UNIT - II

Structured Query Language

Indira College of Engineering Management, Pune

 Introduction
• SQL stands for Structured Query Language.
• It is the language of database and almost all companies use databases
to store their data.
• It is domain-specific language.
• SQL is declarative.
• Keys and Constraints.
• Join and Nested queries.

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 Introduction
• SQL makes use of query. A Query is a set of instruction given to the
database management system. It tells any database what information
we would like to get from the database.
• SQL allows users to query the database in a number of ways, using
English-like statements.
• It is a standard language for Relational Database System. It enables a
user to create, read, update and delete relational databases and tables.
• All the RDBMS like MySQL, Informix, Oracle, MS Access and SQL
Server use SQL as their standard database language.

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 Rules
• Structure query language is not case sensitive. Generally, keywords of
SQL are written in uppercase.
• Statements of SQL are dependent on text lines. We can use a single
SQL statement on one or multiple text line.
• Using the SQL statements, you can perform most of the actions in a
database.

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Characteristics and Advantages -
• SQL is easy to learn.
• SQL is used to access data from relational database management systems.
• SQL can execute queries against the database.
• SQL is used to describe the data.
• SQL is used to define the data in the database and manipulate it when
needed.
• SQL is used to create and drop the database and table.
• SQL is used to create a view, stored procedure, function in a database.
• SQL allows users to set permissions on tables, procedures, and views.

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Data Types and Literals -
• Numeric data type
• Character-string data type
• Date and Time
• Boolean Data Type

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Data Types and Literals -
• Numeric data type –
- Integer numbers : BIT, INT, TINYINT, SMALLINT, BIGINT.
- Floating – point(real) Numbers : REAL, DOUBLE, FLOAT.
• Character-string data type –
1. Char -
- It accepts character or string type of data.
- It is Fixed length data type.
- The length of the character string is specified while assigning the data
type.
- Example – character(n), n- maximum size of the character string.

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Data Types and Literals -
• Character-string data type –
2. Varchar -
- It accepts character or string type of data.
- It is variable length data type.
- The length of the character string is specified while assigning the data
type which indicates the maximum number of characters it can accept.
- Example -

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Data Types and Literals -
• Boolean data type –
- Accept Values of TRUE or FALSE or NULL.
- No need to declare size while declaring Boolean data type.

• Date and Time – Can store date and time.

- Components are YEAR, MONTH, and DAY in the form YYYY-MM-
DD.

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DDL, DML, DCL and TCL Structure -
• There are four types of SQL commands –
DDL
DML
DCL
TCL

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Data Definition Language(DDL) -
DDL stands for Data Definition Language. It is used to define database
structure or pattern.
It is used to create schema, tables, indexes, constraints, etc. in the
database.
Using the DDL statements, you can create the skeleton of the database.
Data definition language is used to store the information of metadata
like the number of tables and schemas, their names, indexes, columns in
each table, constraints, etc.

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Data Definition Language(DDL) -
Here are some tasks that come under DDL:
• Create: It is used to create objects in the database.
• Alter: It is used to alter the structure of the database.
• Drop: It is used to delete a table from the database.
• Truncate: It is used to remove all records from a table.
• Rename: It is used to rename an object.
• Comment: It is used to comment on the data dictionary.
These commands are used to update the database schema that's why
they come under Data definition language.

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Data Manipulation Language(DML) -
DML stands for Data Manipulation Language. It is used for accessing
and manipulating data in a database. It handles user requests.

Here are some tasks that come under DML:

• Select: It is used to retrieve data from a database.
• Insert: It is used to insert data into a table.
• Update: It is used to update existing data within a table.
• Delete: It is used to delete all records from a table.

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Data Control Language(DCL) -
DCL stands for Data Control Language. It is used to retrieve the stored
or saved data.
The DCL execution is transactional. It also has rollback parameters.
Here are some tasks that come under DCL:
• Grant: It is used to give user access privileges to a database.
• Revoke: It is used to take back permissions from the user.
There are the following operations which have the authorization of
Revoke:
• CONNECT, INSERT, USAGE, EXECUTE, DELETE, UPDATE and
SELECT.

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Transaction Control Language -
• Its allow you to control and manage transactions to maintain the
integrity of data within SQL statements.
-COMMIT – This command is used to save permanently any
transaction to database.
-ROLLBACK – This command is used to undo transactions that
haven’t saved to database.

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TABLES : Creating, Modifying, Deleting
• Creating Table – CREATE TABLE statement is used to create table in
database.
• Syntax –
CREATE TABLE table_name(
column1 datatype(size),
column2 datatype(size),
column3 datatype(size));

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Example –
CREATE TABLE Students(
Roll_No. int,
Stud_Fname VARCHAR(20),
Stud_Mname VARCHAR(20),
Stud_Lname VARCHAR(20)
Address VARCHAR(20));

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TABLES : Creating, Modifying, Deleting
• Insertion of data into the table – We can insert data into the table using
INSERT statement.
• Syntax –
INSERT INTO table_name(column1, column2,….,Columnn)
VALUES( value1, value2,….,valuen);

