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Circuit Design for Mechatronics

METE 2020U
Dr. Nasim Maollemi

Lesson 1
AC Power
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 Learning Outcomes

After finishing this lesson, you should be able to:

• Calculate real, reactive, and complex power for elements of AC circuits.

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Review - Phase Shift between two function

Assume 𝑥1 𝑡 = 𝑋1 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃) , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥2 𝑡 = 𝑋2 (sin 𝜔𝑡 + φ)

• If 𝜃 = φ, the functions are said to be in phase. They reach their maximum and
minimum at the same time

• If 𝜃 ≠ φ, the functions are said to be out of phase

▪ Assuming 𝜃 > 𝜑
we say: 𝑥1 leads 𝑥2 by 𝜃 − φ
Or
we say: 𝑥2 lags 𝑥1 by 𝜃 − φ

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Review - Effective or rms Values

Root-mean-square (rms) value of a sinusoidal function: 𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃) is

𝑉𝑚
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 =
2
Note: rms value of an AC is equivalent DC value that provide the same average power.

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Review - Max value and rms value

When we write 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝐴 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃) , 𝐴 is the max value.
In phasor domain the voltage may presented as amplitude or rms.
Here is example:

• 𝑣 𝑡 = 4 sin(377𝑡 + 40) 𝑉 −−−→ 4 is the max value

• 𝑽 = 80∠60∘ 𝑉 −−−→ 80 is the max value
• 𝑽 = 80∠60∘ 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 −−−→ 80 is the rms value (pay attention to rms next
to the volt unit)

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Review - Steps in AC Circuit Analysis

When all the sources in the circuit have the same frequency:

1. Determine the phasor circuit

▪ Convert all sources to phasor form
▪ Use exciting frequency (frequency of the sources) to determine impedance of each
circuit element
2. Apply any method (kvl, kcl, nodal, mesh, series, parallel, voltage divider,
current devider) to find the parameter of interest
▪ Treat impedance elements as resistors
▪ Will require complex arithmetic
3. Convert phasor solution back to its time-domain form

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Review - Phasor form of a sinusoidal function

• Sometimes the function is given as 𝐴 sin 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃 . Remember that sin function is only a time-
shifted cos function: 𝒗 𝒕 = 𝑨 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝝎𝒕 + 𝜽 = 𝑨 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝝎𝒕 + 𝜽 − 𝟗𝟎 . We convert the sine
function to cos and then write it in the phasor form.

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Review - Impedance summary

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Review - General Impedance

𝑍 =𝑅+𝑗𝑋

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 Review – DC Power

𝑃=𝑉𝐼 𝑊 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠

+ 𝑉
-
𝐼

2 𝑉2
For a resistor : 𝑃= 𝑅𝐼 =
𝑅
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 Instantaneous Power

If the voltage and current are sinusoidal functions as

𝑣(𝑡)= 𝑉𝑚 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃𝑣 ) and 𝑖(𝑡)= 𝐼𝑚 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃𝐼 )

• The instantaneous power delivered

𝑝 𝑡 =𝑣 𝑡 𝑖 𝑡 𝑊(𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠)
𝑝 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑚 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃𝑣 ) 𝐼𝑚 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃𝐼 )

• It can be proved that (in the Appendix)

𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚
𝑃 𝑡 = [cos 𝜃𝑣 − 𝜃𝐼 + cos(2𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃𝑣 + 𝜃𝐼 )]
2

𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 [cos 𝜃𝑣 − 𝜃𝐼 + cos(2𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃𝑣 + 𝜃𝐼 )]

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 Instantaneous Power

𝑃 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 [cos 𝜃𝑣 − 𝜃𝐼 + cos(2𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃𝑣 + 𝜃𝐼 )]

constant Twice the
frequency
• Example
𝑣 𝑡 = 4 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 60°)
𝑖 𝑡 = 2 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 30°)
4×2
𝑝 𝑡 = cos 6030 + cos(2𝜔𝑡 + 60 + 30) =
2× 2
3.46 +4 cos(2𝜔𝑡 + 90)

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 Average Power
• The average power is denoted by capital P:

𝑃 = 𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑝 𝑡
= 𝑎𝑣𝑒 [𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 cos 𝜃𝑣 − 𝜃𝐼 + cos 2𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃𝑣 + 𝜃𝐼 ]

𝑃 = 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 cos 𝜃𝑣 − 𝜃𝐼

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Note - Average Power - 𝑷 (𝑾𝒂𝒕𝒕)

𝑣(𝑡)= 𝑉𝑚 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃𝑣 ) and 𝑖(𝑡)= 𝐼𝑚 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃𝐼 )

𝑃 = 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 cos(𝜃𝑉 − 𝜃𝐼 )

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 Complex Power - Definition
𝐼 𝜔 = 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 ∠𝜃𝐼 , 𝑉 𝜔 = 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 ∠𝜃𝑉

Complex power definition:

S = 𝑉𝐼∗ = = 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 ∠𝜃𝑉 − 𝜃𝐼

=𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 cos(𝜃𝑉 −𝜃𝐼 ) + 𝑗𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 sin(𝜃𝑉 − 𝜃𝐼 )

