Computer software, or just software, is a collection of computer programs and related data that provides the instructions for

telling a computer what to do and how to do it. Software refers to one or more computer programs and data held in the storage of the computer for some purposes. In other words, software is a set of programs, procedures, algorithms and its documentation concerned with the operation of a data processing system. Program software performs the function of the program it implements, either by directly providing instructions to the computer hardware or by serving as input to another piece of software. The term was coined to contrast to the old term hardware (meaning physical devices). In contrast to hardware, software "cannot be touched".[1] Software is also sometimes used in a more narrow sense, meaning application software only. Sometimes the term includes data that has not traditionally been associated with computers, such as film, tapes, and records.[2]

A database is an organized collection of data for one or more purposes, usually in digital form. The data are typically organized to model relevant aspects of reality (for example, the availability of rooms in hotels), in a way that supports processes requiring this information (for example, finding a hotel with vacancies). This definition is very general, and is independent of the technology used. The term "database" may be narrowed to specify particular aspects of organized \ollection of data and may refer to the logical database, to physical database as data content in computer data storageor to many other database sub-definitions. The term database is correctly applied to the data and their supporting data structures, and not to the database management system (referred to by the acronym DBMS). The database data collection with DBMS is called a database system. The term database system implies that the data is managed to some level of quality (measured in terms of accuracy, availability, usability, and resilience) and this in turn often implies the use of a general-purpose database management system (DBMS).[1] A general-purpose DBMS is typically a complex software system that meets many usage requirements, and the databases that it maintains are often large and complex. The utilization of databases is now spread to such a wide degree that virtually every technology and product relies on databases and DBMSs for its development and commercialization, or even may have such embedded in it. Also, organizations and companies, from small to large, heavily depend on databases for their operations.

Computer Hardware Definition Hardware is a comprehensive term for all of the physical parts of a computer, as distinguished from the data it contains or operates on, and the software that provides instructions for the hardware to acoomplish tasks. The boundary between hardware and software is slightly blurry - firmware is software that is "built-in" to the hardware, but such firmware is usually the province of computer programmers and computer engineers in any case and not an issue that computer users need to concern themselves with.

An operating system (OS) is a set of programs that manage computer hardware resources and provide common services for application software. The operating system is the most important type of system software in a computer system. A user cannot run an application program on the computer without an operating system, unless the application program is self booting. Time-sharing operating systems schedule tasks for efficient use of the system and may also include accounting for cost allocation of processor time, mass storage, printing, and other resources. For hardware functions such as input and output and memory allocation, the operating system acts as an intermediary between application programs and the computer hardware,[1][2] although the application code is usually executed directly by the hardware and will frequently call the OS or be interrupted by it. Operating systems are found on almost any device that contains a computerfrom cellular phones and video game consoles to supercomputers and web servers.

A DBMS is a complex set of software programs that controls the organization, storage, management, and retrieval of data in a database. DBMS are categorized according to their data structures or types, sometime DBMS is also known as Data base Manager. It is a set of prewritten programs that are used to store, update and retrieve a Database. A DBMS includes: A modeling language to define the schema of each database hosted in the DBMS, according to the DBMS data model. The four most common types of organizations are the hierarchical, network, relational and object models. Inverted lists and other methods are also used. A given database management system may provide one or more of the four models. The optimal structure depends on the natural organization of the application's data, and on the application's requirements (which include transaction rate (speed), reliability, maintainability, scalability, and cost). The dominant model in use today is the ad hoc one embedded in SQL, despite the objections of purists who believe this model is a corruption of the relational model, since it violates several of its fundamental principles for the sake of practicality and performance. Many DBMSs also support the Open Database Connectivity API that supports a standard way for programmers to access the DBMS. Data structures (fields, records, files and objects) optimized to deal with very large amounts of data stored on a permanent data storage device (which implies relatively slow access compared to volatile main memory). A database query language and report writer to allow users to interactively interrogate the database, analyze its data and update it according to the users privileges on data. It also controls the security of the database. Data security prevents unauthorized users from viewing or updating the database. Using passwords, users are allowed access to the entire database or subsets of it called subschemas. For example, an employee database can contain all the data about an individual employee,

but one group of users may be authorized to view only payroll data, while others are allowed access to only work history and medical data.