Example – INSERT INTO Students(Roll_No., Stud_Fname,

Stud_Mname, Stud_Lname, Address) VALUES(1, ‘AAA’, ‘BBB’,
‘CCC’, ‘Pune’);

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TABLES : Creating, Modifying, Deleting
• Modifying the Record from the Table – For modifying the existing of
a table, update query is used.
• Syntax –
UPDATE table_name
SET column1=value1, column2=value2
WHERE condition;
Example – UPDATE Students
SETAddress=‘Gujarat’
WHERE Roll_No.= 3;

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TABLES : Creating, Modifying, Deleting
• Deleting Record from the Table – We can delete one or more records
based on some condition.
• Syntax –
DELETE FROM table_name WHERE condition;
Example-
DELETE FROM Students WHERE Roll_No. = 3;

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SQL DML Queries -
- DML stands for Data Manipulation Language.
- The basic operations under DML queries are SELECT, INSERT,
UPDATE and DELETE.

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SQL DML Queries -
1. SELECT Query -
• The select statement is used to fetch the data from the database table.
• The result returns the data in the form of table. These result tables are
called resultsets.
• Wecan use the keyword DISTINCT. It is an optional keyword
indicating that the answer should not contain duplicates. Normally if
we write the SQL without DISTINCT operator then it does not
eliminate the duplicates.

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 SQL DML Queries -
• Syntax –
SELECT col1, col2,….,coln FROM table_name;
Example –
SELECT Roll_No, Name FROM Students;

Select all the records present in the table we make use of * character.
• Syntax –
SELECT * FROM table_name;
Example –
SELECT * FROM Students;

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 SQL DML Queries -
• Use of DISTINCT Keyword : The keyword DISTINCT is used along
with the SELECT statements.
• It is used to obtain unique values from the table. This query does not
allow duplication of element.
• Syntax –
SELECT DISTINCT column_name FROM table_name;
Example –
SELECT DISTINCTAddress FROM Students;

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 SQL DML Queries -
2. WHERE -
• The WHERE command is used to specify some condition. Based on
this condition the data present in the table can be displayed or can be
updated or deleted.
• Syntax -
SELECT col1, col2
FROM table_name
WHERE condition;

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 SQL DML Queries -
2. WHERE –
Example –
SELECT Roll_No
FROM Students
WHEREAddress=‘Gujarat’;
If we want all the record of those person who live in Gujarat then we
can write the query using WHERE clause as:
Example –
SELECT * FROM Students
WHERE Address=‘Gujarat’;

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 SQL DML Queries -
3. Clause –
Most commonly used clauses in SQL statements are order by, Group by
and Having.
1. Order by
2. Group by
3. Having

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SQL DML Queries -
1. Order By –
• Many times we need the records in the table to be in sorted order.
• If the records are arranged in increasing order of some column then it
is called ascending order.
• If the records are arranged in decreasing order of some column then it
is called descending order.
• For getting the stored records in the table we use ORDER BY
command.
• The ORDER BY keyword sorts the records in ascending order by
default.

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SQL DML Queries -
1. Order By –
• Syntax –
SELECT col1, col2,….,coln
FROM table_name
ORDER BY col1, col2,….ASC/DESC;
• Example – SELECT * FROM Students ORDER BY Roll_No DESC;

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SQL DML Queries -
2. Group By –
• The GROUP BY clauses is a SQL command that is used to group rows
that have the same values.
• The GROUP BY clause is used in the SELECT statement.
• Optionally it is used in conjunction with aggregate functions.
• The queries that contain the GROUP BY clause are called grouped
queries.
• This query returns a single row for every grouped item.

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SQL DML Queries -
2. Group By –
• Syntax –
SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
GROUP BY column_name(s);

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SQL DML Queries -
2. Group By –
Student Student_id Name Marks Address

1 AAA 60 Pune

2 BBB 70 Gujarat

3 CCC 90 Pune

4 DDD 55 Gujarat

5 EEE 65 Delhi

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SQL DML Queries -
2. Group By –
Find the total marks of each student in each city.
• EXAMPLE –
• SELECT SUM(marks), Address
FROM Student
GROUP BYAddress;
• SELECT count(*),Address
FROM Student
GROUP BYAddress;

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SQL DML Queries -
3. Having –
• HAVING filters records that work on summarized GROUP BY results.
• HAVING applies to summarized group records, whereas WHERE
applies to individual records.
• Only the groups that meet the HAVING criteria will be returned.
• HAVING requires that a GROUP BY clause is present.

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SQL DML Queries -
3. Having –
• Syntax –
SELECT column_name
FROM table_name
GROUP BY column_names
HAVING condition;

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SQL DML Queries -
3. Having –
• Example –
SELECT Address
FROM Student
GROUP BYAddress
HAVING count(*)<2 ;

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View -
• In SQL, a view is a virtual tables.
• A view also has rows and columns as they are in a real table in the
database.
• We can create a view by selecting fields from one or more tables
present in the database.
• A view can either have all the rows of a table or specific rows based
on certain condition.

