A Notes Exclusive to the Criminology Students| Forensic Photography

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION TO PHOTOGRAPHY

PHOTOGRAPHY

It is an art or science which deals with the reproduction of images through the
action of light, upon sensitized materials, with the aid of a camera and its accessories,
and the chemical process involved therein.

2 Greek word
Phos- light
graphia- write

Photography involves the creation of an image using light. It is the art or

process of producing images of objects by action of light on a sensitive surface with the
aid of an image-forming device known as a camera and the chemical process involved
therein.

POLICE PHOTOGRAPHY

It refers to the use of a camera and video for law enforcement purposes such
as documenting physical evidence and crime scenes, or recording interrogations, traffic
stops, surveillance, public thoroughfares, traffic accidents and still images of arrested
individuals.

It is an art or science which deals with the study of the principles of

photography, the preparation of photographic evidence and its application to police
work.

POLICE PHOTOGRAPHER

It is one who tasked to take photographs of crime scene, suspects, witnesses

or any physical evidence found at the crime scene, bring them to the laboratory for
processing, recording and filing.

He needs knowledge and skill of how camera records visual and audio components. In
the application of close-up photography, uses of flash and night-time photography. It involves
also of documentation of crime and injuries.

FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY

It is the art or science of photographically documenting a crime scene and

evidence for laboratory examination and analysis for purposes of court trial.
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It refers to the recording of objects and scenes to be used for and within the
legal process.

Any photograph may be considered “forensic” if it adds information required by the

court and can be admitted as evidence.

FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHERS

It must have specific knowledge not only in photography but also in forensic science
and laws pertaining to the use of photographs as evidence.

Simply taking of photographs of an object at a crime scene is not enough for a

thorough analysis. Forensic photographers should document the scene from several locations
and orientations using scales and measurements to cover as much relevant detail and
establish as much objectivity as possible.

Forensic Photographers may be able to disclose forensic detail that is normally

invisible through the use of ultra-violet or infrared wavelength.

SIGNIFICANCE OF PHOTOGRAPHY IN POLICE WORK AND LAW ENFORCEMENT

In law enforcement work, photography serves four primary functions:

1. As a means of identification
2. As a method of discovering, recovering, recording, and preserving.
3. As a way to present in the court room and impression of the pertinent
elements of crime.
4. As a training and public relations medium for police programs.

Further uses of photography in police work:

1. It serves as evidence.
2. It preservers all pieces of evidence.
3. It refreshes the mind of the investigator
4. It records the illegal activities and identities of criminals.
5. It is useful in personal identification as well as in the identification of mission
persons, wanted persons, and stolen or lost properties.
6. It records all things that an investigator may fall to notice.
7. It assists the court in understanding the case.
8. It helps reconstruct the crime scene.
9. It helps to expert witness in illustrating their findings.
10. It supplements, explains and replaces the descriptive testimony of witness.
11. It serves as lecture materials and illustrations during police personnel
training.
12. It also serves to reproduce and copy documents.

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THE PNP FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY DIVISION

The Philippine National Police Crime Laboratory has its own forensic Photography
Division whose personnel perform the following functions/Capabilities.

1. Photograph suspects and crime victims for personal identification.

2. Photograph evidence submitted to the laboratory before examination
3. Conduct crime scene photography
4. Conduct crime scene sketching
5. Conduct of comparative examination and analysis questioned photographs against known
photographs
6. Conduct lectures to different police/military training institution, government agencies and
public/private schools upon request.
7. Reproduce photographs and other printed materials.
8. Sketch facial features of suspects based on actual description by the witness or victims for
identifications.
9. Attend Court duties.

HISTORY OF FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY

BASIC COMPONENTS OF PHOTOGRAPHY

1. Light
2. Equipment
3. Chemicals

1. LIGHT- in the days of creation

In the beginning, God created the heavens and the earth. Now the earth
was formless and empty, darkness was over the surface of the deep, and the
spirit of God was hovering over the waters.

2. EQUIPMENT
- the portable camera obscura
was used by artist or painters to get
accurate perspective of natural scene
and scale of their subjects.

Camera Obscura (Latin word for Dark Chamber)

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3. CHEMICALS
Light sensitivity of silver nitrate and silver chloride solution was discovered and
investigated.

In 1800, Thomas Widgewood and Humphey Davy produced photograms.

Photogram
It is a photographic image made without a camera by placing objects
directly onto the surface of a light-sensitive material such as photographic
paper and then exposing it to light

It is a.k.a camera less photography

TRUE PHOTOGRAPHY

1839 - Is generally known as the birth year of photography.

WILLIAM HENRY FOX TALBOT

He explained a process he had invented

(calotype) at a Royal Society of London.

The Calotype used paper with its surface

fibers impregnated with light sensitive compounds.

LOUIS JACQUES MANDE DAGUERRE

He made a public demonstration in

Paris “Daguerreotype” in collaboration with
Joseph Nicephore Niepce.

(The first produce picture of

Daguerreotype)

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The Daguerreotype formed an image directly on the silver surface of a metal

plate.

With talbots calotype, the fixation was only partial while Daguerre’ s
Daguerreotypes, images were made permanent with the use of hypo.

1848- Abel Niepce de Saint-Victor introduced a process of negatives on glass using

albumen (egg white) as binding medium.

Albumen- clear liquid of an egg

1850- Louis Desirie Blanquart-Evard introduced a

printing paper coated with albumen to achieve a
glossy surface.

1851- Frederick Scott Archer- published a “wet plate”

process collodion- a viscous liquid that dries to a tough
flexible and transparent film-replaced albumen.

1885- Gelatin emulsion printing paper was commercially introduced based films in 1889.

During this time; the cameras were crude; the lenses could not form a true
image; and the sensitive materials required long exposures and could not reproduce
colors in shades of gray.

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It was in 1856 when John F.W Herschel coined the word “photography”

1861- James Clark Maxwell researched on colors and invented the color wheel.

1890-Full corrected lenses were introduced

1906- plate was placed on the market that could reproduce all color in equivalent
shades of gray.

1907- Lummiere color process was introduced, a panchromatic film was used but with
blue, green, and red filter.

1914- U.S Eastman Kodak made a color subtractive process called Kodachrome.

1935- color process came out together with electronic flash.

1947- Edwin H. Land introduced “Polariod” the one-step photography

Edwin H. Land

1960- LASER was invented making possible Holograms (three-dimensional pictures).

1988- The arrival of true digital cameras.

GENERAL CONCEPTS OF POLICE PHOTOGRAPHY

PHOTOGRAPH
It is a reproduction of some scene, object or persons through the means of
photography; a mechanical result of photography.

1st Generation – Daguerreotype Photography

2nd Generation – Film Photography

3rd Generation –Digital Photography

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OBJECTIVES OF PHOTOGRAPHY

1. To produce a pictorial record of the crime scene

2. To help in keeping the police officer’s memory in remembering accurately as to

where the locations of physical evidence are found.

3. To help in securing and obtaining confessions, description, deposition, and

information relating to the case.

USES OF PHOTOGRAPHY

1. Identification
2. Record
3. Presentation
4. Substitution
5. Deciding factor

CRIMINAL APPLICATIONS

1854- An Englishman, Maddox, developed a dry plate photography eclipsing

Daguerre’s wet plate on tin method.

1859- In the United States, one of the earliest applied Forensic Science was in
photography. It was used to demonstrate evidence in a California case. Enlarged
photographs of signature was presented in a court case involving forgery.

1864- Odelbercht first advocate the use of photography for the identification of
criminals and documentation of evidence and crime scenes.

Later major police force in England and United States has “Rouges Gallery” –
full face, profile and crime scenes.

Rouges Gallery
It is a photograph of criminals became an integral part of all police
department.

1882- Alphonse Bertillon who initiated anthropometric measurements for personal

identification who was also involved in various means of documentation by
photography which developed into a fine science for criminalistics when he
photographed crime scenes and formulated a technique of contact photography to
demonstrate erasures on documents.

1902- Dr. R.A. Reis, a German scientist trained in Chemistry and Physics at
Lausanne University in Switzerland. He contributed heavily due to the use of
photography in forensic science and established the worlds earliest crime laboratory
that serviced the academic community and the Swiss Police.

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His interest included photography of crime scenes, corpses, and blood stains.
He made a trip to Brazil in 1913 where his experience in criminalistics was presented
to the Western Hemisphere for the first time.

1910- Victor Baltazard developed a method of photographic comparison of bullets

and cartridge case which act as an early foundation of the filed of ballistics.

Victor Baltazard, Professor of forensic medicine at Sorborne, used

photographic enlargement of bullets and cartridge cases to determine weapon
type and was among the first attempt to individualized a bullet to a weapon.

LEGAL FOUNDATION OF PHOTOGRAPHIC EVIDENCE

Black and White Photographs

1859- Daguerreotype was used in a civil case, Leuo vs United States, to decide
on the authenticity of photographs in comparing signatures.

1874- In Criminal case introducing photograph as identification evidence,

Underzook vs. Commonwealth.

Color Photographs

1943- Civil litigations Green vs. City of Denver, spoiled meat in violation of
health ordinance prohibiting the sale of putrid meat to the public.

1960- In criminal case, State vs. Conte, showing the graphic wound of the
victim.

CRIMINOLOGY EDUCATION

1902- Dr. R.A. Reis professor at the University of Lausanne Switzerland set up
one of the first academic curricular in forensic science. His Forensic
Photography department grew into Lausanne Institute of Police Service.

1950- August Vallmer, Chief of Police of Berkeley, Califormia established the

school of Criminology at the University of Califormia.

Paul Kirk presided over the major of criminalistics within the school.

1954- In the Philippines, the school which pioneered criminology education is

the Plaridel Educational Institution now the Philippine College of
Criminology at Sta.Cruz, Manila.

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THE PRINCIPLES OF PHOTOGRAPHY

A photograph is the mechanical and chemical result of photography. To produce a

photograph, light is needed aside from sensitized materials.

Lights reflected or radiated by a subject must reach the sensitized materials while all
other lights must be excluded. The exclusion of all unwanted and unnecessary lights is
achieved by placing the sensitized material inside a camera.

The amount of light on the sensitized material after exposure is not immediately visible
to the eyes. To make the formed image visible, it must undergo the developmental process.

The visual effect that results from the chemical processing is dependent on the quantity
and quality of the exposing light. More light will yield an opaque or black shade on the
sensitized material after development. Too little will produce a transparent or white shade. The
varying shade of gray will finally form the complete image.

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CHAPTER 2

PHOTOGRAPHIC RAYS

LIGHT

Light is one of a number of known forms of radiant electromagnetic energy which

travel in wave motion.

This form of energy travels at a speed of about of 186,000 miles per second in air, but
they differ in wavelength and frequency.

Wavelength is the distance from the crest (highest point)

Frequency is the number of waves passing in a given point in one second

The product of the two is the speed of travel.

4 PHOTOGRAPHIC LIGHTS IN MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY

1. X RAYS- wavelength of 01 – 30 nanometers

X-radiation or Rontgen Radiation after Wilhelm Rontgen

- is a form of electromagnetic radiation (is a form of energy emitted and

absorbed by charged particles, which exhibits wave-like behavior as it travels through
space)

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2. ULTRA-VIOLET RAYS- 30 to 400 nanometer (nn)

This frequency is invisible to human but visible to number of insects and birds.

- It is found in sunlight and emitted by electric arcs

3. VISIBLE LIGHT- or Electromagnetic Radiation

- 400 to 700 nanometers

4. INFRA-RED LIGHT- wavelength of 700 to 1000+ nn

The camera illuminates the scene at infrared wavelengths invisible to

human eye.

LIGHT (definition)

It is a radiant electromagnetic energy that can be seen by the naked eye.

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Scientific definition
- is the aspect of radiant energy of which human observer is aware through the
visual sensations which arise from the stimulation of the retina of the eye.

Light rays with a wavelength of 400-700 nn is referred to as visible light

because it is only within these wavelengths that the human eye is capable of
perceiving.

Those with shorter or longer wavelengths are commonly referred as invisible

radiation.

What the eye cannot be see is referred to as radiations.

Lights has several effects on the objects. It is either reflected, absorbed,

transmitted or converted.