If the DBMS provides a way to interactively enter and update the database, as well as interrogate it, this capability allows for managing personal databases. However, it may not leave an audit trail of actions or provide the kinds of controls necessary in a multi-user organization. These controls are only available when a set of application programs are customized for each data entry and updating function. A transaction mechanism, that ideally would guarantee the ACID properties, in order to ensure data integrity, despite concurrent user accesses (concurrency control), and faults (fault tolerance). It also maintains the integrity of the data in the database. The DBMS can maintain the integrity of the database by not allowing more than one user to update the same record at the same time. The DBMS can help prevent duplicate records via unique index constraints; for example, no two customers with the same customer numbers (key fields) can be entered into the database. The DBMS accepts requests for data from the application program and instructs the operating system to transfer the appropriate data. When a DBMS is used, information systems can be changed much more easily as the organization's information requirements change. New categories of data can be added to the database without disruption to the existing system. Organizations may use one kind of DBMS for daily transaction processing and then move the detail onto another computer that uses another DBMS better suited for random inquiries and analysis. Overall systems design decisions are performed by data administrators and systems analysts. Detailed database design is performed by database administrators. Database servers are specially designed computers that hold the actual databases and run only the DBMS and related software. Database servers are usually multiprocessor computers, with RAID disk arrays used for stable storage. Connected to one or more servers via a highspeed channel, hardware database accelerators are also used in large volume transaction processing environments. DBMSs are found at the heart of most database applications. Sometimes DBMSs are built around a private multitasking kernel with built-innetworking support although nowadays these functions are left to the operating system. 3.2 DBMS Benefits Improved strategic use of corporate data Reduced complexity of the organizations information systems environment Reduced data redundancy and inconsistency Enhanced data integrity Application-data independence

Improved security Reduced application development and maintenance costs Improved flexibility of information systems Increased access and availability of data and information Logical & Physical data independence Concurrent access anomalies. Facilitate atomicity problem. Provides central control on the system through DBA. Figure 1: An example of a database management approach in a banking information system. Note how the savings, checking, and installment loan programs use a database management system to share a customer database. Note also that the DBMS allows a user to make a direct, ad hoc interrogation of the database without using application programs. 3.3 Features and Capabilities of DBMS A DBMS can be characterized as an "attribute management system" where attributes are small chunks of information that describe something. For example, "colour" is an attribute of a car. The value of the attribute may be a color such as "red", "blue" or "silver". Alternatively, and especially in connection with the relational model of database management, the relation between attributes drawn from a specified set of domains can be seen as being primary. For instance, the database might indicate that a car that was originally "red" might fade to "pink" in time, provided it was of some particular "make" with an inferior paint job. Such higher arity relationships provide information on all of the underlying domains at the same time, with none of them being privileged above the others. Throughout recent history specialized databases have existed for scientific, geospatial, imaging, and document storage and like uses. Functionality drawn from such applications has lately begun appearing in mainstream DBMSs as well. However, the main focus there, at least when aimed at the commercial data processing market, is still on descriptive attributes on repetitive record structures. Thus, the DBMSs of today roll together frequently-needed services or features of attribute management. By externalizing such functionality to the DBMS, applications effectively share code with each other and are relieved of much internal complexity. Features commonly offered by database management systems The four major uses of database management systems are:

1. Database Development 2. Database Interrogation 3. Database Maintenance 4. Application Development Database Development Database packages like Microsoft Access, Lotus Approach allow end users to develop the database they need. However, large organizations with client/server or mainframe-based system usually place control of enterprise-wide database development in the hands of database administrators and other database specialists. This improves the integrity and security of organizational database. Database developers use the data definition languages (DDL) in database management systems like oracle 9i or IBMs BD2 to develop and specify the data contents, relationships and structure each databases, and to modify these database specifications called a data dictionary.

