the product to the potential buyer. This function is especially important because self-service distribution outlets are becoming very common. Product differentiation: Product packaging also has a role in helping differentiate products where there are a large number of brands competing in the same market segment. Distinctive product packaging, be it in the form of shape, size, coloring, materials and/or print, can help in the positioning of a product and in its differentiation. Moreover, the quality of the packaging is often used by the prospective purchaser as an indication of the quality of the contents. In certain cases packaging has evolved from being merely a container to becoming an extension of the product itself. E.g. With its distinctive shape the Coca Cola bottle is recognized the world over and is viewed as an integral part of the product. In recent years ownership of microwave ovens has encouraged food manufacturers to develop convenience foods, or ready-prepared meals, and to use crystalline polyethylene terephalate (CPET) for the packaging. This allows the product to be put straight into a microwave oven. Other examples include: pump action packs that dispense creams, sauces and other food liquids, agrochemical containers with in-built metering systems, insecticidal sprays for the treatment of parasites on farm animals, etc. Packaging decisions: developing the package for a product involves making a number of important decisions including: Design: the shape, size, appearance and overall structure of the package Material: the material to be used to make in making the package which may be aseptic (laminated card), glass, steeletc. Factors considered in making these decisions include: The chosen distribution channel and its environmental conditions: the package must be capable of performing under all the temperature and humidity conditions that are likely to be encountered by the produce as it passes through the channels of distribution. Cultural values of the target market: a good deal of market research has to go into packaging if it is to be used to best effect as a marketing tool. Color associations will differ by culture. In some cultures, dark colors evoke a quality image and bright colors can communicate cleanliness and purity. Product usage and disposal: the way a product is used and disposed of by the target market will give valuable insight into the appropriate design and material to be used Cost: Different materials and designs cost differently. Du Pont conducted a study which: indicated a 100 per cent cost advantage for aseptic (laminated card) versus glass and a 30 per cent cost advantage for aseptic versus canned one liter size containers. But it should not be only the cost of making the package that should be considered, the cost of disposing of it after usage should be also taken into account.

By Abdulshkur Nuru

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Agricultural Marketing Handout In addition to the above three factors, material availability, quality implication, environmental impact, regulation, and competitors packaging strategy should be evaluated. Recent developments in packaging: Among the more recent packaging developments are: The increased use of polyethylene terephalate (PET). PET bottles and jars have been around for a little while now and have been extensively used to package carbonated beverages and fruit drinks, but the introduction of an oxygen barrier polymer has extended its use to oxygen-sensitive products, such as beers. Reductions in produce losses and extended shelf-life achieved by modifying the atmosphere. This can mean controlling temperature and/or humidity, the removal of ethylene, in the case of fresh fruit and vegetables, or as is the current trend for meat, salad and vegetable products, adopting the sous-vide vacuum packaging system. The use of flexible laminates like polypropylene and metalised polyester, to extend the shelf-life of products. A very recent innovation has been active packaging. Active packaging seeks to go beyond simply extending the shelf-life of fresh and pre-cooked foods and conserve quality attributes e.g. color, flavor, and nutrients. Mitsubishi's Ageless system, for example, is a sachet containing iron. The sachet is a scavenger that is placed in the pack. Another form of active packaging is to put a time-temperature indicator on the pack to warn consumers that when the product is in a certain condition it should not be eaten.

By Abdulshkur Nuru

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