The varying combinations of this reflectance and absorption are what gives us
the wide variety of colors which we are able to perceive at times, other light are neither
reflected or absorbed but it is transmitted light passing through the object.

The final effect a radiant energy may have on an object is to be converted to

another wavelength. – Luminescence.

LUMINESCENCE

It is the emission of light by a substance not resulting from heat; it is thus a form
of cold body radiation it can be cause by electrical energy.

2 TYPES OF LUMINESCENCE

1. Florescence
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It is the ability of an object to convert one wavelength to another as long

as the active energy source is irradiating the object.

It absorbs the light source.

2. Phosphorescence

The object not only converts the

wavelength while being irradiated but
continuous to reflect the new wavelengths
for a period of time after the energy source
is removed.

WHITE LIGHTS

When all the wavelength between

400-700 nn are presented to the eye, we
get the sensation or perception of colorless
or white lights.

If it will pass into prism it will bend

the light into shorter wavelength

If we divided the wavelength of visible light (400-700 nn.)

400-500 - blue
500-600 - Green
600-700 - Red
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It will produce blue, green and red, and these are known as the primary
colors of light.

ADDITIVE AND SUBTRACTIVE COLOR MIXTURE

PRODUCTON OF COLORS

1. Absorption

The color most ordinary objects are due to

the fact that they do not absorb the same amount
of light at each wavelength.

2. Scattering

The color of the blue sky

is due to the scattering of light by
the atmosphere.
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Thus, the sky is bluest

when it is clearest, and white
when it is less clear.

3. Interference

The color can also be produced by interference of light waves in thin film like in
soap bubbles of a film of oil in a floating in water.

4.Fluorescence
This happens when molecules of the fluorescent material absorb energy at one
wavelength and radiate if at another wavelength.

5. Dispersion

The color may

arise from differences
in the refractive or
bending power of a
transparent medium
of light of different
wavelength.

The rainbow is a good example of this phenomenon.

ATTRIBUTES OF COLOR

According to the modern scientific definition of color, it is not legitimate to

ascribe color to an object but only to the light reflected it.

Thus, any color perception has three characteristics, any one of which can be
varied independently of the other two.

These are hue, saturation, and brightness.

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BENDING OF LIGHTS

1. Reflection

It is the deflection or bouncing back

of light when it hits a surface

1. Regular – happens when light hits

a flat, smooth and shinny surface

2. Irregular or diffused- occurs when

light hits a rough or uneven but
glossy object.

2. Refraction

It is the bending of light when passing from one medium to another

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3. Diffraction

It is the bending of light when

it hits a sharp edge of an opaque.

GENERAL PRINCIPLE:

Light travels in
straight line, but changes
the direction of light wave
when it comes in contact
with different object.

KINDS OF OBJECT AS HOW THEY BEHAVE TO LIGHTS

This medium affects the travels of light.

1. Transparent Object
It allows sufficient visible light to pass through them that the object on the other
side may be clearly seen. Ex. Plastic materials

2. Translucent Object
It allows light to pass, however diffuse it sufficiently that objects on the other
side may not be clearly distinguished. Ex. Glass, water
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3. Opaque Objects
It is so greatly diffuse the light that recognizing the object on the other side is
very difficult if not impossible. Ex. Metal, Wood, Stone

(Opaque, Translucent and Transparent)

Opaque Object either absorb or divert light rays.

ABSORPTION OF LIGHT
It is the process where certain materials convert light energy into another form
of energy (usually heat or temperature).

The use of black-painted background for example is used by the photographer

to “subtract” or reduce light so that it does not bounce itself around in an undesirable
way.

DIVERSION
It is the change in the direction of light waves that strike the surface of any
subject that creates reflection either by specular or diffused reflection.

SOURCES OF LIGHTS

1. NATURAL LIGHTS

a. Bright Sunlight- a lightning condition

where objects in open space cast a deep
and uniform or distinct shadow.

b. Hazy Sunlight- objects in open space

cast a transparent shadow.
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c. Dull Sunlight- objects in open space

cast no shadow.

1. Cloudy Bright- objects in open space cast no shadow but object at far
distance are clearly visible

2. Cloudy Dull- objects in open space cast no shadow.

2. ARTIFICIAL LIGHT SOURCES

It is a light source that are man-made

1. Continuous Radiation- are those that can give illumination continuously.

The common light sources of this kind are the fluorescent lamp,
incandescent lamps, carbon arc lamp, photoflood lamp, gas lamp, etc.

2. Short Duration- (flash unit)

A flash unit gives a brief flash of light produce by a burning metallic wire
(flash bulb) or an electrical discharge through a gas-filled tube (electric flash).

FORENSIC LIGHT SOURCES

1. ULTRA-VIOLET LAMP

3 TYPES OF ULTRAVIOLET RADIATION

1. Long wave UV
It is used in a wide variety of application in medical and forensics.

2. Medium wave UV
It is used in chemical analysis and in curing and hardening of different
items for industrial applications.

3. Short wave UV
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It is used for variety of purpose such as to sterilize air and place of work.
It is effective germicide, destroying many biological contaminants.

2. LASER
- Light Amplification through
Simulated Emission of Radiation

It is also known as Coherent Light.

It was in 1970’s that it was discovered that by illuminating certain items with
LASER, they would fluoresce or could be made to stand out in sharp contrast from
their background.

This was especially significant in locating dried biological stains such as semen,
urine and saliva as well as stains that had been washed.

The LASER stimulation of these items provided a way for the criminalist to
finally see, locate, and visually record evidence that they know that they had been
missing.

3. ALTERNATIVE LIGHT SOURCES- uses a variety of band pass filters to provide

high intensity beam of non-coherent light.

4. FORENSIC LIGHT SOURCES- is a term being applied to a wide variety of relatively

inexpensive light sources which use filtered white light.

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CHAPTER 3

PHOTOGRAPHIC FILMS AND PAPERS

FILM

It is a sheet of celluloid, used as a base for photographic sensitive material

It refers also to the cellulose tape or plate where silver salt are suspended,
capable or recording light.

It is also defined as a sheet of plastic coated with an emulsion containing light-

sensitive silver halide salts bonded by gelatin.

SIGNIFICANCE OF FILM

Photographic film is a basic ingredient in the system of photography.

Photographic film is a chemically reactive material that records a fixed or still

image through the action of light.

BLACK AND WHITE FILMS

LAYERS OF FILM
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THIN COAT OF ANIMAL GELATIN

EMULSION
BASE
ANTI-HALATION BACKING

1. EMULSION

An emulsion is a mixture of two or more liquids

that are normally unmixable.

The word "emulsion" comes from the Latin word

for "to milk", as milk is an emulsion of fat
and water, among other components.

SILVER HALIDE

Silver halide (or silver salt)

It is one of the compounds which are

formed between silver and three forms of
silver fluoride. (Silver bromide, chloride and
Iodide).

It is coated in gelatin

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To protect the emulsion from abrasion, the thin coat of clear gelatin is essential.
The anti-halation backing is necessary to prevent halation and the base acts as the
support of the emulsion.

2. GRAY OR ANTI-HALATION BACKING

This layer is placed between the emulsion and the plastic base of a film to prevent
whatever light that passes through the emulsion and reflected by the base back to the
emulsion which forms a “halo”.

3. BASE

Generally, film base are made of plastic material. They serve as a support to the
emulsion.

CHARACTERISTICS OF BLACK AND WHITE FILMS

1. Speed (Sensitivity to Light)

2. Spectral (Wavelength or Color)
3. Granularity or Graininess

1. EMULSION SPEED

a. ASA (American Standard Association) rating. In 1943, USA.

- express in arithmetical value.

b. DIN (Deutche Industri Normen) rating. In Germany.

- express in logarithmic value.

c. ISO (International Standards Organization) rating. In 1974.

- express in the combined arithmetical and logarithmical value.
- used also to measure the sensitivity of digital imaging system.

The different emulsion speed ratings are:

Super Slow Speed Film

ASA 12 DIN 12 ISO 12/12

Slow Speed Film

ASA 25 DIN 15 ISO 25/15
ASA 50 DIN 18 ISO 50/18
ASA 100 DIN 21 ISO 100/21

Medium Speed Film

ASA 125 DIN 22 ISO 125/22
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ASA 200 DIN 24 ISO 200/24

Fast Speed Film

ASA 400 DIN 27 ISO 400/27

Super-Fast Speed Film

ASA 800 DIN 30 ISO 800/30
ASA 1600 DIN 33 ISO 1000/33

2. SPECTRAL SENSITIVITY

a. Blue sensitive film

- sensitive to ultraviolet rays and blue light only.

b. Orthochromatic Film
- sensitive to ultraviolet rays and blue light only

c. Panchromatic Film
- sensitive to ultraviolet radiation to blue, green and red light or all
colors.

d. Infra-red Film
- sensitive to ultraviolet rays to blue, green, red lights and infrared rays.

3. GRANULARITY or GRAININESS

This refers to the size of the metallic silver grains that are formed after
development of an exposed film. Generally, the size of the metallic grains is dependent
on the emulsion speed of the film and the type of developing solution that is used in
processing.

The rule is:

The lower the emulsion speed rating of the film, the finer the grain;
The higher the emulsion speed rating of the film, the bigger the grains.

COLOR FILMS

A Color Film is a multi-layer emulsion coated on the same support or base.

LAYERS OF EMULSION

1. TOP EMULSION (YELOW FILTER) sensitive to Blue

2. MIDDLE EMULSION sensitive to Green

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sensitive to Red

These three emulsion layers are coated on a film base which has an anti-
halation backing.

THE BASIC PARTS OF FILM

1. BASE
This are cellulose acetate and other acid ester such as triacetate. Cellulose
acetate films are usually called safety bases since they have the advantage of low
flammability.

Bases maybe (a) transparent, (b) translucent (c) opaque.

A transparent material used for making slow burning film.

2. EMULSION SIDE
The films for photography are coated with a number of very thin light- sensitive
emulsion layers consisting of silver slats and or dyes.

3. FILM SPROCKET
Perforation/ holes found in both edges of the film that is used to engage with
the sprocket tooth of the camera to facilitate the forward movement or winding of the
film during exposure.

4. FILM FRAME
The film frame is a subdivision of a long strip film in which each image is
separated from the other. Every time the film advance lever is moved, it is counted as
one film frame thus separating the images.

5. FILM LEADER
The film leader is found at the tip of the rolled film designed to guide the
photographer for easy insertion of the film onto the film take-up spool of the camera.

BASIC COMPONENTS OF FILM

1. Gelatin Anti-halation backing

2. Anti-curl backing
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3. Adhesion promotion layer

4. Film base
5. Adhesion promotion layer
6. Emulsion layers
7. Gelatin protective coating

TYPES OF COLOR FILMS

1. Negative or non-reversal Film

It is the film is exposed to light, it turns dark after developing.

So light objects, photographed on negative film come out dark and dark objects
come out light.

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Also, negatives are developed to a low contrast, which means there is less
difference between light and dark values in the negative than was present in the scene
being photographed.

Kodak color, Fuji Color, Agfa Color

2. Reversal Film

is a type of photographic film that produces a positive image on a

transparent base.

The film is processed to produce transparencies or diapositives

(abbreviated as diafilm in many countries) instead of negatives and print.

Kodachrome, Fujichrome, Agfacrhrome

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a.) Color Positive Picture b.)Negative

c.) Monochrome Picture d.)Negative

PHOTOGRAPHIC PAPERS (BLACK AND WHITE)

Modern photographic papers basically composed of

light sensitive coating (emulsion) on a paper or support.

The emulsion suspended on a gelatin is generally made

of silver halide salts.

To withstand the rigors of soaking in chemical solutions

and water during processing and washing, as well as the
variety of degree in humidity and temperature, the base is
made of wood pulp.

Characteristics of Photographic Paper

a. Emulsion Speed

1. Chloride paper- has a slow speed and is suited for contact printing.

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2. Bromide paper- has a fast speed and is recommended for projection

printing or enlarging.

3. Chloro-bromide paper- is a multi-speed and could be used in both contact

printing and enlarging.

The contrast of an emulsion also affects the printing speed. For some papers
the lighter the contrast grade, the slower the speed.
b. Exposure and developmental latitude

Latitude is the degree or amount of which you can deviate from the ideal
exposure or development without appreciable loss of print quality.