Database Maintenance The databases of organizations need to be updated continually to reflect new business transactions and other events. Other miscellaneous changes must also be made to ensure accuracy of the data in the database. This database maintenance process is accomplished by transaction processing programs and other end-user application packages within the support of the database management system. End-users and information specialists can also employ various Application Development Database management system packages play major roles in application development. Endusers, systems analysts and other application developers can use the fourth generational languages (4GL) programming languages and built-in software development tools provided by many DBMS packages to develop custom application programs. For example you can use a DBMS to easily develop the data entry screens, forms, reports, or web pages by a business application. A database management system also makes the job of application programmers easier, since they do not have to develop detailed data handling procedures using a conventional programming language every time they write a program utilities provided by a DBM MIS for Manufacturing Industry The automation in manufacturing companies has significantly improved in all areas of processing, but at the same time it has also created a staggering amount of data. Though IT departments have taken advantage of hardware improvements to economically store the increased data, there never seems to be enough time or resources to

meet the needs of factory managers who face the fact gap that exists between the data and the usable information required to make real business decisions. For manufacturing/operations companies, getting the right information to the right people in a timely manner has never been more important than it is today to reduce hidden costs, to increase production, and to maximize profits. Manufacturers have to manage the complexity of their supply chain, internal manufacturing, and operations along with meeting their distribution and customer requirements. Manufacturers today are faced with making extremely complicated decisions in real-time, on a daily basis, with limited information. Manufacturers face increasing globalization, more competition than ever, and customers whose demands reflect their own knowledge and expectations of a global market. Every manufacturing company is different like different processes, different tracking systems and different challenges. All of these variations add up to the fact that you need a management information system (MIS) that caters to the specific needs as well. While looking for a MIS solution you may define your needs and formulate a list of requirements that simplify the adoption of information technology for improving performance. In the manufacturing industry, information quality issues exist throughout the supply chain. One reason for this is that manufacturers depend on data from suppliers, contract manufacturers, distributors, retailers, and consumers in order to effectively and efficiently source raw materials, forecast demand, make and market their products. Very seldom will manufacturers have control over the quality and format of this external data. Through incremental improvements in data quality throughout the supply chain, however, manufacturers can realize significant performance improvements, including improved speed and efficiency of product manufacture, improved ability to perform demand analysis, improved channel partner effectiveness through timely and accurate product and pricing information, and improved customer satisfaction through timely and accurate customer information. Measurement and verification are needed to ensure the information quality program is reaching its objective. The single biggest obstacle to deploying a MIS in manufacturing is data: availability, quality, and access. Several factors make it difficult to ensure optimal performance in manufacturing. Data and events come from many disparate sources, including those of your suppliers, contract manufacturers, and other business partners. Data types and formats vary from one source to the next. Business partners in the collaborative supply chain may use different data schemas and systems to track their manufacturing process. Large volumes of data must be processed from each interface and subsystem used in the manufacturing process. A MIS tool should also easily integrate with operational applications and legacy systems that already exist in a typical manufacturing environment. Real-time manufacturing data need to be put into many different contexts for other roles in the organization that are contributing to the optimal performance of the real-time enterprise. Manufacturing companies today have extensive inventories to track and move, a greater number of products to generate, numerous suppliers to negotiate with and quality standards to maintain. They also have an everincreasing need to acquire, satisfy and retain additional customers to

remain profitable. Because of these complex pressures, it is imperative that all the links in the supply chain be managed successfully.

UTTILIZATION OF MIS IN MANUFACTURING INDUSTRY An organisation succeeds by bringing together and managing certain resources in a productive way. The traditional list of resources comprises labour (manpower), money, material, managers, machines and facilities. Only over the past two decades has information come to be recognised as another resource, one that is crucial to the management of others and one, which under certain circumstances, may be substituted for them cost-effectively. Information shares many properties with other resources: it has value and lends itself to the process of management. Information is a valuable resource and hence must be managed in a well-designed system so that managers are able to obtain relevant information timeously for their decision-making processes. One of the major problems of organisations that make them fail may be insufficient utilisation of the major resource of the organisation, viz. information. Managers have to be aware of utilising management information systems effectively to be competitive in the business world. Many managers in the manufacturing industries in South Africa may be unaware of the capabilities and use of an effective MIS. Most manufacturing industries are possibly already using products of Information Technology. However, their awareness level of applying information technology to designing effective management information systems to overcome their specific problems needs to be investigated and determined.