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 Complex Power in terms of R, X and Z

𝑍 = 𝑅 + 𝑗𝑋
𝑰𝒓𝒎𝒔 = 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 ∠𝜃𝐼 , 𝑽𝒓𝒎𝒔 = 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 ∠𝜃𝑉

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𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠
𝑆 = 𝑽𝒓𝒎𝒔 𝑰𝒓𝒎𝒔 ∗ = 𝑍𝐼𝐼 ∗ = 𝑍𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 ∠𝜃𝐼 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 ∠ − 𝜃𝐼 = 𝑍𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠
2
= ∗
𝑍

2
𝑆 = 𝑍𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 2
= (𝑅 + 𝑗𝑋)𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 2 R + 𝑗𝐼 2 𝑋
= 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑟𝑚𝑠

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Note – Complex, real and reactive Power

Apparent power 𝑺 in VA

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𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠
Complex power : S = 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 ∠ 𝜃𝑉 − 𝜃𝐼 = 2 Z
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = (𝑉𝐴)
𝑍∗

Real or average power:

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P = 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 cos(𝜃𝑉 −𝜃𝐼 ) = 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑅 (𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡)

Reactive power:
2
𝑄 = 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 sin 𝜃𝑉 − 𝜃𝐼 = 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑋 (𝑉𝐴𝑅)

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 Real and Reactive Power

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 Power Factor

𝑃
𝑃𝑓 = = cos(𝜃𝑉 −𝜃𝐼 )
𝑆

• The 𝑝𝑓 is characterized as leading or lagging by the phase of the current with respect
to that of the voltage

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 Power Factor - Resistor
• In the case of purely resistive loads, the voltage and current are in phase.
Therefore,𝜃𝑉 − 𝜃𝐼 = 0, 𝑝𝑓 = 1.

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 Power Factor – Inductor
• When the equivalent load is an inductance 𝜃𝑉 − 𝜃𝐼 = 90° , the current
lags the voltage by 90° .

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 Power Factor - Capacitor
• When the equivalent load is a capacitance 𝜃𝑉 − 𝜃𝐼 = −90° , the current
leads the voltage by 90° .

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Note 47 - Power factor

0   z  90
current lags
(inductive)
𝑃
𝑃𝑓 = = cos(𝜃𝑉 −𝜃𝐼 )
𝑆

pf z
0 − 90 pure capacitive
− 90   z  0
current leads 0  pf  1 − 90   z  0 leading or capacitive
(capacitive) 1 0 resistive
0  pf  1 0   z  90 lagging or inductive
0 90 pure inductive

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 Example 1
• Find average, reactive and apparent and complex power.
• 𝑣 𝑡 = 650 cos(377𝑡)
• 𝑖 𝑡 = 20 cos(377𝑡 − 10)

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 Example 2
• Find average, reactive and apparent and complex power
• 𝑉 = 460∠0° 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠
• 𝐼 = 14.14∠ −45° 𝐴𝑟𝑚𝑠

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 Example 3
• For each case, find the load Z and determine if it is lagging or leading (inductive or
capacitive)
• 𝑣 𝑡 = 40 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 15)
• 𝑖 𝑡 = 20 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 45)

• 𝑣 𝑡 = 40 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 15)
• 𝑖 𝑡 = 43 cos(𝜔𝑡 − 22)

• 𝑍 = 48 + 𝑗16

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 Example 4
• The circuit shown consists of a source driving a load. With 𝑖 𝑡 = 1.25 cos(5𝑡 − 15° ) 𝐴 Find the value of
the complex power delivered by the source to the load when R = 20 Ω and L = 3 H.

1.25∠ − 15°

The equivalent impedance of the parallel resistor and inductor is:

𝑗𝜔𝐿𝑅 𝑗300
𝒁= = = 12∠53° Ω
𝑅 + 𝑗𝜔𝐿 20 + 𝑗15
The voltage across the impedance is:
𝑽 = 𝑰𝒁 = 1.25∠ − 15° 12∠53° = 15∠38° 𝑉
The complex power delivered by the source is then:
15 1.25
𝑺 = 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 ∠𝜃𝑣 − 𝜃𝐼 = × ∠38 − −15 = 9.375∠53° 𝑉𝐴
2 2

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 Example 5
• Find real and reactive power for all the elements.

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 Example 5 cont.
• Find real and reactive power for all the elements.

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Note - Maximum Power Transfer

 ZL
opt
= *
ZTH

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 Example 6
Find Z L for maximum average power tran sfer.
Compute the maximum average power supplied to the load.

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 Example 6 cont.
Find Z L for maximum average power tran sfer.
Compute the maximum average power supplied to the load.

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 Example 6 cont.
Find Z L for maximum average power tran sfer.
Compute the maximum average power supplied to the load.

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 Check your understanding
Are you able to

• Calculate real, reactive, and complex power for elements of AC circuits

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 References
• Fundamentals of Electric Circuits, 7th Edition, Charles Alexander and Matthew
Sadiku, McGraw-Hill 2021, chapter 13
• Basic Engineering Circuit Analysis, 11th Edition, J. David Irwin, R. Mark Nelms,
Wiley 2015, ISBN: 978-1-118-99266-1

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