1. Exposure latitude
Generally, photographic papers do not have a wide exposure latitude so
exposure or development without appreciable loss of print quality.

2. Developmental latitude
Papers that do change appreciable in contrast and image tone with
reasonable variations in development has a good latitude. However, for best
quality the developing time should be as near as those prescribed by the
manufacturer.

c. Contrast Range or Grade

In Black and white printing, it is often necessary to adjust the paper contrast so
they can yield a natural scene result from negatives with density range that are either
too high or too low.

In most photographic papers, the contrast range or grade are indicated by

numbers- numbers 0-5.

1. Numbers 0-1 – are used on over-exposed or low contrast negative.

2. Numbers 2- are used on normal exposed or normal contrast negative.

3. Numbers 3 to 5- are used in under-exposed or high contrast negative.

d. Physical Characteristics

Under this category, photographic papers come in different surfaces base

thickness or weight and color.

1. Surfaces of photographic papers

It vary in surface texture or degrees gloss or sheen. They are the glossy
and smooth, semi-matte or silk, and the matte or the rough surface.

2. Base weight or thickness

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Under this category, we have the light weight, single weight, medium
weight, and the double weight.

3. Color maybe “cold” or white with a very slight blue cast, and the “warm” or
cream where the white has a slight yellow- brown line.

PHOTOGRAPHIC PAPERS FOR COLOR PRINTING

It is essentially similar to the film used in the camera except that the emulsion layers
are coated on a paper base and contain couplers which are color less. Colored couplers are
not used because the print would then be unsuitable for direct viewing.

Printing a negative in complementary colors on a non-reversal print reverses both the

tone scale and the color of the negative. Thus, the final result is a positive reproduction within
the accuracy limits of the photographic processes of the tones and colors of the original
subject

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CHAPTER 4

CAMERA

CAMERA

Is a light tight box; with a lens to form an image with a shutter and diaphragm to
control the entry of the image; a means of holding a film to record the image and a
viewer or a viewfinder to show the photographer what the image is.

Camera Classification:

1. The size of the film they use / format of the picture they produce

a. Large Format- have bellows and use sheet films in the size 4x5, 5x7, and 8
x

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b. Medium Format- some are folding type with bellows with film size of 120,
220 and 70mm.

c. Small Format- with film size 126, 110, 35mm, 16mm and 8 mm.

2. The viewing/focusing system

1. Those with focusing mechanism at the back of the camera

2. Those with optical viewfinder

3. SYSTEM CAMERAS
Its rigid body design accepts a wide variety of lenses, viewers, film back
and accessories can be attached or integrated to adapt to scientific, technical,
architectural, astronomical, underwater, and many other kinds of photography.

4. DIGITAL CAMERAS
This type of camera digitalizes the image which can then be put into a
computer and enhanced through a software package such as adobe
photoshop.

Two types of digital cameras

1. Those with fixed memory

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2. Those with removable memory

The simplest type of camera is the box type, also
commonly referred to as the instamatic or the newer generation
“point and shot” cameras.

In forensic photography, the most ideal camera type to use is the single-lens-
reflex (SLR) camera.

TYPES OF CAMERAS

1. CAMERA OBSCURA
It was the forerunner of the photographic cameras today.

2. INSTANT CAMERA
It will produce a finished print in 20 seconds to about 4 minutes. Ex.
Polaroid Camera

3. SPY CAMERA
These are small wireless detectors, aka. Security hidden camera

4. RANGE FINDER
It has a viewfinder which like most instamatic cameras are independent
of the main lens of the camera.

5. SINGLE LENS REFLEX (SLR) CAMERA

The images seen through the viewfinder window is a replica image;
when using a standard lens, the images is similar in sized an appearance to the
scene before the unaided eye.

6. TWIN-LENS REFLEX CAMERA or TLR

It is equipped with two identical optical systems, one of which focuses
on the film when the shutter is opened. The other reflects a similar image up
toward the top of the camera and focuses it upside down and reversed on a
ground glass screen.

Because both lenses on a TLR are linked, correct focus on the viewing
screen will guarantee correct focus through the main lens.

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METHODS OF IMAGE FORMATION

1. PINHOLE
It is a small or tiny hole which produces an image entirely free from distortion
butt is image I so dim that it is impractically long even if the faster film is used. It is also
not practical to enlarge the hole for more light because the larger the hole, the more
blurred is the image.

2. SHADOW METHOD- formed by simply the shadow of the object. Ex. X-ray

3. LENS METHOD

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LENS

Is a transparent medium which either converge or diverge light rays passing

through it to form an image.

2 MAJOR TYPES OF LENSES

1. The convergent or positive or convex lens

This lens is always thicker at the center and thinner at the sides

2. The divergent, negative, or concave lens.

This lens is always thinner at the center and thicker at the side.

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TYPE OF LENSES

1. Biconvex (double convex or just convex)- a lens where both surfaces are convex.

2. Plano-Convex/Plan0 concave- one of the surfaces is flat depending on the

curvature of the other surface
3. Meniscus- a lens with one convex and one concave side. It is the type of lens that is
most commonly used in corrective lenses.

4. Biconcave (double concave or just concave)- a lens where both surfaces are
concave

5. Positive (Converging Lens)- if the lens is biconvex or planu convex, a collimated or

paralled to the lens axis and passing through the lens will be converged (or focused) to
a spot on the axis, at a certain distance behind the lens (known as the focal length).

LENS ABERRATIONS
-or lens defects

1. Spherical Aberrations

When light passing through near the central part of a converging lens is bended
more sharply than those rays falling in the edge, thus rays coming from the edges are
focused on a plane nearer the lens than those coming from the central part.

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2. Coma

This is concerned with the light rays entering the lens obliquely. Also known as
lateral spherical aberration. The defect is noticeable only on the other edges and not
on the central part of the lens.

If a lens has coma. Circular objects reproduced at the corners of the negative
are comet-like form. Just like the spherical aberration, it is reduced by combinations of
lenses of different curvatures.

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3. CURVATURE OF FIELD

The images formed by a lens comes sharper in curve surface than a flat surface.

4. DISTORTION

It is a lens with distortion is incapable of rendering straight line correctly; either

horizontal or vertical line in an object.

This is cause by the placement of the diaphragm.

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2 TYPES OF DISTORTION

1. Barrel Distortion
The diaphragm is placed in front of the lens, straight, line near the
edges of the object tends to be bulge outside.

2. Pincushion Distortion
The diaphragm is place behind the lens, straight lines near the edges
tends to be inward.

5. CHROMATIC ABERRATION

It is the inability of the lens to bring photographic rays of different wavelengths to same
focus.

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6. ASTIGMATISM

If a single point near the margin of the negative will be imaged not as a point but as
two perpendicular short lines, one of which is always out of focus while the other is sharp.

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7. CHROMATIC DIFFERENCE OF MAGNIFICATION

The size of image produced by photographic rays of one wave length is

different from the size produced by another.

DEGREE OF CORRECTION TO LENS

1. ACHROMATIC LENS- corrected for chromatic aberration

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2. RAPID- RECTININEAR LENS- corrected for distortion

3. ANASTIGMAT LENS- corrected for astigmatism as well as the other lens

defects

4. APOCHROMATIC LENS- also corrected for astigmatism but with higher

degree of correction to color.

FOCAL LENGTH

It refers to the distance measured from the lens to the film

Focal Distance- distance from lens to the film

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INFINITY- Distance of 600 ft. or more of the subject to the film.

FOCAL LENGTH OF THE LENS- The property of the lens that will focus the
subject at infinity at a certain distance from the lens.

LENS ABERRATIONS- is an anomaly of the lens which causes distortion of the

image due to lens curvature or color at the edge of the lens.

TYPES OF LENS AS ACCORDING TO FOCAL LENGTH

1. WIDE ANGLE LENS

It is a lens with a focal length of less than the diagonal of its negative material.
This lens will have a wide area of coverage but produces a small image size.

This is usually used in taking pictures indoor or inside a small room. It is used
outdoor to get a paranomic view of a scene.

2. NORMAL LENS

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It is a lens with a focal length

approximately equal or more but not
more than twice the diagonal of its
negative material. It is referred to
as normal because its coverage
corresponds to nearly the coverage
of the human eye.

3. TELEPHOTO LENS
Is a lens with a focal length of more than twice the diagonal of its negative
material.

This lens produces a bigger image of objects at far distance but is area of
coverage is smaller.

4. ZOOM LENS

It is a lens with variable focal length.

They are commonly used with

still, video, motion picture cameras,
projectors, some binoculars,
microscopes, telescopes, telescopic
sights, and other optical instruments.

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A zoom lens is a lens which can go from wide angle to telephoto range. Or
from low telephoto range to high telephoto range, means from low value of focal
length to a high value of focal length.

But a telephoto lens is specially made for working in the telephoto range.

WIDE ANGLE LENS- used when photographing narrow and crowded spaces

NORMAL LENS- lenses which are commonly used in regular photography

TELEPHOTO- fixed lenses used in photographing long or far distance

ZOOM LENS- lenses which are variable. It can photograph from the shortest to longest
distances.

MACRO LENS- lenses that enlarges objects and magnify from 1 to 9x

MICRO LENS- used to photograph minute objects and magnify and enlarged from 10x
up

LENS DIAPHRAGM

In between the lens component of a camera is a metal diaphragm which can be

expanded or constricted by moving a turning ring on the lens mount or barrel.

The size of the opening is indicated by markings of f-numbers. Each f-number

represents the ratio of the focal length of the lens and the diameter of the opening.

The common f-numbers are 1.8, 2, 2.8, 4, 5.6,8,11,16 and 22.

The diaphragm serves as controller of speed, depth of field and definitions.

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APERTURE

The lower the f-number, the wider the aperture. The wider the aperture, the
more light that gets in to the sensor. These are “fast” apertures – like f/1.4 or f/2.8.

The higher the f-number, the smaller the aperture. The smaller the aperture,
the less light that gets in. These are “slow” apertures – like f/16 or f/22.

Why “Fast” Lenses Are Better

Now that’s a pretty broad statement; however, most of us have more of a need
for a “fast” lens than we do a slower lens. There are a couple of big benefits to “fast”
lenses:
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1. More exposure options in low light

2. Isolated subjects with out of focus backgrounds

Because more light can get in when using a lower f-number, you can often get
better images in available light – especially when that light is relatively dim.

The image was captured using a Canon 50mm lens using only available light.

By opening the aperture all the way up to the f/1.8 setting, I was able to use
available window light and keep a fast shutter speed of 1/250s.

Using a wide aperture can help

prevent camera shake and decrease
motion blur in available light scenes
because you have the ability to use
a faster shutter speed.

By setting the aperture value to

f/2.8 It was able to separate the
favorite subject from the background
of flowers and trees.

If the aperture had been set

higher to f/8 or so, then the flowers
would be more in focus and, perhaps,
distracting from the main subject.

While you don’t always need or

want a shallow depth of field, it’s nice
to have the option.

DEPTH OF FIELD

It is defined as the distance between the nearest and the farthest object in
apparent sharp focus when the lens is set or focus in a given distance.

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The area within the depth of field appears sharp, while the areas in front of and
beyond the depth of field appear blurry.

A 35 mm lens set to f/11. The depth-of-field

scale (top) indicates that a subject which is anywhere
between 1 and 2 meters in front of the camera will be
rendered acceptably sharp.

If the aperture were set to f/22 instead,

everything from just over 0.7 meters almost to infinity
would appear to be in focus.

The smaller the opening, the longer depth of field; the wider the opening, the
shorter depth of field.

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The general Rule

the shorter the focal length, the wider or longer is the depth of field;

the longer is the focal length the shorter is the depth of field.

CIRCLE OF CONFUSION

It refers to a small circle when is seen by the eye, not as circle but a dot or
point.

HYPERFOCAL DISTANCE

The hyperfocal distance is the closest distance at which a lens can be focused
while keeping objects at infinity acceptably sharp; that is, the focus distance with the maximum
depth of field. When the lens is focused at this distance, all objects at distances from half of
the hyperfocal distance out to infinity will be acceptably sharp.