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View -
1. Creating View –
Student
Roll_No Name Marks City
101 AAA 70 Pune
102 BBB 60 Mumbai
103 CCC 65 Pune
104 DDD 75 Gujarat
105 EEE 72 Delhi
106 FFF 74 Pune

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View -
i. Creating view having all records and fields from existing table.
• Syntax –
CREATE VIEW view_name AS Student_view1
SELECT column1, column2,…. Roll_No Name Marks City
FROM table_name; 101 AAA 70 Pune

• Example – 102 BBB 60 Mumbai

103 CCC 65 Pune
CREATE VIEW Student_view1
104 DDD 75 Gujarat
AS SELECT * FROM Student;
105 EEE 72 Delhi
106 FFF 74 Pune

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View -
ii. Creating view having specific fields but all the records from existing
table.
• Syntax – Student_view2
CREATE VIEW view_name AS Roll_No Name
SELECT column1, column2,…. 101 AAA
FROM table_name; 102 BBB

• Example – 103 CCC

104 DDD
CREATE VIEW Student_view2
105 EEE
AS SELECT Roll_No, Name FROM Student;
106 FFF

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View -
iii. Creating view having specific records but all the fields from existing
table.
• Syntax – Student_view3
CREATE VIEW view_name AS
Roll_NO Name Marks City
SELECT * FROM existing_table_name
104 DDD 75 Gujarat
WHERE condition;
105 EEE 72 Delhi
• Example – 106 FFF 74 Pune
CREATE VIEW Student_view3
AS SELECT * FROM Student
WHERE Marks>70;

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View -
2. Updating View – Update query is used to update the records of view.
Updation in view reflects the original table also. Means the same
changes will be made in the original table also.
Roll_No Name Marks City
101 AAA 70 Pune
102 BBB 60 Mumbai
103 CCC 65 Pune
104 DDD 75 Gujarat
105 EEE 72 Delhi
106 FFF 74 Pune

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View -
• Syntax – Roll_No Name Marks City
UPDATE view_name 101 AAA 70 Pune
102 BBB 60 Mumbai
SET field_name = new_value
103 CCC 65 Pune
WHERE condition; 104 DDD 75 Gujarat
105 EEE 72 Delhi
106 FFF 74 Pune

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View -
• Example –
UPDATE Student_view
SET City = Delhi
WHERE Roll_No = 103;
Student_view Student
Roll_No Name Marks City Roll_No Name Marks City
101 AAA 70 Pune 101 AAA 70 Pune
102 BBB 60 Mumbai 102 BBB 60 Mumbai
103 CCC 65 Delhi 103 CCC 65 Delhi
104 DDD 75 Gujarat 104 DDD 75 Gujarat
105 EEE 72 Delhi 105 EEE 72 Delhi
106 FFF 74 Pune 106 FFF 74 Pune

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View -
• DROP query is used to delete a view.
• Syntax –
DROP view view_name;
• Example –
DROP view Student_view;

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SQL Operators -
• The SQL reserved words and characters are called operators, which
are used with a WHERE clause in a SQL query. In SQL, an operator
can either be a unary or binary operator. The unary operator uses only
one operand for performing the unary operation, whereas the binary
operator uses two operands for performing the binary operation.

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Types of Operator -
SQL operators are categorized in the following categories:
• SQLArithmetic Operators -
• SQL Comparison Operators -
• SQL Logical Operators -
• SQL Compound Operators -
• SQL Bit-wise Operators -

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Types of Operator -
1. SQLArithmetic Operators –
The Arithmetic Operators perform the mathematical operation on the
numerical data of the SQL tables. These operators perform addition,
subtraction, multiplication, and division operations on the numerical
operands.

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Types of Operator -
• Syntax forArithmetic operator -
- SELECT Column_Name_1Addition_Operator Column_Name2
FROM Table_Name;
- SELECT Column_Name_1 Subtraction_Operator Column_Name2
FROM Table_Name;
- SELECT Column_Name_1 Multiplication_Operator
Column_Name2 FROM Table_Name;
- SELECT Column_Name_1 Division_Operator Column_Name2
FROM Table_Name;

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Types of Operator -
2. SQL Comparison Operator –

Syntax –
SELECT col1, col2,….,coln FROM table_name WHERE condition;
Example -
SELECT name_emp, salary FROM Employee where salary<20000;

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Types of Operator -
3. SQL Logical Operator –

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Types of Operator -

3. SQL Logical Operator –

• SELECT column1, Column2, column3,….,columnn
FROM tableName
WHERE logical condition ;
• Example –
SELECT name ,salary, age FROM Employee WHERE age>27AND
salary>25000;

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Set Operations -
• Set is a collection of elements on which union, all union, intersection
and difference operations can be performed.
1. Union
2. All union
3. Intersect

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 Set Operations -
Employee
Department
Emp_No EName Job DeptNo Salary
Dept_no DeptName Location
101 King President 10 5000 10 Sales Mumbai
20 Production Pune
102 Blake Manager 30 2500
30 Accounts Nasik
103 Clark Manager 20 2500 40 Research Delhi

104 Jones Clerk 20 3000

105 Smith Salesman 30 3000

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Set Operations -
1. Union – The UNION operator is used to combine the result-set of two or
more SELECT statements.
• Every SELECT statement within UNION must have the same number of columns
• The columns must also have similar data types
• The columns in every SELECT statement must also be in the same order