DEVELOPMENT OF MIS Any kind of business activity calls for long range plans for success, the same being true for MIS. The plan for development and its implementation is a basic necessity for MIS. In MIS the information is recognized as a major resource like capital, time and capacity. And if this resource is to be managed well, it calls upon the management to plan for it and control it for the appropriate use in the organization. Most of the organizations do not recognize `Information' as a resource. They have looked at information as one of the many necessities for conducting the business activity. Hence, due regard is often not given for its planned development and use. Many organizations have spent financial resources on computers purely to expedite the activity of data collection and processing. Many organizations have purchased computers for data processing and for meeting the statutory requirements of filing the returns and reports to the Government. Computers are

used mainly for computing and accounting the business transactions and have not been considered as a tool for information processing. The organizations have invested in computers and expanded its use by adding more or bigger computers to take care of the numerous transactions in the business. In this approach the information processing function of the computers in the organization never got it s due regard as an important asset to the organization. In fact, this function is misinterpreted as data processing for expeditious generation of reports and returns, and not as information processing for management action and decisions. However, the scheme has been changing since late eighties when the computers became more versatile, in the function of Storage, Communication, Intelligence and Language. The computer technology is so advanced that the barriers of storage, distance, understanding of language and speed are broken. With the advancement of computer technology, it is now possible to recognize information as valuable resources like money and capacity. In short, we need a Management Information System flexible enough to deal with the changing information needs of the organization. It should be conceived as an open system continuously interacting with the business environment with a built-in mechanism to provide the desired information as per the new requirements of the management. The designing of such as open system is a complex task. It can be achieved only if the MIS is planned, keeping in view, the plan of the business management of the organization. The plan of MIS is concurrent to the business plan of the organization. The information needs for the implementation of the business plan should find place in the MIS. To ensure such an alignment possibility, it is necessary that the business plan strategic or otherwise, states the information needs. The information needs are the traced to the source data and the systems in the organization which generate such a data. The plan of development of the MIS is linked with the steps of the implementation in a business development plan. The system of information generation is so planned that strategic information is provided for the strategic planning, control information is provided for a short term planning and execution.

A marketing information system (MIS)

Is a set of procedures and methods designed to generate, analyze, disseminate, and store anticipated marketing decision information on a regular, continuous basis. An information system can be used operationally, managerially, and strategically for several aspects of marketing. A marketing information system can be used operationally, managerially, and strategically for several aspects of marketing. We all know that no marketing activity can be carried out in isolation, know when we say it doesnt work in isolation that means there are various forces could be external or internal, controllable or uncontrollable which are working on it. Thus to know which forces are acting on it and its impact the marketer needs to gathering the data through its own resources which in terms of marketing we can say he is trying to gather the market information or form a marketing information system. This collection of information is a continuous process that gathers data from a variety of sources synthesizes it and sends it to those responsible for meeting the market places needs. The effectiveness of marketing decision is proved if it has a strong information system offering the firm a Competitive advantage. Marketing Information should not be approached in an infrequent manner. If research is done this way, a firm could face these risks: 1. Opportunities may be missed. 2. There may be a lack of awareness of environmental changes and competitors actions. 3. Data collection may be difficult to analyze over several time periods. 4. Marketing plans and decisions may not be properly reviewed. 5. Data collection may be disjointed. 6. Previous studies may not be stored in an easy to use format. 7. Time lags may result if a new study is required. 8. Actions may be reactionary rather than anticipatory. The total information needs of the marketing department can be specified and satisfied via a marketing intelligence network, which contains three components. 1. Continuous monitoring is the procedure by which the changing environment is regularly viewed. 2. Marketing research is used to obtain information on particular marketing issues. 3. Data warehousing involves the retention of all types of relevant company records, as well as the information collected through continuous monitoring and marketing research that is kept by the organization. Depending on a firms resources and the complexity of its needs, a marketing intelligence network may or may not be fully computerized. The ingredients for a good MIS are consistency, completeness, and orderliness. Marketing plans should be implemented on the basis of information obtained from the intelligence network. An Marketing Information System offers many advantages: 1. Organized data collection. 2 . A broad perspective. 3. The storage of important data. 4. An avoidance of crises. 5. Coordinated marketing plans. 6. Speed in obtaining sufficient information to make decisions.