DEFINITION

It is the term refers to the ability of the lens to form a clear image of fine details.
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Not even a theoretically perfect lens would be capable of imaging a point

source of light as a geometrical point. All practical lenses images such as point as a
small blur which changes in character with the change of lens aperture.

Decreasing the lens aperture improves the definition as it removes the small
amount of haze caused by residual aberrations.

PHOTOGRAPHIC PERSPECTIVE AND CORRECT VIEWING DISTANCE

The human eye sees in three dimensions but a lens reproduces a view in two
dimensions. The missing dimension, depth- is suggested mainly by the relative size and
position of various objects or perspective and therefore the naturalness of the photograph is
determined by the position of the camera.

A camera position too close to the subjects results in an exaggerated magnification of

the parts nearer the lens.

FOCUSING

It is the setting of the proper distance in order to form a sharp image. Focusing
is the main factor that will determine the sharpness of the images on a photograph.

There are other factors to be considered like camera movement or motion of

the subject when the photograph is actually being taken.

3 METHODS OF FOCUSING SCALE

1. Scale bed or focusing scale

2. Rangefinder
3. Groundglass

1. SCALE BED

On the mount or barrel of the camera

lens there are two sets of pre-setted distance
expressed in feet (ft) and in meters (m).

This is the scale bed or focusing scale.

These distances correspond to the

distance from the camera lens to the subject.

To focus with this method, one has to used a measuring device and actually
measures the distance from the lens of the camera to the subject. Whatever distance
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was measured, will be the setting of the marker or pointer of focus. If actual
measurement is not possible or undertaken, estimation, calculation or approximation of
this particular distance can be resorted to.

However, the accuracy of the focus is dependent upon the accuracy of

estimation, calculation or approximation.

2. RANGEFINDERS

A rangefinder is a mechanism used to measure the angle of

convergence of light as seen from two apertures or opening but viewed at the
same time.

In modern cameras, the rangefinder is coupled with the viewfinder.

2 TYPES OF RANGEFINDERS

1. Split-Image

With this type, when one looks through the viewfinders of a camera,
there is a circle on the central part with a line running across the circle. To
determine the focus with this type, pick a straight line in the subject and view it
on the circle. If the straight line is cut and separated from each other, the
focusing is not correct.

Rotate the barrel of the lens until the said straight line is viewed as
straight and the lens are in focus.

This method of focusing is standard in single lens reflex camera since it

is made from light rays passing through the lens, it is not affected by the
problem of parallax.

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2. Co-Incident Image

This method of focusing is usually used on compact cameras with a

fixed lens. With this type, when you look into the viewfinder, you’ll notice a
rectangle- in other cameras, its circle- on the upper left portion of the
viewfinder.

For emphasis, manufacturer of the camera usually add color to it,

generally a tint of yellow or green.

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3. Groundglass

This method of focusing is accomplished by direct observation of the

image of the subject on a glass with finely grounded surface known as
groundglass. This groundglass is found at the back of a camera or in the case
of modern cameras, also couple with the viewfinder.

The point of focus is where the image is sharpest. If the image appears
to be blurred, fuzzy or not sharp, it is out of focus.

Depth of Focus or Focal Range

When a lens is focused on any given subject, there is one lens-to-film distance
where the image is sharpest, as the lens is moved close to the film or farther away
from the film, the sharpness decreases. There is a small range of movement on either
side of the position of the best focus in which the degree of unsharpness is acceptable,
and the total range is called “Depth of Focus”.

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Parallax

It is the change of appearance and orientation of objects when seen from two
viewpoints. It is also used to refer to the distance between the viewpoints themselves.

A simplified illustration of the parallax of an object against a distant background

due to a perspective shift.

When viewed from "Viewpoint A", the object appears to be in front of the blue
square. When the viewpoint is changed to "Viewpoint B", the object appears to have
moved in front of the red square.

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SHUTTER

It is a device that opens to uncover the film to make an exposure for an accurately
timed intervals then closes automatically.

The action of the shutter is expressed in the different shutter speed which corresponds
to the length of time or duration of the opening to the closing of the shutter.

B- for bulb or brief

1, 2, 4, 8, 15, 30, 60, 125, 250, 500, 1000

The B setting is an exposure setting for more than one second. 1 is for one second, 2-
is for one-half second, 4- is for one fourth of a second, and all succeeding numbers are also
fraction of second.

---the higher the number, the faster the shutter speed and will admit less lights

--- the lower the number, the slower is the shutter speed and will admit more
light.

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2 TYPES OF SHUTTER

1. CENTRAL SHUTTER OR BETWEEN THE LENS

This shutter is located in between the lens component. It is made of metal

blades. Its action starts from the center toward the sides then closes back to the
center. This type of shutter, can be synchronized with a flash unit with every shutter
speed.

2. FOCAL PLANE SHUTTER

This shutter is located directly in front of the film or on the focal plane. It is
usually made of cloth or metal curtain. Its acton starts from one side and closes on the
opposite side. This type of shutter can give a faster shutter speeds than the between-
the-lens shutter.

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EXPOSURE

Is the action of recording radiant energy that produces a change on a material

or substance sensitive to such energy.

Exposure is quantitative: it is the product of the total light intensity and the
length of time it strikes the emulsion.

Actually, there is not one correct exposure, but there is an ideal or proper
exposure. Exposure therefore subjective and errors in calculation could result in either
“over-exposure” or “under-exposure”,

One good rule in judging proper exposure is the presence or visibility of details of the
subject, not only in the middle tones but also in the highlights and shadow areas.

A simple rule provides a universal exposure guide for a color and black and white films
are based on the ff. Factors:

1. Film speed
2. Lightning condition
3. Type of subject

A general formula used in exposure setting of an average or normal subject in the sun
or open sky.

For average or normal subjects:

Film Speed Lightning Condition

Bright Sun Hazy Sun Dull Sun

ISO 100/21 1/125 f11 f8 f5.6

ISO 200/24 1/250 f11 f8 f5.6

or 1/125 f16 f11 f8

ISO 400/27 1/500 f11 f8 f5.6

or 1/250 f16 f11 f8
or 1/125 f22 f16 f11

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BRACKETING

This technique is used when exposure calculation that will give a desired result
in uncertain; make several exposure of less than and more than the calculated exposure by
two or four f-stop each.

-4 stops - 2 stops

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+ 2 stops + 4 stops

EXPOSURE METER

Photographic exposure meter

It measures light intensities and have calculators or computer to find camera

settings that will produce good exposures.

The exposure calculators are mechanical device or sets of reference tables

from which exposure data can be obtained on observed subjects and lightning
conditions.

LIGHT METER
-is a device used to measure the amount of light. In photography, a light
meter is often used to determine the proper exposure for a photograph

DIGITAL MANUAL

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Proper exposure with the use of an exposure meter is done by;

1. Reflected –Light
It measures the light reflected by the scene to be photographed

2. Incident- light meter reading

It measures the amount of light falling on the subject

EXISTING LIGHT

It is also called Ambient Light or Available Photography

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This is the taking of photographs using only the light that happens to be at the
scene. This could be the natural light sources from the windows, doors, skylight,
twilight, or after dark, or from artificial dark, or from artificial light sources like table
lamps, ceiling fixture lights, spotlights, neon lights, candles, fireplace or bonfire, etc.

Because of the very wide variety of light sources and lightning conditions,
exposure setting to be used can only be suggested with little or no assurance of
correctness.

The use of exposure meter or the use of the bracketing technique will be of
great help however, the use of fast lens speed and high-speed film is advised.

The saying” if you can see it, you can photography it.”

FLASH PHOTOGRAPHY

Brief flash of light produced by burning metal wires (flash bulb) or an electric
discharge through a gas-filled tube (electronic flash) is the common supplemental light
for still photography.

Flash
It is a device used in photography producing a flash of artificial light (typically
1/1000 to 1/200 of a second) at a color temperature of about 5500 K to help illuminate
a scene.

A major purpose of a flash is to illuminate a dark scene. Other uses are

capturing quickly moving objects or changing the quality of light

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A photo of a Smith & Wesson Model 686 firing, taken with a high-speed air-gap flash.

(The photo was taken in a darkened room, with camera's shutter open and the flash)

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SHUTTER SPEED

Flash and shutter speed are usually synchronized

Synchronization is the emitting of the camera shutter and the flash so that when
the shutter is fully opened, the time that the flash will yield its highest peaks of
illumination.

To be synchronized, a shutter speed of 1/60 or slower will use for old camera-
w/cloth curtain

a shutter speed of 1/125 or slower will use for newer model-w/metal curtain

LENS OPENING

Flash exposure may be computed by the use of the “guide number” of a flash
unit. A guide number is usually dependent of the film speed and the light output.

Electronic flash guide number are based reflected light output of the unit base
on the BEAM CANDLE POWER SECOND (BCPS) or EFFECTIVE CANDLE POWER
SECONDS (ECPS) .

The guide number can be found on reference table at the back of the flash unit.

The guide number is the product of the maximum flash-to-subject distance and
the f-number of the aperture that will correctly expose film or a digital sensor with the
specified sensitivity.

GN = distance × f-number

This simple relationship is well-defined because the brightness of a flash falls

off with the square of the distance, but the amount of light admitted through an aperture
decreases with the square of the f-number.

The distance in the guide number calculation is the distance from the flash to
the subject

The guide number represents an exposure constant for a flash unit. For
example, a guide number of 80 feet at ISO 100 means that a target 20 feet away will
be correctly illuminated with an aperture of f/4 (80 = 20 × 4) using a sensitivity of ISO
100.

For the same guide number and an aperture of f/8, the light source should be
10 feet from the subject (80 = 10 × 8).

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Guide numbers are used to find the f-numbers at which the exposure should be
made on the following formula:

Guide number (GN)/ Distance in feet = f-number

Example:
GN is 64 and the lamp to subject distance in feet is 8 ft.

64/8=f8

The lens opening is set in f8.

ON-CAMERA FLASH

OFF-CAMERA FLASH

1. MULTIPLE FLASH
More than one flash unit is used. One is connected to the camera with a flash
cord while the others is attached to a “slave unit”.
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2. FILL-IN FLASH
When you want to eliminate
or add illumination to shadow area
or subject so detail that otherwise
will not appear clearly in the final picture

3. OPEN FLASH
The shutter speed is set at B and once the shutter is open, the flash is activated
or fired release manually. Then the shutter is released or closed.

PAINTING WITH LIGHT

It is another form of open flash technique.

With this technique, the flash unit is moved from place to place, fired manually
until all areas of the scene or large subjects are fully illuminated and the shutter is then
released or is closed.

This technique is used in photographing a stadium or in night photography and

the subject is a big building or an open filed with or no other source of illumination.

4. BOUNCE FLASH

Instead of the light going

directly to the subject, it is bounced
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on light colored ceilings or wall

near the subject.

This will give a softer effect

on the subject, and also diminish
or reduce harsh shadow that will
be casted by the subject.

On camera flash unit with a movable flash read is capable of bounce flash.

UMBRELLA FLASH

A modified type of bounce

flash by using an umbrella line with
silver, white, blue or amber
colored especially made for
photography.

The flash is mounted on the handle of the umbrella aimed at its inside center.
The inside center is then aimed toward the subject.

RING FLASH

This is a round or circular flash unit usually

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placed around the outer end of the camera lens.

This is used for taking close-ups or macro

photography especially in medical photography.

PHOTOGRAPHIC FILTERS

2 TYPES OF FILTER USED IN PHOTOGRAPHY

1. Optical Filter
2. Particle or Solution Filter

1. OPTICAL FILTER

Filters are made either of glass or acetate and used primarily to control
exposing energy (visible wavelength, ultraviolet, infrared rays) and the
composition of working illumination in areas where sensitized materials are
handled.

2. PARTICLE OR SOLUTION FILTER

It is used in special photographic procedure like in infrared

luminescence.

Most pictures taken by white light falling on a colored object; very few
things in nature are truly neutral.

White Light- is the sum total of all the colors of the rainbow

Black – is the absence of all colors

For our purpose, we consider white light as composed of the three

primary light colors- Blue, green and Red. When one or two of these colors is
subtracted or absorbed, we see the remaining color.