• Syntax –
Select column_name from table1
union
select column_name from table2; 10
• Example – 20
select DeptNo from Employee 30
union 40

select Dept_no from Department;

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Set Operations -
2. Union All – The Union All operator returns all rows selected by either
query including duplicates.
Syntax – 10
Select column_name from table1 30
union all 20
20
select column_name from table2;
30
• Example – 10
select DeptNo from Employee 20
union all 30
select Dept_no from Department; 40

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Set Operations -
3. Intersect – The intersect operator returns only those rows which are
common in both the queries.
Syntax –
Select column_name from table1
intersect
select column_name from table2; 10
• Example – 20

select DeptNo from Employee 30

intersect
select Dept_no from Department;

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Predicates and Joins -
• PREDICATES –
A predicate is an expression that evaluates to TRUE, FALSE.
Predicates are used in the search condition of WHERE clauses and
HAVING clauses, the join conditions of FROM clauses, and other
constructs where a Boolean value is required.

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Predicates –
Emp_No EName Job HireDate Salary Commission DeptNo

1 King President 17/11/2000 5000 10

2 Blake Manager 5/1/2001 2500 30

3 Clark Manager 6/2/2001 2500 300 20

4 Jones Clerk 4/3/2002 3000 500 20

5 Smith Salesman 5/5/2002 3000 0 30

6 James Clerk 6/5/2002 2000 10

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Predicates -
1. Comparison Predicates – This is the comparison of two expressions
separated by a comparison operator.
Example –
= Equal to predicate
Select * from Employee
Where EName = ‘King’;
Emp_No EName Job HireDate Salary Commission DeptNo

1 King President 17/11/2000 5000 10

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Predicates -
Example –
> Greater than predicate
Select * from Employee
Where Salary>3000;

Emp_No EName Job HireDate Salary Commission DeptNo

1 King President 17/11/2000 5000 10

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Predicates -
Example –
< Less than predicate
Select * from Employee
Where Salary<3000;
Emp_No EName Job HireDate Salary Commission DeptNo

2 Blake Manager 5/1/2001 2500 30

3 Clark Manager 6/2/2001 2500 300 20

6 James Clerk 6/5/2002 2000 10

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Predicates -
Example –
>= Greater than equal to predicate
Select * from Employee
Where Salary >= 3000;
Emp_No EName Job HireDate Salary Commission DeptNo

1 King President 17/11/2000 5000 10

4 Jones Clerk 4/3/2002 3000 500 20

5 Smith Salesman 5/5/2002 3000 0 30

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Predicates -
Example –
<= Less than equal to predicate
Select * from Employee
Where Salary <= 3000;
Emp_No EName Job HireDate Salary Commission DeptNo
2 Blake Manager 5/1/2001 2500 30
3 Clark Manager 6/2/2001 2500 300 20
4 Jones Clerk 4/3/2002 3000 500 20
5 Smith Salesman 5/5/2002 3000 0 30
6 James Clerk 6/5/2002 2000 10

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Predicates -
Example –
<> Not equal to predicate
Select * from Employee
Where Salary <> 3000;
Emp_No EName Job HireDate Salary Commission DeptNo
1 King President 17/11/2000 5000 10
2 Blake Manager 5/1/2001 2500 30
3 Clark Manager 6/2/2001 2500 300 20
6 James Clerk 6/5/2002 2000 10

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Predicates -
Example –
Combination of Predicates can be used with AND operator –
Select * from Employee
Where salary >= 3000AND salary <= 5000;

Emp_No EName Job HireDate Salary Commission DeptNo

1 King President 17/11/2000 5000 10
4 Jones Clerk 4/3/2002 3000 500 20
5 Smith Salesman 5/5/2002 3000 0 30

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Predicates -
2. Between Predicate – Between predicate is used to specify certain
range of values. The AND keyword is used in this predicate.
Example –
Select * from Employee
where commission between 300 and 500;

Emp_No EName Job HireDate Salary Commission DeptNo

3 Clark Manager 6/2/2001 2500 300 20
4 Jones Clerk 4/3/2002 3000 500 20

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Predicates -
Example –
Select * from Employee
where commission not between 300 and 500;

Emp_No EName Job HireDate Salary Commission DeptNo

5 Smith Salesman 5/5/2002 3000 0 30

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Predicates -
3. In Predicate –
IN Predicate particularly determines whether the value of expression
given to test matches any value in specified the list.
Example – Display the records of employee from DeptNo 10 and 20.
Select * from Employee
Where DeptNo in(10, 20);
Emp_No EName Job HireDate Salary Commission DeptNo
1 King President 17/11/2000 5000 10
3 Clark Manager 6/2/2001 2500 300 20
4 Jones Clerk 4/3/2002 3000 500 20
6 James Clerk 6/5/2002 2000 10

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Predicates -
4. Like Predicate –
Like Operator determines whether a specific character string matches the
given pattern or not.
In the pattern we can use regular character and wildcard characters.
Example – Display records of Employee whose names start with letter ‘J’.
select * from Employee where EName like ‘J%’;