7. Data amassed and kept over several time periods. 8. The ability to do a cost-benefit analysis. The disadvantages of a Marketing information system are high initial time and labor costs and the complexity of setting up an information system. Marketers often complain that they lack enough marketing information or the right kind, or have too much of the wrong kind. The solution is an effective marketing information system. The information needed by marketing managers comes from three main sources: 1) Internal company information E.g. sales, orders, customer profiles, stocks, customer service reports etc 2) Marketing intelligence This can be information gathered from many sources, including suppliers, customers, and distributors. Marketing intelligence is a catchall term to include all the everyday information about developments in the market that helps a business prepare and adjust its marketing plans. It is possible to buy intelligence information from outside suppliers (e.g. IDC, ORG, MARG) who set up data gathering systems to support commercial intelligence products that can be profitably sold to all players in a market. (3) Market research Management cannot always wait for information to arrive in bits and pieces from internal sources. Also, sources of market intelligence cannot always be relied upon to provide relevant or up-to-date information (particularly for smaller or niche market segments). In such circumstances, businesses often need to undertake specific studies to support their marketing strategy this is market research.

Financial information system Generally, Information is the lifeblood of financial markets, but they rely on a flow of news and market information to function. Moreover, financial information systems deliver huge amounts of details to financial professionals around the world about counter markets, price endorsers, research services and news-providers. Need of Financial Information: Financial professionals have access to a wide range of data from breaking news and immediate prices, price-histories, historic news, stats, agent research, corporation fundamental data and estimates. However, the most demanding users of financial information are traders and sales people. They require high-speed and high execution systems because seconds can add up in their fast paced environment. Some needs the most advanced systems that offer real time reporting of all fiscal asset classes merchandised worldwide. Others who have a narrow focal point, who do business in domestic or regional fiscal instruments, may search for the systems that provide smaller set of details adapted to their exact needs. Those working outside the trading environment i.e. in asset management, wealth management and in investigate and consultative business has dissimilar requirements. Although they also desire access to the news and market information they do not require pursuing market actions as strictly as traders. They need systems that supply other

content together with company s basic data, forecast data, broker investigating and details on managed resources.Financial professionals look for information systems which also supply analysis and communicating tools. They require tools which allow them to investigate the markets, identify the trading and investment chances, and evaluate the perils linked with their strategies. In addition, they need the ability to speak quickly and simply with other marketparticipants and with their co-workers & ; clients. Increasingly, financial professionals on the purchase-side want to trade directly and try to find access to feasible prices and merchandising tools in their fiscal information systems. Primary Functions of FIS: The primary functions of FIS include : Recording all financial transactions in general ledger accounts Producing fiscal reports to meet up administration and statutory requirements Controlling overall spending through budgetary controls embedded in the system Producing business fiscal statements. Components of FIS: FIS is comprised of three SAP components. This section focuses on how they work individually and how they relate to each other. The three components are: Financial Accounting (FI): Financial Accounting is used to record the entire financial transactions in general ledger accounts for the assets that is A/R, liabilities that is A/P, revenues and expenses. In addition to, FI produces the university s financial statements. Funds Management (FM): Funds Management is used to recognize the funding source and control the overall expenses. Funds Management will prevent the posting of a transaction for which there are insufficient budget dollars. Controlling (CO): Controlling is used to track the revenues and expenses based on particular reporting necessities, i.e. by department or specific activity or project. Each revenue or expense transaction practiced within Financial Information System will incorporate a code furnished from each of these components and will answer the following questions :

information system,
An integrated set of components for collecting, storing, and processing data and for delivering information, knowledge, and digital products. Business firms and other organizations rely on information systems to carry out and manage their operations, interact