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Subtraction is the key to understanding of photographic filters. They

always subtract some of the light reflected from the scene before the light
reaches the film in the camera.

A colorless filter will transmit visible light and absorb specific radiant
energy like ultra0violet rays

Because a filer prevents or subtracts some portions of the exposing

energy form reaching the film, exposure must be increased in order to obtain
proper result. The amount of increase required with panchromatic film is
expressed by an number called filter factor.

TYPES OF FILTERS

1. Light Balancing filter

2. Color Compensating Filter
3. Neutral Density Filter
4. Polarizing Filter

1. LIGHT BALANCING FILTER

A Filter used to change the color quality of the exposing light in order to
secure proper color balance for artificial light films

2. COLOR COMPENSATING FILTER

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This used to change the over-all color balance of photographic result

obtained with color films and to compensate for deficiencies in the quality of
exposing energy.

3. NEUTRAL DENSITY FILTER

The filter is used when the light is too bright to allow the use of desired f-
number or shutter speed with a particular film.

4. POLARIZING FILTER

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Is used to reduce or minimize reflections on subject like water glass, and

highly polished surfaces.
CHAPTER 5

PHOTOGRAPHIC PRINTING AND CHEMICAL

PROCESSING

After the exposure of the film in the picture taking or the photographic
paper during printing, the next step would generally be chemical processing.

In black and white processing;

1. Development
2. Stop-bath
3. Fixation

In Color Processing;
1. Color Development
2. Stop-Fix
3. Stabilizer

1. DEVELOPMENT
Is the process by which an invisible latent image in an emulsion is made
visible.
In black and white emulsion, the image is composed of grains of black
metallic silver,

In color emulsion, the developed silver is replaced with cyan, yellow and
magenta dye.

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In development, a developing agent chemically breaks down or reduced

exposed silver halide crystals to form grains of metallic silver. This process or
reaction is the same in both black and white films and photographic papers.

2. STOP-BATH
Halts the developer action in appropriate moment. It also prevents
contamination of the developer and fixer from each other.

3. FIXATION
A fixer make the developed image permanent when it is followed by a
thorough washing. In this processing stage, the unexposed under developed
silver halide crystals are dissolved and removed from the emulsion of the
photographic material.

FILM PROCESSING

Can be carried out in trays, tanks, or mechanized equipment.

Panchromatic materials must handled in total darkness

Other materials like blue films, orthochromatic films and printing papers are
handled under a safelight.

EQUIPMENT FOR FILM PROCESSING

1. Tank or tray
2. Developing reel
3. Opener for film cartridge (pliers). Some .35 mm films have a reusable
cartridge that can be snapped open by hand but others can only be opened
with a pair of pliers.

4. Scissors to cut the tongue of the film

5. Thermometer
6. Timer
7. Funnel
8. Photographic sponge
9. Film Clips for drying
10. Glass or plastic Bottles (gallons size) for storing mixed solutions.

FILM PROCESSING PROCEDURE

1. Tank method of film Development

2. Tray method of film Development
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1. TRAY METHOD OF FILM DEVELOPMENT

With this method of film development, the developer is placed on a tray. In total
darkness, remove the film from the cartridge then hold one end of the film and immerse
the film in the developer in the tray making sure that the film is evenly wet.

This developing procedure is actually not recommended because the film has a
long contact with air during the procedure which can cause aerial fog. Besides it is
more tedious and tiring especially with a 36 exposure film.

DEVELOPER FORMULATION

A TYPICAL COMPONENT OF BLACK AND WHITE DEVELOPER ARE:

1. SOLVENT (WATER)
2. DEVELOPING AGENT
3. PRESERVATIVE
4. ACCELERATOR OR ACTIVATOR
5. RESTRAINER

Various chemicals can serve this function. Chemicals chosen are

determine whether it is slow or fast acting, produce high, or low contrast,
achieves maximum emulsion speed, creates fine grain or acts in number of
ways

D-76 FILM DEVELOPER FORMULA

1. Water 52C or 125F - 750 ml

2. Elon - 2 grams
3. Hydroquinone - 5 grams
4. Sodium Sulfite - 100 grams
5. Borax (granules) - 2 grams
6. Water to make - 1 liter

DEKTOL- Paper Developer

1. Water 52C or 125F - 500 ml

2. Elon - 311 grams
3. Hydroquinone - 12 grams
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4. Sodium Sulfite - 4.5 grams

5. Sodium Carbonate - 67.5 grams
6. Potassium bromide - 1 gram
7. Water to make - 1 liter

2. STOP-BATH

Stop-bath can be plain water only with 28% glacial acetic acid

FIXING BATH FORMULA

This is recommended generally for both films and photographic papers.

THE CHEMICAL COMPONENT OF A FIXING BATH ARE:

1. Water
2. Dissolving agent
3. Preservative
4. Neutralizer
5. Hardener

A typical fixer formula:

1. Water 50C or 135F - 600 ml

2. Hypo (sodium thiosulfate) - 240 grams
3.Sodium Sulfite (anhydrous) - 15 grams
4. Acetic Acid (28%) - 480 ml
5. Boric Acid (Crystals) - 7.5 ml
6. Potassium alum (fine granular) - 15 grams
7. Water to make - 1 liter

PHOTOGRAPHIC PRINTING

THERE ARE 2 TYPES OF PHOTOGRAPHIC PRINTING:

1. CONTACT PRINTING
2. PROJECTION PRINTING OR ENLARGING

1. CONTACT PRINTING
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It is the procedure of exposing photographic print materials while it is pressed in

contact with the negative being reproduced. This is the simplest and the most
economical method of photographic printing.

2. PROJECTION PRINTING OR ENLARGING

This is a type of printing where the image in a negative is optically

projected or enlarged onto a print material for exposure to produce a picture
image. The main equipment used is enlarger.

There are two types of Enlargers

1. Diffusion type
2. Condenser type

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1. A diffuser enlarger's light source is diffused (without being absorbed and change
direction of path) by translucent glass or plastic, providing even illumination for the film.
Diffuser enlargers produce an image of the same contrast as a contact print from the
negative.

2. A condenser enlarger consists of a light source, a condensing lens, a holder for the
negative and a projecting lens. The condenser provides even illumination to the
negative beneath it. Condenser enlargers produce higher contrast than diffusers
because light is scattered from its path by the negative's image silver; this is called the
Callier Effect. The condenser's increased contrast emphasizes any negative defects,
such as dirt and scratches, and image grain.

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ENLARGING PROCEDURE FOR BLACK AND WHITE

Before undertaking the enlarging procedure, mix or prepare the chemical

solutions according to specifications; the negative; and the enlarger; and the darkroom
which must be clean and proper order

Follow the fundamental steps in enlarging:

CROPPING is the excluding or omitting some images on the negative from the
final point. Local exposure control is achieved by either burning-in or dodging.

BURNING-IN is the adding of exposure time on a specific area to bring out

details.

DODGING is the holding back of some lights to a specific area to make it lighter
in density.

Note:
You can use your hand or improve with a thick paper material for both
burning-in or dodging technique.

Generally, over-exposed and underdeveloped prints are often mottled and lack
contrast on shadow areas are good gradation of tone in the highlights. Underexposed
and overdeveloped prints usually lack details in the highlights and they often show
chemical fog or yellow stains.

Factors affects developing time:

a. Concentration and freshness of the chemical solution

b. Temperature
c. Agitation

EQUIPMENT FOR PAPER DEVELOPING

1. Three plastic rays

2. Metal, plastic or bamboo tong with rubber ends to hold the prints
3. Rubber hand gloves
4. Timers
5. Paper cutter
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6. A bigger tray or tank for washing prints

COLOR PRINTING PROCESS

A color negative film is printed on a color photographic paper which is

essentially similar to the films used in a camera except that the emulsion layer is
coated in a paper base and couplers (number of things) which are colorless.

Colored couplers are not used because the prints would then be unsuitable for
direct viewing. Printing a color negative in complementary colors in a non-reversal print
material reverse both tone scale and the color of the negative within the accuracy limit
of the photographic process of the tone and color of the original subject.
The blue sensitive layer produces a yellow color when developed.

The green sensitive layer produces a magenta color when developed.

The red sensitive layer produces cyan color when developed.

Color and density of a photograph taken with a color negative film can be
adjusted quite freely to a certain extent.

Raising the density will make the image darker while lowering it will make the
image lighter, and by adding cyan we can give the image an over-all bluish tinge (to
color) while removing yellow will emphasize magenta and cyan giving the image a
purplish tinge.

The most important point to be emphasized in connection with film processing in

the strict adherence to the instructions for the mixing of solutions and carrying out
processing steps.

The mixing and processing operations are not so difficult yet they are exacting in
the steps in the sense that the steps must be standardized critically if repeatable result are
to be obtained.

a. Temperature Control
Normal color negative developing temperature is 38 degree C , process
C-41.

b. Agitation
The C-41 film processing steps are:

1. Color developer
2. Bleach-Fix
3. Stabilizer

C-41
It is a chromogenic color print film developing process.
Also known as
CN-16 by Fuji
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CNK-4 by Konica
AP-70 by AGFA

It is the most popular film process in use, with most

photofinishing labs devoting at least one machine to this development
process.

COLOR PRINTING

Printing of color negatives are basically the same as black and white negative.

The major difference lies in the use of filters. Filters are used for corrections of
density and color balance. Basically, though, the print can be made darker or lighter by
increasing or decreasing exposure time. Color balance can be subtlety or radically
altered by changing the filter pack.

Dodging technique is the same as in black and white printing. In the

processing stage, color temperature control is more critical. Likewise, the processing
time in each stage is more precise and accurate up to drying step of color prints.

EQUIPMENTS:

1. Enlarger with built dial-in filter or with provision for placing filters between the
light source and the negative. The source is generally a tungsten-halogen lamp.
The use of fluorescent lam is not advice.

2. Color Photographic paper

3. Filters- acetate color printing filters that absorb ultraviolet rays from the light
source.

4. Safelights- kodak safelight filter no.13 (amber) with 15 watts bulb.

Follow the procedure in color printing of a negative.

COLOR COMPARED TO BLACK AND WHITE

Since we live in a world of color it is only natural that in general, we find color
photographs. Comparatively speaking, black and white photographs are more of an
abstraction from reality, or in other words, they are commonly accepted on their merits
as pictures.

In a portrait, it is the likeness that is considered as the paramount importance,

but other types of black and white prints tend to be judged without reference to or
regard for the appearance of the original scene. As a result, tone rendition in black and
white prints can vary over a wide range and still remain satisfactorily

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In forensic photography, generally, fingerprints and handwritings, or other

printed materials which are subject for examination, analysis, comparison and
evaluation are black and white (for contrast) in their original appearance so the use of
color photographs is not adviced.

In the case of color photographs, however, an average observer tends to make

a more direct comparison between subject and reproduction. His thoughts and
comments will be based on a considerably greater extent on his recollection of the
original scene or his conception of how the original scene should have appeared.

PROBLEMS IN COLOR PHOTOGRAPHY

1. COLOR OF QUALITY OF ILLUMINATION

Essentially, the problem in color work is the fact that color film does not “see”
color as the human eye. The color of the light is bluer with higher temperature and
yellower with lower temperature.

Color Temperature is expressed in degree Kelvin (K) obtained by adding 273 to

the temperature in degree centigrade.

2. SUBJECT CONTRAST
Subject contrast of a film depends largely on one factor-lightning contrast-which
is the ratio between the highest and the lowest amount of illumination falling on the
principal subject.

3. EXPOSURE ACCURACY
Color Films, particularly the reversal type have much less exposure latitude
than black and white films. Exposure setting must therefore be determined with greater
degree of accuracy. Use of exposure meter is highly adviced in the setting of correct
exposure.

4. COLOR PERCEPTION
Inexperienced observer sometimes cannot recognize subtle tint mixtures and
reflections brought about by the effects of lightning condition and their sorroundings

5. COLOR HARMONY
COLOR harmony is the systematic arrangement of colors to give a pleasing
effect. This subject is complex because of personal taste. This is a problem in
commercial photography and illustrative work but seldom in forensic work.