Emp_No EName Job HireDate Salary Commission DeptNo

4 Jones Clerk 4/3/2002 3000 500 20
6 James Clerk 6/5/2002 2000 10

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Predicates -
4. Like Predicate –
Example – Display records of Employee whose names ends with letter ‘k’.
select * from Employee where EName like ‘%k’;

Emp_No EName Job HireDate Salary Commission DeptNo

3 Clark Manager 6/2/2001 2500 300 20

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Predicates -
4. Like Predicate –
Example – Display records of Employee whose names contains ‘L’ as
second character.
select * from Employee where EName like ‘_l%’;

Emp_No EName Job HireDate Salary Commission DeptNo

2 Blake Manager 5/1/2001 2500 30

3 Clark Manager 6/2/2001 2500 300 20

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Predicates -
4. Like Predicate –
Example – Display records of Employee whose names contains character
anywhere.
select * from Employee where EName like ‘%a%’;

Emp_No EName Job HireDate Salary Commission DeptNo

2 Blake Manager 5/1/2001 2500 30

3 Clark Manager 6/2/2001 2500 300 20

6 James Clerk 6/5/2002 2000 10

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Predicates -
4. Is Null / Is Not Null –
When values for some attributes are not available then, NULL value is
assigned. To display records having NULL value, IS NULL predicate is
used.
Example – Display records of Employee who never get any commission.
select * from Employee where Commission IS NULL;
Emp_No EName Job HireDate Salary Commission DeptNo

1 King President 17/11/2000 5000 10

2 Blake Manager 5/1/2001 2500 30

6 James Clerk 6/5/2002 2000 10

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Predicates –
4. Is Null / Is Not Null –
The NOT keyword can be used to get values opposite to given condition.
Example – Display records of Employee who get commission.
select * from Employee where Commission IS NOT NULL;

Emp_No EName Job HireDate Salary Commission DeptNo

3 Clark Manager 6/2/2001 2500 300 20

4 Jones Clerk 4/3/2002 3000 500 20

5 Smith Salesman 5/5/2002 3000 0 30

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Indexing -
• The Index in SQL is a special table used to speed up the searching of
the data in the database tables.
• It also retrieves a vast amount of data from the tables frequently.
• The INDEX requires its own space in the hard disk.
• With the help of indexing data retrieval becomes fast and efficient.
The concept of index is just similar to the index at the back of the
book which contains the keywords.
• Using these keywords it is easy to locate the desired record quickly
from the database table.

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Indexing -
1. Creating an index –
• Syntax –
CREATE INDEX index_name ON table_name(column_name);
Example – isbn bname Author

CREATE INDEX inx_isbn 005 DBMS XYZ

ON Book(isbn);
006 OS ABC

007 DAA PQR

//Display - show indexes from table_name;

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Indexing -
2. Creating index on Multiple columns –
• Syntax –
CREATE INDEX index_name
ON table_name(column1, column2,….); isbn bname Author

Example – 005 DBMS XYZ

CREATE INDEX inx_isbn1
006 OS ABC
ON Book(bname,Author);
007 DAA PQR

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Indexing -
3. Creating index using UNIQUE –
• Syntax –
CREATE UNIQUE INDEX index_name
ON table_name(column1, column2,….); isbn bname Author

Example – 005 DBMS XYZ

CREATE UNIQUE INDEX inx_isbn3
006 OS ABC
ON Book(bname);
007 DAA PQR

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Indexing -
3. Dropping the Index – The DROP INDEX statement is used to delete
an index in a table.
• Syntax –
DROP INDEX index_name on table_name; isbn bname Author
Example –
005 DBMS XYZ
DROP INDEX inx_isbn on Book;
006 OS ABC

007 DAA PQR

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Join -
• JOINS are used with SELECT statement. It is used to retrieve data
from multiple tables. It is performed whenever you need to fetch
records from two or more tables.
• Types of Joins –
1. Natural Join –
2. Equi Join –
3. Left Outer Join –
4. Right Outer Join –
5. Self Join

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Join -
1. Natural Join –

Employee Department
Eno Ename Address Dno Dname Eno
1 Ram Delhi D1 HR 1
2 Varun Pune D2 IT 2
3 Rani Pune D3 Marketing 4
4 Amrit Delhi

Find the Ename who is working in department.

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Join -
1. Natural Join – Eno Ename Dno Eno
1 Ram D1 1
1 Ram D2 2
1 Ram D3 4
2 Varun D1 1
2 Varun D2 2
2 Varun D3 4
3 Rani D1 1
3 Rani D2 2
3 Rani D3 4
4 Amrit D1 1
4 Amrit D2 2
4 Amrit D3 4

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Join -
1. Natural Join –
• Example –
Select Ename from Employee NATURAL JOIN Department;

Ename
Ram
Varun
Amrit

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Join -
2. Equi Join –
= Operator will use.
Employee Department
Eno Ename Address Dno Location Eno
1 Ram Delhi D1 Delhi 1
2 Varun Pune D2 Gujarat 2
3 Rani Pune D3 Patna 4
4 Amrit Delhi
• Find the Ename who worked in a department having location same as
theirAddress.