6. COLOR BLINDNESS
People with this defective color vision have difficulty in distinguishing and
naming colors. They sometime see part of the spectrum as gray.
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Pentaprism
This glass prism allows the photographer to view exactly what the lens
is ‘seeing’ and therefore what the film will eventually be exposed to. The
important feature here is that the image is not reversed or upside down, but is
displayed in the correct orientation.

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PHOTOGRAPHY DARKROOM

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CHAPTER 6

APPLICATION OF PHOTOGRAPHY IN POLICE WORK

GENERAL APPLICATION

After a theory, comes actual practice. Every difficult endeavor requires the
integration of two import areas so success can be obtained-theory and practice.

There is almost always a tendency to disregard the theoretical aspects

associated with a special problem so that the practical consideration can be studied.
Without a sound framework relating to the significant theory background of any
problem, it is virtually impossible to ensure that the finish product is the best possible
one which can be obtained under a given set of circumstances.

Photography has and still continue to serve a wide variety of functions in our
criminal justice system. The extent to which photography can be applied in the different
pillars of our criminal justice system will depend on the size of the organization, its
financial capabilities, the enthusiasm, imagination, and skill of its personnel.

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Graflex identification Camera

Listed are some applications which are subject of our brief discussion and for practical
exercises during laboratory work to build the basic foundation of the skill of a beginner and of
one who is already in the practice of forensic photography.

1. IDENTIFICATION PURPOSES

a. Prisoner, persons subject of investigation

b. Unidentified cadavers (victims of crime, traffic accidents, airline crash,

collapse of big buildings, shipwrecks, stampede, explosion, natural calamities
like earthquakes, landslides, cave-in of mines, tidal waves, massive flood, etc.

Airline Crash

Shipwreck

Stampede
It is an act of mass impulse among herd animals or a crowd of people in
which the herd (or crowd) collectively begins running with no clear direction or
purpose.
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Explosion

Earthquake

c. Missing person (for publication and alert warning)

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d. Loss of stolen properties (work of art like paintings, sculpture, icons,

antiques, expensive jewelries, rare coins or books, etc.

e. Civilian (police clearance for employment, travel abroad, other purposes.

2. RECORDING AND PRESERVING OF EVIDENCES

a. Crime Scenes
(Homicide or murder, theft, or robbery,
arson, other crimes listed in the RPC as well
as other special laws (organized or syndicated,
crimes cyber-s[ace or computer crimes)

b. Traffic Accident

c. Objects of evidences
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(guns, bullet or shell,

knife, clothing, shoes, other
personal belongings, etc.)

d. Evidential traces

(fingerprints, shoe or tire prints,

bloodstains, and other fluids, tool marks,
bomb or explosive residue, etc.

3. DISCOVERING AND PROVING OF EVIDENCES NOT READILY SEEN BY THE

NAKED EYE

a. Contrast control lightning, use of filters, use of different films and papers

b. Magnification or enlargements of tiny objects by the application of photo

microphotography or photo macrography

a. PHOTOMICROGRAPHY
It is the taking of photograph through a microscope. The camera is attached to
the eyepiece and it is the lens of the microscope that is used in photographing.

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b. PHOTOMACROGRAPHY or MACROPHOTOGRAPHY
It is the taking of photograph with a short focus lens. It is an extreme close-up
of small objects to photographed to 1:1 or an actual size or slightly bigger.

c. MICROPHOTOGRAPHY
It is the taking of a photograph of an object in a very reduced size or tiny
images of large objects, for example, a microfilm.

It is also an art of making such images

C. USE OF INVISIBLE RADIATION LIKE X-RAYS, AND INFRARED RAYS

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4. RECORDING ACTION OF OFFENDERS

a. Surveillance
b. Entrapment
c. Extra-judicial confession
d. Re-enactment of a crime

5. COURT EXHIBITS

a. Individual photographs
b. Slide projections
c. Comparison charts
d. Motion picture or video coverage/presentation

6. FOR CRIME PREVENTION

Visual presentation for lectures on traffic education, modus operandi of “con

game artist”, snatchers or hold-uppers, civil defense, informational services shared with
other local or foreign police organization, business establishment and industrial
complex security.

7. PUBLIC INFORMATION

Photographs for press release, posters of wanted criminals, crime alerts, etc.

Police administrator must build a good public image of his organization,

humanitarian services-search and rescue, can portray image that indeed the police is a
public servant, a protector and a friend.

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8. POLICE TRAINING

Prepared training films or video

presentations of personnel indoctrination,
police tactics, investigative techniques,
traffic control, civil disturbances
(demonstration control, riots, or prison
disorders, documentaries for pre- post
briefings on police operations, etc.

SPECIFIC APPLICATION

From which he can be recognized by witnesses or police officers.

These photographs should strive to reproduce every mole, scar, wrinkles and
other marks which will help identify the subject. Generally, a full front lightning will
accomplished it.

The standard photographs for identification is the head and shoulder shot of the
subjects front and profile (either full side view or quarter face).

The ear of a person is a very distinctive feature for identification so every effort
to show it must be observed especially with women or even men with long hair.

Shot with closed eyes should be retaken to show the normal appearance of the
subject’s eye.

Full length body shot or stand-up are sometimes taken on suspects of serious
crime or like in a robbery case where witness has seen the suspect at a distance or
while running.

This type of photograph can give additional information on body contours or

appearance and characteristic posture.

A person should be photographed with his head uncovered.

If he normally wear glasses, he should be photographed with it another without

glasses.
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At a police headquarters or station, an space should be reserved for an

identification gallery where two lights with reflector, a clear and white background can
be set-up so identification photographs can be standardized.

The basic arrangement would be that the lamp on the right of the camera will
be 12 t0 18 inches than the lens

While the lamp on the left will be 12 to 18 inches lower than the lens.

The camera must be parallel to the subject’s face with the lens on the level of
the eye of the subject.

Maintained the sized of photographs will be uniform without the necessity of

either reduction or enlargement.
In taking pictures of unknown cadavers for identification purposes, the face
should be wash and cleared of mud, dirt, grease or other foreign matters before the
picture taking.

Usually, the subject is lying on his back so to maintain the parallelism of the
camera and the face, the photographer must stand straddle on the body of the victim.

A data board bearing the name of the subject or his alias, the police department
or unit handling the case, case number, the date is some of information that are usually
included.

In photographing objects of evidence, when received for laboratory

examination
- standard procedure in lightning, camera position, data board, and a
ruler or measuring device placed at the bottom side of the subject

Color photographs are more prepared.

For more effective and effective system, use of computers is highly advice and
recommended including the use of digital camera.

Digital images can be sent via electronic communication, can be forwarded to

patrol units.

CRIME SCENE PHOTOGRAPHY

GENERAL CONSIDERATION

The primary purpose of crime-scene photography is to provide information that

will assist the successful investigation and subsequent prosecution of a criminal case.

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It is used as a permanent visual record of the exact and original location and
condition of the different aspects of the scene and vital evidences of proof.

Generally, crime scene photography serves in the following areas;

1. To provide the investigator and the prosecutor with an accurate pictorial

presentation of the appearance and position of objects at the scene.

2. To aid the questioning of suspects and witnesses when their sworn

statements are being taken

3. To present to the court an accurate picture of the scene thereby enabling

them to understand the evidences better and evaluated intelligently the
testimony concerning the distances of the defendants and witnesses.

Take note:

Photography is a means of visual communication basically with a more

universal way of conveying a message or idea than spoken or written words.

The aim or goal is to record maximum information to understand WHERE and

HOW the crime was committed.

The term “crime scene” refers not only to immediate locality in which the
criminal act was perpetrated but also to adjacent areas where important acts took
place immediately before or after the commission of the crime.

The number and types of photographs will naturally be determined by the

circumstances and details of the crime.

Forensic Photography is the documentation of the scene. It is an accurate and

logical story as told by the scene in visual form.

Each crime has individual features which will be photographed.

The judgement not be that of the photographer alone but in consultation with
the officer of the case.

PHOTOGRAPHIC RANGE

1. Long range or general view - 10 ft. beyond

2. The medium range or medium view - 6 to 9 ft.
3. The close-up - 1 to 5 ft.
4. The extreme close-up
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The photographic range or views can be categorized as;

1. Focusing on the location of the crime

2. Concentrating on the features of the offense
3. Centering on the result of the crime
4. Featuring the physical evidence existing the scene
5. Focusing on the follow-up activity not directly occurring at the immediate
scene.

The location:
Photographs should depict the various places which are part of the
crime scene areas, an aerial photograph, exterior view of a whole building
including nearly several rooms, are some examples.

The Nature:
The crime should be depicted by photographs which will assist the
investigator in determining the type of crime differentiating like in resolving
whether it is homicide or suicide or in cases which does not readily offer
obvious answers.

The result:
Of a crime may have several aspects, for example in a rape incident
which began as an house break-in through a kitchen door continued with
robbery and cultimated with the rape when the victim confronted the intruder.

The follow-up:
Photographs represents an outgrowth of the crime investigation.
Photograph autopsy, bruises or wounds on live victims or suspects are some
examples. These additional photographs will reveal greater depth of
understanding of the activities of the crime

PERSPECTIVE/CAMERA POSITION
-photograph should be made at the eye-level position.

LENSES
-wide angle lens and normal lens

MARKERS IN THE FIELD OF VIEW

LEGALLY ACCEPTED MARKERS OR MARKING DEVICE ARE THE FOLLOWING:

1. Ruler or measuring device

2. Identification data
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3. Location markers- numbers sign that cannot be seen in an over-all

photograph.

SPECIFIC CRIME

1. HOMICIDE OR MURDER
Photographs should provide information concerning the manner and
cause of death of the victim.

GENERAL CONSIDERATION

1. Exterior of the building including surrounding areas which will show

place and manner of entry or exit

2. The room or area where the body was found

3. Evidence of struggle

4. Signs of activities prior to the occurrence

5. Trace evidence

CAUSE OF DEATH

a. CRIMES INVOLVING FIREARMS

In taking photography must be in consultation and advice of a forensic

ballistician and medico-legal officer. Because the ballistician will determine
the distance at which the firearm was apparently fired

The medico legal officer, will determine the wound and path of the bullet
and the distinction between the entrance and exit of the bullet.

It should view from the direction in which the weapon was apparently
fired

Close-up- photographs of bullet holes with a scale

b. HANGING
The position of the body is prime importance,

Overall views of the body taken at torso and foot-level

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Shows the length of the body to the ground. Because it said that
murderer usually tries to raise body completely while suicide frequently does
not get his feet clear of the floor.

Close up shots are the knot, its size, type and location of the groove in
the neck, depth and the location of the groove in the neck, black and blue
marks along the groove, sings of violence about the neck, protrusion of the
tongue, or binding in the hands or feet.

c. DROWNING
The body is the object of interest

Close-up shots should show any foam in the mouth, the mouth whether
open or close, wounds if any markings, unusual discolorations.

d. ELECTRICUTION
The cause of current flow, or from the electrical connection where the
shock could have originated like exposed wires, cracked installations, presence
of water or near surroundings of the body

e. EXPLOSION
The photographs will determine whether the explosion is against person
or property

To be considered in selecting object that should be photographed are

the following;

1. Nature of the explosive device

2. Undetonated parts of the explosives
3. Traces of liquid device
4. Point of origin
5. Conditions of household- shows degree of destruction

2. ROBBERY CASE

1. General view of the building

2. Points of break or entry
3. Point of exit
4. Condition of the room
5. Places were valuable material where removed
6. Articles left behind like tools
7. Trace evidences

3. SEX OFFENSE

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1. Place of incidence
2. Signs of struggle or resistance on the part of the victim
3. Objects of evidence

General view
Shows the remoteness of the area

Mediums shots
Show broken branches or pressed grasses in outdoor, in indoor
crumpled beddings or pillows

Close up
Shows buttons removed, hairs, fiber, presences of srains

Before it was the practice to photograph the laceration the

private parts but this time it is voluntary.

ARSON

The photographs taken:

1. Area of origin
2. Rapidity, direction and manner of spread of the fire
3. Nature of the burning substances
4. Progressive stages of burning
5. Unusual arrangements of doors and windows
6. Identity of spectators

TRAFFIC INVESTIGATION

1. Exact location or area of collision

2. Position of vehicle
3. Surrounding area

SKID MARKS

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SCUFF MARKS

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SUREVEILLANCE

FINGERPRINT PHOTOGRAPHY

QUESTIONED DOCUMENT

No other types of forensic examination is photography used to

extensively in explaining points of proof to the court than questioned document

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Use of photography in Q.D

1. Documentation
2. Magnification
3. Side by side comparison

Areas of photography concern

1. Handwritings
2. Typewriting's
3. Papers

ULTRA VIOLET PHOTOGRAPHY

INFRARED PHOTOGRAPHY

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CHAPTER 7

PHOTOGRAPHIC EVIDENCES

BASIC RULES ON ADMISIBILITY

It is an established fact that a photograph offered in evidence should be a true

and faithful representation of the scene or subject matter.

It should be free from unusual distortion of lines, shapes, and color or any
deceptive tone relationship. Important subject should be in sharp focus.

In the Philippines, the admissibility of a photograph as evidence was ruled in

the case: City of Manila vs. Cabangis 10 Phil 151 a photograph is admissible in
evidence upon proof of exactness and accuracy.

That the photograph is a true and faithful representation of the subject as seen
by the naked eye.

As a matter of fact, the court have taken judicial notice of the photographic
process as being capable of producing and accurate representation because as
Justice Sison of the Supreme Court has ruled:

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“that the process by which the lens of a camera forms an image

are dependent upon or governed by the same natural laws as an
image is formed by the human eye.”

However, the photographic image can also be manipulated to become

misleading. It is for the reason that before the photographic being offered in evidence is
admitted, it must undergo verification as to its exactness and accuracy.

In our judicial system, those qualified to show proof of faithfulness are:

1. The photographer who took the photograph

2. Any other person who has personal knowledge of the taking of the
photograph and have seen the object

It must be mentioned here that the requirement of law on

“accuracy” is not mathematical but substantive.

Evidence photographs may be divided into two categories

1.That which represent an object of evidence and simply serve in place

of an object or verbal description of it.

2. Those which are designated to prove a point bearing an issue on a

case such as a comparison chart of a fingerprint, handwriting or test
bullet or shells.

TECHNIQUES FOR DEMONSTRATING EVIDENCE PRINTS

1. COMPOSITES

This consist of two photographs placed side by side to show points of

similarities or differences. This is generally used in the comparison of fingerprint
or handwriting.

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A. What do photographs show?

Photographs cannot and do not create the original subject. They

do preserve a visible record a moment in time which may be recalled
less perfectly by an eyewitness. Verbal description may be inadequate
to describe an object, a scene or an event.

A noted and famous investigator said: “When it comes to the

exact description of a complex detail of an existing object or the
exact relationship of its parts or location with respect to other
objects, or the relationship of my relationship of many articles to
each other, photographs can go far beyond verbal description.”

Under the principle of the “best evidence” in our judicial system,

a photograph is generally regarded as secondary evidence. However,
there are precedent court cases which ruled that “ a properly verified
photograph to be true and faithful representation of an object is lost and
all efforts to locate it provide futile, then said photograph will be
regarded as primary evidence”.

2. MATCHING POTOGRAPHS
This is another technique of illustrating similarities. Place a part of one
photograph over and in careful alignment with the other. Used in tool marks,
shells, pair illustration or in matching glass fragments for paint chips.

3. MATCHING TRANSPARENCIES
This is used to show two objects have identical outline. A positive
transparency of one is placed over the other, adjusted so the outline coincides,
like in proving traced forgery.

DEGREE OF ENLARGEMENT OR SIZE ORF A PHOTOGRAPHID EXHIBITS

There are two choices in representing photographic prints as evidence:

1. A large display print which will easily show the Judge, the lawyers detailed
attributes of a subject being testified to by a witness. Forensic expert like
document examiners or fingerprint expert use this to provide a dramatic impact
on their testimony. Print sizes of 11” x 14” or even 16” x 24”.

2. A more widely used and easier to accomplished is the handheld print or

persons, objects, place or incident. The usual size may be 4”x5”, or 5”x 7”.

PERSPECTIVE, CORRECT VIEWING DISTANCE, NORMAL VIEWING DISTANCE

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In the preparation for photographic exhibits, the photographer should seriously

consider perspective, the normal viewing distance in determining the degree of
enlargement or size of his prints.

It is visually desirable and necessary to view the photographs in its true and
natural perspective. When such prints are viewed correctly, the viewer will be able to
make a more reliable judgment of the information presented.

1. PERSPECTIVE
To achieve the true perspective, you must consider the geometric relationship
between the camera and the object at the time the picture was taken.

From a fixed vantage point, an object or series of object or series of object

intersect at the same angle at a lens regardless of the focal length of the

The object or objects are simply rendered larger or smaller depending on the
focal length of the lens. If the same angular relationship is established between the
finished prints and the viewers eye, the print will be viewed correctly and the eye will
see the scene in its true perspective.

2. CORRECT VIEWING DISTANCE

To reproduce the same angular relationship established by the camera position,
the eye must be on lens focal-length from a contact print of the camera negative. The
negative distance for any enlarged prints is equal to the lens focal length multiplied by
the numbered of times the negative is enlarged or viewing distance (D) equals focal
length (F) times enlargement (N).

D= FX N

3. NORMAL VIEWING DISTANCE

Although the equation given above defines correct viewing distance for true
perspective, we must also consider the comfort of viewer and the print will finally be
viewed and that is handheld. According to vision, test, and average person holds an
object or reading material about 15 inches (about 40 centimeters) from his eye and this
distance is widely accepted as the normal viewing distance for handheld materials.

TESTIFYING IN COURT

One day, you will be in court to give testimony photographs that you have taken. This
is inevitable an expected. One must prepare for it to be able to give a good and credible
testimony. He should always consider himself to be a neutral witness with not personal interest
in the outcome of the case.

His only concern is his objective desire to present an accurate photograph for the
courts consideration.
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He must always keep in mind the quotation or the words of P. Brourdel:

“if the law has made you a witness, remain a man of science, you have no
victim to avenge, no guilty or innocent person to ruin or save, you must be
witness within the limits of science”.

In testifying your purpose is to explain not defend your photographs. In the case of PP
vs. de Vega, G.R.L. 8626, Oct. 18, 1956, the court held:.. “let the thing speak for itself.”

Here are some tips to be observed during court appearances:

1. Dress properly and appropriately when going to court. A formal attire like Barong
Filipino or long sleeve with a necktie is highly advised. Wear your uniform if you have
one.

2. When your name is called for the witness stand, rise and walk with normal strides.
Remain standing until you are sworn in, then wait for the instruction to sit down.

3. Upon sitting down maintain a comfortable, relax but dignified posture. Do not slouch,
sit straight and avoid crossing your legs and your arms should rest normally on your
lap.

Nervousness is a normal emotion to everyone especially for beginners but you

can control it with several deep breaths and avoiding eye contact with the lawyer or
anyone in front who affects your self-confidence.

4. Show your respect to everyone by addressing the lawyers “Sir” and the Judge “Your
Honor”.

5. Speak in a clear and distinct voice loud enough to be heard by the judge, the
lawyers and the people at the gallery.

6. The lawyer and the court will see to it that the case is properly develop. Preliminary
questions are usually asked first before questions on the issue of the case.

7. Questions which require a plan “Yes” or “No” answers must be done so. Answer
questions directly and completely but do not volunteer additional information unless
necessary.

8. Before answering the question, be sure that you understand it clearly. If not, politely
request for clarification. If you feel or think that your answer to certain question may
give the lawyer or the court an erroneous or wrong impression you must immediately
ask for permission to amplify or explain further his reply to a question.

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9. If the answer to a question requires that you consult your notes, also ask the
permission of the court to do so. Be prepared to submit said notes if the court so
require.

10. If a question asked is in regard to the “relevancy or materiality” of a photograph

being submitted in evidence, courteously state that you are leaving said issue to your
lawyer.

11. When confronted by a question whether you consider yourself an expert or not,
your response should be that you leave it to the discretion of the honorable court. Any
attempt on the part of the witness to claim or represent himself as a expert may allow
the opposing lawyer to ask questions on the extreme technical subjects like physics of
lights or on the chemical components and reactions during chemical processing. If you
are confident however that your knowledge on the subject is sufficient when you don’t
have to worry about it.

12. Avoid the use of harsh or vulgar words during testimony.

13. Some lawyers in their desire to confuse or excite a witness may ask a very
personal or insulting questions or remarks. Under such circumstances, show your
professionalism and earn the respect of the lawyer in the court by not arguing with him
on the matter.

14. At the end of your testimony, politely ask for an excuse from the judge before
standing. Leave the witness stand with appearance of dignity and pride.

15. Try to remember the words of a famous trial lawyer- “if you know the law and you
know the facts, then you are ready for trial.”

POINTS OF OBJECTION ON THE ADMISSIBILITY OF A PHOTOGRAPH

1. ACCURACY OF COLOR
The true color reproduction may be a point of contestations if color is of critical
issue. Questions may be directed on lightning, filters, and processing because they
affect color balance.

2. ALTERATIONS ON NEGATIVE OR ON PRINTS

Presence of any deliberate attempt to alter photographic evidence.

3. COMPUTER GENERATED IMAGE

Computer technology brings with it new advancement capabilities to apply to
problems photographs. However, it is also brings the chance of misunderstanding
because images, even color are easily manipulated.

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4. ENLARGEMENTS
Size that will conform with the correct or normal viewing distance and also in
possibility of cropping of crucial evidences.

5. ERRORS IN PRINTING
Reverse prints, over-exposure or under-exposure, blurred prints, dodging or
burning-in efforts

6. EQUIPMENTS
Camera used, lens used, accessory equipment

7. LIGHTINING
Lightning procedure and technique used for artistic purpose can sometimes
produce interesting and deceptive results.

8. Markings on photographs such as lines, circles, arrows, numbers, etc., are to be

avoided except on comparison charts

MISLEADING PHOTOGRAPHS

In addition to the previously listed points of objects ions arising over color
balance, optical distortions, markings, etc., the following could confuse or mislead a viewer
of an evidence photographs.

1. Retouching on the negatives or prints

2. Double or multiple exposure
3. Paste-up or composite photographs
4. Montage or superimposition
5. Camera view point or position
6. Effects of the focal length
7. Effects of the filters
8. Effects of using another object to show the size of an object
9. Effect of under-exposed or over-expose
10. Effect of cropping
11. Effect of lightning
12. Reversed photographs

DOUBLE EXPOSURE

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PASTE UP OR COMPOSITE PHOTOGRAPH

MONTAGE PHOTOGRAPHS OR SUPERIMPOSITION

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EFFECTS OF FILTERS

UNDER EXPOSED, NORMAL AND OVER EXPOSED PHOTOGRAPHS

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EFFECTS OF CROPPING

REVERSED PHOTOGRAPHY

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PHOTOGRAPHS AND EYE WITENSS COMPARED

It is well to remember that there are good photographs and bad photographs-
just as there are good witnesses and bad witnesses. When considering a photographic
evidence therefore, it is helpful to compare the “silent witness” (the photograph) and
the human witness.

1. Fallings common to both

Exaggeration
Photographs may exaggerate just like a human being. It is possible to
see photographs of scenes that distances between objects appears far greater
than they are in fact or objects appears much larger as taken than they really
are. The technique used by the advertising photographer to glorify and magnify
his subject is generally out in legal photography.

b. Elaboration
The legal photograph must know what to leave out as well as what to
include in his picture. While in general it is better to show too much than too

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little, it is well to remember that close-up usually have the most value provided
they either show enough of the subject to avoid deception by omission or
supplemented by more distant views.

c. Omission
We swear the witness to tell the truth, the whole truth, and nothing but
the truth because it is known that the partial truth may be a lie.

d. Reversal of left and right

People are always getting things around. Many persons do not seem to
know their right from their left. How often do we drive behind a person who turn
own their left signal light to indicate a right turn. Believe it or not, it is even
easier for a photograph to be turned around so that it is reversed from left to
right.

e. Optical Illusions
Both the witness and photograph may give false testimony because of the
effect of optical illusions. Such illusions may be varied. In general a bright object
appears larger than a dark object of the same dimension. Vertical lines appear larger
than horizontal lines of the same length. The length of an empty space appears less
than the length of a similar space containing details and so on.