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Join - Eno Ename Address Dno Location Eno
2. Equi Join – 1 Ram Delhi D1 Delhi 1
1 Ram Delhi D2 Gujrat 2
1 Ram Delhi D3 Patna 4
2 Varun Pune D1 Delhi 1
2 Varun Pune D2 Gujrat 2
2 Varun Pune D3 Patna 4
3 Rani Pune D1 Delhi 1
3 Rani Pune D2 Gujrat 2
3 Rani Pune D3 Patna 4
4 Amrit Delhi D1 Delhi 1
4 Amrit Delhi D2 Gujrat 2
4 Amrit Delhi D3 Patna 4

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Join -
2. Equi Join –
Select Ename from Employee, Department
where Employee.Eno = Department.Eno
and
Employee.Address = Department.Location;

Eno Ename Address Dno Location Eno

1 Ram Delhi D1 Delhi 1

Ename
Ram

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Join -
3. Left Outer Join – It gives the matching rows and the rows which are
in left table but not in right table.

Eno Ename Dno Dno Dname Location

E1 Ram D1 D1 IT Delhi
E2 Varun D2 D2 HR Hyderabad
E3 Rani D1 D3 Finance Pune
E4 Amrit

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Join -
3. Left Outer Join –
select Eno, Ename, Dname, Location from Employee Left outer
join Department ON Employee.Dno = Department.Dno;

Eno Ename Dname Location

E1 Ram IT Delhi
E2 Varun HR Hyderabad
E3 Rani IT Delhi
E4 Amrit NULL NULL

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Join -
4. Right Outer Join – It gives the matching rows and the rows which are
in right table but not in left table.

Eno Ename Dno Dno Dname Location

E1 Ram D1 D1 IT Delhi
E2 Varun D2 D2 HR Hyderabad
E3 Rani D1 D3 Finance Pune
E4 Amrit

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Join -
4. Right Outer Join –
select Eno, Ename, Dname, Location from Employee Right outer
join Department ON Employee.Dno = Department.Dno;

Eno Ename Dname Location

E1 Ram IT Delhi
E3 Rani IT Delhi
E2 Varun HR Hyderabad
NULL NULL Finance Pune

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Join -
5. Self Join – In which the table is join with itself.

Study
S_id C_id Since
S1 C1 2016
S2 C2 2017
S1 C2 2017

Find Student id who is Enrolled in at least two courses.

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Join -
S_id C_id Since S_id C_id Since
S1 C1 2016 S1 C1 2016
S1 C1 2016 S2 C2 2017
S1 C1 2016 S1 C2 2017
S2 C2 2017 S1 C1 2016
S2 C2 2017 S2 C2 2017
S2 C2 2017 S1 C2 2017
S1 C2 2017 S1 C1 2016
S1 C2 2017 S2 C2 2017
S1 C2 2017 S1 C2 2017

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Join -
S_id C_id Since S_id C_id Since
S1 C1 2016 S1 C2 2017
S1 C2 2017 S1 C1 2016

Select T1.S_id from Study as T1, Study as T2

Where T1.S_id = T2.S_id
and
T1.C_id <>T2.C_id;

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Tuple Variables -
• Tuple is a row in a table.
• A field or attribute of a table is a column.
• SQL allows us to define an alias for each occurrence of Relation i.e.
Tuple Variable.
• ATuple Variable is defined in the FROM clause by placing it after the
name of the relation separated by space.
• Tuple variables are most useful for comparing two tuples in the same
relation.

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Ordering of Tuple -
• SQL allows the user to control the order in which tuples are
displayed. order by makes tuples appear in sorted order
(ascending order by default). desc specifies descending order. asc
specifies ascending order.
• Syntax –
SELECT col1, col2,….,coln
FROM table_name
ORDER BY col1, col2,….ASC/DESC;
• Example – SELECT * FROM Students ORDER BY Roll_No DESC;

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Aggregate Function -
• An aggregate function in SQL performs a calculation on multiple
values and returns a single value.
• SQL provides many aggregate functions that include avg, count, sum,
min, max, etc.
• An aggregate function ignores NULL values when it performs the
calculation, except for the count function.

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Aggregate Function -

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Aggregate Function -

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Nested Query -
• Writing a query inside another query is known as nested query or
subquery.
• The inner query gets executed first, then the output of inner query is
given as input to outer query.

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 Emp_No EName HireDate Salary DeptNo

1 King 17/11/2000 5000 10

2 Blake 5/1/2001 2500 30

3 Clark 6/2/2001 2500 20

4 Jones 4/3/2002 3000 20

5 Smith 5/5/2002 3000 30

6 James 6/5/2002 2000 10

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Nested Query -
• Example –
1. To display records of employees whose salary is more than the
salary of SMITH.
Select * from Employee where salary > (select salary from Employee
where EName = ‘Smith’;
2. To display records of employees who are Junior to CLARK.
Select * from Employee where HireDate > (select HireDate from
Employee where Ename = ‘Clark’;

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PL/SQL -
• Stands for Procedural Language extensions to the Structured Query
Language.
• It is the combination of SQL along with the procedural features of
programming languages.
• It allows declaration of constant and variables, procedures and
functions, types and variable of those types and trigger. It can handle
exceptions.