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2. Shortcomings of an Eyewitness

a. Perception error
b. Language problem
c. Memory Lapse
d. Hallucinations

Hallucination are not based upon images found in the eye

Optical illusion result on the mind misinterpretation of images.

3. Shortcomings of the Photographs

a. Single viewpoint
b. Compression of time

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4. Necessity of interpretation by a Trier of fact

Photograph must also evaluate

It means nothing unless and until the judge and what it means depends in part
in the attention they give it.

Faulty interpretation of a perfectly good photograph may destroy their

usefulness as evidence.

CHAPTER 8

DIGITAL PHOTOGRAPHY

Law enforcement is always in the process of evolving due scientific, legal and
social developments as well as in the changes in behavior of criminals.

While many law enforcement techniques are fundamental and remains

basically the same over time, there are also significant changes that occur in a
continuing basis

In the field of photography, a global revolution is also taking place and at a very
fast rate. Because of the diversity of equipment and technology available, digital
photography is becoming more popular than conventional photography.

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Digital photography’s universal format is its greatest advantage in that images

can easily be transferred to multiple devices and applications.

Examples of these applications re the addition of images to word processing

format, e-mail, putting on website, or the simple edition of these images, manipulate or
enhance or improve them.

Armed with RAM and CCD chips instead of film, digital cameras are slowly
taking over the market in photography. Why this happening? For two reasons.

First, it would be because digital cameras offer features and convenience

unheard of in a film-based camera like:

1. Instant camera
2. Computer connectivity
3. Video output
4. Detachable lenses that still work when detached

Secondly, because digital cameras remove film processing from the equation
and save the users more than enough money to justify their relatively high cost.

The disadvantage of digital imaging is its ability to be easily manipulated which

will inevitably prevent its widespread use in a courtroom. Conventional photography will
continue to be the prevailing format utilized through the traditional print, negative and
slide which can be scanned into digital format for convenient access.

The fact remains that in the field of forensic photography the underlying number
one criteria is the image must be a true and accurate representation of the scene or
subject.

DIGITAL CAMERA

This type of camera digitalizes the image which then be put into a computer
and enhance through a software package such as adobe Photoshop.

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A digital camera (or digicam) is a camera that takes video or still photographs
by recording images on an electronic image sensor .

Most cameras sold today are digital, and digital cameras are incorporated into
many devices ranging from PDAs and mobile phones (called camera phones) to
vehicle.

PDA- personal data assistant or personal digital assistance.

Steven Sasson as an engineer at Eastman Kodak invented and built the first
digital camera using a charge-coupled device image sensor in 1975. He received the
National Medal in Technology and Innovation for this invention in 2009.

The most common yardstick for measuring

digital cameras value is found in its ability to record
details and reproduce actual color.

With 35 mm cameras, this responsibility is

ruled by film types, their speeds or ISO rating,
and the developer type (find grain developers).

For digital cameras it will rely on built-in CCD chip (Also known as Imager) to
provide resolution, color quality, and speed.

A charge-coupled device (CCD)

It is a device for the movement of electrical charge, usually from within

the device to an area where the charge can be manipulated, for example
conversion into a digital value.

RAM – Random Access Memory

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The charge-coupled device was invented in 1969 at AT&T Bell Labs by

Willard Boyle and George E. Smith

CCD chips differ in the number of pixels they have in the quality of color they
reproduce.

The number quoted for resolution refer to how many pixels there in each row
across the CCD

For example: 640x 480 or 768x 512 pixels, higher pixel numbers usually
equate to higher resolution images and correspondingly larger data files.

GENERAL TYPES OF DIGITAL CAMERA

1. Fixed Memory
Are limited in the number of images they can capture before the user is
forced either to erase the images or download them to a computer.

2. Removable Memory
Allow the user to load and replace a variety of storage cards in much the
same fashion as film is exposed and replaces with new film.

TYPES OF DIGITAL CAMERA

1. COMPACT DIGITAL CAMERA

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Compact cameras are designed to be tiny and portable and are

particularly suitable for casual and "snapshot" uses. Hence, they are also called
point-and-shoot cameras.

The smallest, generally less than 20 mm thick, are described as

subcompacts or "ultra-compacts" and some are nearly credit card size

2. BRIDGE CAMERA
Bridge are higher-end digital cameras that physically and ergonomically
resemble DSLRs and share with them some advanced features, but share with
compacts the use of a fixed lens and a small sensor.

These cameras are sometimes marketed as and confused with digital

SLR cameras since the appearance is similar.

Bridge cameras lack the

reflex viewing system of DSLRs,
are usually fitted with fixed
(non-interchangeable) lenses
(although some have a lens
thread to attach accessory
wide-angle or telephoto converters),
and can usually take movies with
sound.

3. MIRRORLESS INTERCHANGEABLE LENS CAMERA

The Mirrorless interchangeable-lens camera (MILC) is a popular
class of digital system camera. Unlike a compact digital camera, a MILC is equipped
with an interchangeable lens mount and unlike a digital single-lens reflex
camera, a MILC does not have a mirror-based optical viewfinder.

Various alternative names exist – see terminology – including: Compact

System Camera (CSC), Mirrorless System Camera (MSC), Digital Single
Lens Mirrorless (DSLM), Digital Interchangeable-Lens System camera, and
– finally – Electronic Viewfinder with Interchangeable Lens (EVIL); this latter
term not applying to cameras with an optical viewfinder.

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4. DIGITAL SLR (SINGLE LENS REFLEX)

Digital single-lens reflex cameras (DSLRs) are digital cameras based on
film single-lens reflex cameras (SLRs). They take their name from their unique
viewing system, in which a mirror reflects light from the lens through a separate
optical viewfinder. At the moment of exposure, the mirror flips out of the way,
making a distinctive "clack" sound and allowing light to fall on the imager

5. RANGEFINDER
A rangefinder is a user-operated optical mechanism to measure subject
distance once widely used on film cameras. Most digital cameras measure
subject distance automatically using electro-optical techniques, but it is not
customary to say that they have a rangefinder

It is a camera fitted with a

rangefinder: a range-finding focusing
mechanism allowing the photographer
to measure the subject distance and
take photographs that are in sharp focus
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6. LINE SCAN CAMERA SYSTEM

A line-scan camera has a single row of pixel sensors, instead of a matrix
of them. The frames are continuously fed to a computer that joins them to each
other and makes an image. This makes possible sharp pictures of objects that
have passed the camera at high speed. Sporting races commonly use this kind
of camera to make photo finishes, i.e. determine the winner when multiple
competitors cross the finishing line at nearly the same time.

These cameras can also be used as industrial instruments for analyzing

fast processes.

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7. INTEGRATION CAMERA
Many devices include digital cameras built into or integrated into them.
For example, mobile phones often include digital cameras; those that do are
known as camera phones. Other small electronic devices (especially those
used for communication) such as PDAs, laptops and BlackBerry devices often
contain an integral digital camera, and most 21st-century camcorders can also
make still pictures.

8. WATERPROOF CAMERA

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OTHER FEATURES OF DIGITAL CAMERA

1. Digital Camera allow you to download images directly into a computer

without a video capture card. Fixed memory camera must do this via a
connecting cable while removable memory camera may be able to load images via
a card reader or cable.

2. LCD monitors- digital point and shoot cameras sometimes do not have
optical viewfinders. These cameras feature a color LCD Screen on the camera back
which serves multiple duty as viewfinder, control panel and instant playback
monitor.

3. Flash unit- while it is not always required in digital camera because some
DC’s have high or adjustable ISO rating to adopt to low lights level, yet is
sometimes required in back lightning or really low-light levels.

4. Zoom Lens capability- wide, normal or tele and sometimes close-up macro,

5. Sound Recording

6.Removable lens that can see around corners

COMPUTER PRINTERS

TYPES OF COMPUTER PRINTERS

1. DOT MATRIX
Instead of completing an image in one single stroke, a dot matrix
printer produces an image that is built-up by individual dots. These dots
are made-up by pins.

In 9 pins printers the dots are more apparent

In 24 pin printers they are less or so

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Some dot-matrix printers have a color-ribbon option however dot

matrix printers are quickly losing market in favor or ink-jet printers.

2. LASER PRINTER
It also produces dots. The laser projects light against a spinning
mirror which flashes light to a rotating drum. The printing toner adheres
electronically to the charge areas of the drum and them fused to the
paper creating characters. Color laser printing are also available

3. INK JET PRINTERS

It is basically ink-jets fire droplets of ink at a page to make the
dots that forms the characters. Ink jet printers can be in multiple colors.

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4. WAX JET PRINTERS

Melt-wax and then spray it on paper. These are high-end printers
that produce outstanding colors.

SCANNERS
Can provide convenient way to get your existing conventional images like photo
prints, 35 mm slides, negatives, even advance photo system films in a computer.

Flatbed Scanner
Capacity of scanner (point of comparison)

1. Optical Resolution and Color bit depth

2. Scanning time and maximum scan size

SOME USES OF DIGITAL PHOTOGRAPHY IN LAW ENFORCEMENT

1. AFIS
Automated Fingerprint Identification System

2. CRIME SCENE RECONSTRUCTION

Crime scene reconstruction is the use of scientific method, physical evidence,
deductive and inductive reasoning, and their inter-relationship to gain explicit
knowledge of a series of events that surrounds the commission of a crime.

3. COMPUTERIZED FACIAL SKETCHING

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Facial Automated Composite and Editing System (FACES)

- facial composition
- cranial facial reconstruction of decreased persons with mutilated face
- facial image enhancement
- Missing person photograph update
- image and demographic data base and retrieval

4. INTEGRATED BALLISTICS IDENTIFICATION SYSTEM (IBIS)

With digital imaging, photomicrographs of strations and other minute markings
found on bullets or shells can be stored on a database which will also facilitate the
identification and matching of bullets or shells recovered at a crimes scene

LEGAL FOUNDATION OF DIGITAL PHOTOGRAPHY

RULES ON ELECTRONIC EVIDENCE

Acting on the memorandum dated June 18, 2001 of the committed on the
Revision of Rules of Court to draft on the E-Commerce Law (R.A n0. 8792) the
Supreme court, EN BANC, approved the said resolution.

RULE II is on audio, Photographic video and Ephemeral Evidence

Sec.1. Audio, Video and Similar Evidence

Audio, photographic and video evidence of events, acts or transactions
shall be admissible provided is shall be shown, presented, or displayed to the
court and shall be identified, explained or authenticated by the person who
made the recording or by some other person competent to testify on the accuracy
thereof.

International Association for Identification (IAI) resolution number 97-9

The 1997 resolution and legislative committee presented to the IAI

members during the 82th annual training conference at Danvers,
Massachusetts on August 1, 1996

Further, that silver halide-based photographs the quality and reality of

an electronic/digital imaging is dependent upon the technical specification of the
equipment, the quality control and the training, experience and ability of
the photographer or imaging specialist.

SOME GUIDELINES FOR ENSURING DIGITAL PHOTOGRPAHS ADMISSIBILITY

1. Formulate a standard operating procedure (SOP) or department policy or

general order of the use of Digital Imaging. The SOP should include when digital
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imaging is used, chain of custody, imaging security, image enhancement and release
and availability of digital images. The SOP should not apply just to digital but should
also include film based and video application.

2. Most importantly, preserve the original digital images. This can be done in a
variety of ways including the saving of the image file to a hard drive or recording the
image file to a CD.

3. Digital images shall be preserved in their original file format. The saving of a
file in some file format subject to close compression. If close compression is use,
critical image information may be lost and artifacts introduced as result of the
compression process.

4. If the images are stored on a computer work station or server, and several
individuals would have access to the image file, make the image file “Read Only” for all
except your evidence and photo-lab staff. Investigators can only view the image file but
they cannot delete or overwrite those files.

5. If an image is to be analyzed or enhanced, the new image file created should

be saved as new file name. The original file must not be replaced (overwritten) with a
new file.

REFERENCES

Villarba, W. H. (2008), Forensic Photography for Criminology Students and

Practitioners.
Wiseman Bookstrading Inc. Quezon City.

Kalalang, S, (2013). Introduction to Forensic Photography. Wiseman Bookstrading Inc.

Quezon City.

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