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PL/SQL Program Structure -
• PL/SQL Block –
DECLARE
Declaration section
BEGIN
Execution section
EXCEPTION
Exception section
END;

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PL/SQL Program Structure -
• PL/SQL Block –
Declaration section – PL/SQL block has declaration section where we declare
variables, allocate memory for cursors and define data types.
Execution section – PL/SQL block has an executable section.An executable
section starts with the keyword BEGIN and ends with keyword END. The
executable section must have one executable statement, even if it is the NULL
statement which does nothing.
Exception section – It starts with the keyword EXCEPTION. The exception-
handling section is where we catch and handle exceptions raised by the code in the
execution section.
• PL/SQL Data Types – Numeric, Character, Date and Time, Boolean.

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Stored Procedures -
• Stored procedure is a type of subprogram in PL/SQL block. It is a
group of statements that can be called by its name.
• This is a subprogram that does not return a value directly.
• A procedure is created with the CREATE OR REPLACE
PROCEDURE statement.

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Stored Procedure -
How to pass parameters in procedure:
Three ways to pass parameters in procedure:
• IN parameters: The IN parameter can be referenced by the procedure
or function. The value of the parameter cannot be overwritten by the
procedure or the function.
• OUT parameters: The OUT parameter cannot be referenced by the
procedure or function, but the value of the parameter can be
overwritten by the procedure or function.
• INOUT parameters: The INOUT parameter can be referenced by the
procedure or function and the value of the parameter can be
overwritten by the procedure or function.

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PL/SQL Create Procedure -
• Syntax
CREATE [OR REPLACE] PROCEDURE procedure_name
[(Parameter_Name [IN | OUT | IN OUT ] Type [….])]
IS|AS
[declaration_section]
BEGIN
executable_section
[EXCEPTION
exception_section]
END ;
/
Execute Procedure_Name;

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Functions -
• Stored function is a named block or subprogram in PL/SQL.
• In PL/SQL, a function takes one or more parameter and returns one value.
• Syntax
CREATE or REPLACE Function Function_Name
[(Parameter_Name [IN | OUT | IN OUT ] Type [….])]
Return Datatype
[IS |AS]
[Declaration Section]
BEGIN
[Execution Section]
END;
/

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Cursors -
• When an SQL statement is processed, Oracle creates a memory area
known as context area.
• A Cursor is a pointer to this context area. It contains all information
needed for processing the statement.
• In PL/SQL, the context area is controlled by Cursor.
• A cursor contains information of a select statement and the rows of
data accessed by it.
• A cursor is used to referred to a program to fetch and process the rows
returned by the SQL statement, one at a time.

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Cursors -
There are two types of cursors:
• Implicit Cursors
• Explicit Cursors
1. PL/SQL Implicit Cursors -
• The implicit cursors are automatically generated by Oracle while an
SQL statement is executed, if you don't use an explicit cursor for the
statement.
• These are created by default to process the statements when DML
statements like INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE etc. are executed.

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Cursors -
• Orcale provides some attributes known as Implicit cursor's attributes
to check the status of DML operations. Some of them are: %FOUND,
%NOTFOUND, %ROWCOUNT and %ISOPEN.
• For example: When you execute the SQL statements like INSERT,
UPDATE, DELETE then the cursor attributes tell whether any rows
are affected and how many have been affected. If you run a SELECT
INTO statement in PL/SQL block, the implicit cursor attribute can be
used to find out whether any row has been returned by the SELECT
statement. It will return an error if there no data is selected.

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Cursors -

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Cursors -
• Update the table and increase salary of each customer by 5000. Here,
SQL%ROWCOUNT attribute is used to determine the number of rows
affected:
DECLARE
total_rows number(2);
BEGIN
UPDATE customers
SET salary = salary + 5000;
IF sql%notfound THEN
dbms_output.put_line('no customers updated');

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Cursors -

ELSIF sql%found THEN

total_rows := sql%rowcount;
dbms_output.put_line( total_rows || ' customers updated ');
END IF;
END;
/
Output - 6 customers updated
PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

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Cursors -
2. PL/SQL Explicit Cursors
• The Explicit cursors are defined by the programmers to gain more
control over the context area. These cursors should be defined in the
declaration section of the PL/SQL block. It is created on a SELECT
statement which returns more than one row.
• Syntax for create an explicit cursor -
CURSOR cursor_name IS select_statement;

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Cursors -
Steps:
You must follow these steps while working with an explicit cursor.
• Declare the cursor to initialize in the memory.
• Open the cursor to allocate memory.
• Fetch the cursor to retrieve data.
• Close the cursor to release allocated memory.

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Cursors -
1. Declare the cursor:
• It defines the cursor with a name and the associated SELECT
statement.
• Syntax for explicit cursor declaration:
CURSOR cursor_name IS select statement;
2. Open the cursor:
• It is used to allocate memory for the cursor and make it easy to fetch
the rows returned by the SQL statements into it.
• Syntax for cursor open:
OPEN cursor_name;

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Cursors -
3. Fetch the cursor –
• It is used to access one row at a time.
• Syntax for cursor fetch
FETCH cursor_name INTO variable_list;
4. Close the cursor:
• It is used to release the allocated memory. The following syntax is
used to close the above-opened cursors.
• Syntax for cursor close:
Close cursor_name;

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Cursors -
Example - Retrieve the name and address from Employee table.

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Cursors -
DECLARE
CURSOR c_customers is
SELECT name, address FROM customers;
c_name customers.name%type;
c_addr customers.address%type;
BEGIN
OPEN c_customers;
LOOP
FETCH c_customers into c_name, c_addr;
EXIT WHEN c_customers%notfound;
dbms_output.put_line(c_name || ' ' || c_addr);
END LOOP;
CLOSE c_customers;
END;
/
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Cursors -
Ramesh Allahabad
Suresh Kanpur
Mahesh Ghaziabad
Chandan Noida
Alex Paris
Sunita Delhi
PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

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Trigger -
• Trigger is invoked by Oracle engine automatically whenever a
specified event occurs. Trigger is stored into database and invoked
repeatedly, when specific condition match.
• Triggers are stored programs, which are automatically executed or
fired when some event occurs.
• Triggers are written to be executed in response to any of the following
events.
- A database manipulation (DML) statement (DELETE, INSERT, or UPDATE).
- A database definition (DDL) statement (CREATE,ALTER, or DROP).
-A database operation (SERVERERROR, LOGON, LOGOFF, STARTUP, or
SHUTDOWN).

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Creating Trigger -
• Syntax for creating trigger
CREATE [OR REPLACE ] TRIGGER trigger_name
{BEFORE | AFTER | INSTEAD OF }
{INSERT [OR] | UPDATE [OR] | DELETE}
[OF col_name]
ON table_name
[REFERENCING OLD AS o NEW AS n]
[FOR EACH ROW]
WHEN (condition)
DECLARE
Declaration-statements

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Creating Trigger -
• Syntax for creating trigger

BEGIN
Executable-statements
EXCEPTION
Exception-handling-statements
END;
/

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• CREATE [OR REPLACE] TRIGGER trigger_name: It creates or
replaces an existing trigger with the trigger_name.
• {BEFORE | AFTER | INSTEAD OF} : This specifies when the trigger
would be executed. The INSTEAD OF clause is used for creating
trigger on a view.
• {INSERT [OR] | UPDATE [OR] | DELETE}: This specifies the DML
operation.
• [OF col_name]: This specifies the column name that would be
updated.
• [ON table_name]: This specifies the name of the table associated with
the trigger.

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• [REFERENCING OLD AS o NEWAS n]: This allows you to refer
new and old values for various DML statements, like INSERT,
UPDATE, and DELETE.
• [FOR EACH ROW]: This specifies a row level trigger, i.e., the trigger
would be executed for each row being affected. Otherwise the trigger
will execute just once when the SQL statement is executed, which is
called a table level trigger.
• WHEN (condition): This provides a condition for rows for which the
trigger would fire. This clause is valid only for row level triggers.

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Assertion -
• An assertion is a predicate expressing a condition we wish the
database to always satisfy.
• When created, the expression must be true.
• DBMS checks the assertion after any change that may violate the
expression.
• Syntax –
CREATEASSERTION
<assertion_name>CHECK<predicate>;

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Assertion -
• Customer( customer_name, customer_street, customer_city)
• If we want that the customer city should not be NULL then the
Assertion can be,
CREATE ASSERTION city_not_null CHECK
NOT EXIST
(select * from Customer where customer_city is null);

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Roles and Privileges -

• Roles are names group of privileges that you can assign to users/other
roles.
• A privilege is a right allowing the user to run some particular types of
SQL commands or access the object of another user. Some of the
privileges that are given to users include the rights like connecting to a
database or creating a table. There could also be rights to select the
rows from the users of another table or execute the stored procedure of
another user.

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Roles and Privileges -

• Privileges are granted to users in order for them to accomplish the

tasks needed for different jobs. Only those privileges should be
granted to the user that would allow them to perform the necessary
task. Security could be compromised if excessive or unnecessary
privileges are granted to a user.
• Privilege is a permission given by DBA.

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• Examples of the privileges are –
Connect to database
Create a table
Select a row from another user’s table.
the right to execute another user's stored procedure
• Types of Privileges –
1. System privilege – allows user to create, alter or drop the database
objects such as table, view and so on.
2. Object privilege – allows user to select, insert, update or delete data
from database objects.

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Roles and Privileges -
Privileges: GRANT and REVOKE
• The user/role can be created in ORACLE using CREATE ROLE command.
• The IDENTIFIED BY clause is used for authentication of the user. It adds
the security layer to the role.
CREATE ROLE Student
IDENTIFIED BY password1234;
/* Role created*/
//Connect, Username, Password [Error – user Student lacks
CREATE SESSION privilege]
GRANT connect to Student;
/* Grant Succeeded*/

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Roles and Privileges -
Privileges: GRANT and REVOKE
Select * from system.employee; // table doesn’t exist
GRANT select on employee to Student;
/* Grant Succeeded*/
delete from employee where salary>10000; // table doesn’t exist
GRANT delete on employee to Student;
/* Grant Succeeded*/
GRANT all on employee to Student;
/* Grant Succeeded*/
insert into system.employee values(5, ‘Ram’, 75, ‘Pune’);

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