with their customers and suppliers, and compete in the marketplace. For instance, corporations use information systems to reach their potential customers with targeted messages over the Web, to process financial accounts, and to manage their human resources. Governments deploy information systems to provide services cost-effectively to citizens. Digital goods, such as electronic books andsoftware, and online services, such as auctions and social networking, are delivered with information systems. Individuals rely on information systems, generally Internet-based, for conducting much of their personal lives: for socializing, study, shopping, banking, and entertainment. As major new technologies for recording and processing information have been invented over the millennia, new capabilities have appeared. The invention of the printing press by Johannes Gutenberg in the mid-15th century and the invention of a mechanical calculator by Blaise Pascal in the 17th century are but two examples. These inventions led to a profound revolution in the ability to record, process, and disseminate information and knowledge. The first large-scale mechanical information system was Herman Holleriths census tabulator. Invented in time to process the 1890 U.S. census, Holleriths machine represented a major step in automation, as well as an inspiration to develop computerized information systems. systems have been extended to support mobility as the natural human condition. As information systems have enabled more diverse human activities, they have exerted a profound influence over society. These systems have quickened the pace of daily activities, affected the structure and mix of organizations, changed the type of products bought, and influenced the nature of work. Information and knowledge have become vital economic resources. Yet, along with opportunities, the dependence on information systems has brought new threats. Intensive industry innovation and academic research continually develop new opportunities while aiming to contain the threats. Components of information systems The main components of information systems are computer hardware and software, telecommunications, databases and data warehouses, human resources, and procedures. The hardware, software, and telecommunications constitute information technology (IT), which is now ingrained in the operations and management of organizations. Computer hardware Today even the smallest firms, as well as many households throughout the world, own or lease computers. These are usually microcomputers, also called personal computers. Individuals may own multiple computers in the form of smartphones and other portable devices. Large organizations typically employ distributed computer systems, from powerful parallel-processing servers located in data centres to widely dispersed personal computers and mobile devices, integrated into the organizational information systems. Together with the peripheral equipment, such as magnetic or solid-state storage disks, input-output devices, and telecommunications gear, these constitute the hardware of information systems. The cost of hardware has steadily and rapidly decreased, while processing speed and storage capacity have increased vastly. However, hardwares use of electric power and its environmental impact are concerns being addressed by designers.

Computer software Computer software falls into two broad classes: system software and application software. The principal system software is the operating system. It manages the hardware, data and program files, and other system resources and provides means for the user to control the computer, generally via a graphical user interface (GUI). Application software is programs designed to handle specific tasks for users. Examples include general-purpose application suites with their spreadsheet and word-processing programs, as well as vertical applications that serve a specific industry segmentfor instance, an application that schedules, routes, and tracks package deliveries for an overnight carrier. Larger firms use licensed applications, customizing them to meet their specific needs, and develop other applications in-house or on an outsourced basis. Companies may also use applications delivered as software-as-a-service (SaaS) over the Web. Proprietary software, available from and supported by its vendors, is being challenged by open-source software available on the Web for free use and modification under a license that protects its future availability. Telecommunications Telecommunications are used to connect, or network, computer systems and transmit information. Connections are established via wired or wireless media. Wired technologies include coaxial cable and fibre optics. Wireless technologies, predominantly based on the transmission of microwaves and radio waves, support mobile computing. Pervasive information systems have arisen with the computing devices embedded in many different physical objects. For example, sensors such as radio frequency identification devices (RFIDs) can be attached to products moving through the supply chain to enable the tracking of their location and the monitoring of their condition. Wireless sensor networks that are integrated into the Internet can produce massive amounts of data that can be used in seeking higher productivity or in monitoring the environment. Various computer network configurations are possible, depending on the needs of an organization. Local area networks (LANs) join computers at a particular site, such as an office building or an academic campus. Metropolitan area networks (MANs) cover a limited densely populated area. Wide area networks (WANs) connect widely distributed data centres, frequently run by different organizations. The Internet is a network of networks, connecting billions of computers located on every continent. Through networking, users gain access to information resources, such as large databases, and to other individuals, such as coworkers, clients, or people who share their professional or private interests. Internet-type services can be provided within an organization and for its exclusive use by various intranets that are accessible through a browser; for example, an intranet may be deployed as an access portal to a shared corporate document base. To connect with business partners over the Internet in a private and secure manner, extranets are established as so-called virtual private networks (VPNs) by encrypting the messages. Databases and data warehouses Many information systems are primarily delivery vehicles for data stored in databases. A database is a collection of interrelated data (records) organized so that individual records or groups of records can be retrieved to satisfy various criteria. Typical examples of databases include employee records and product catalogs. Databases support the operations and

management functions of an enterprise. Data warehouses contain the archival data, collected over time, that can be mined for information in order to develop and market new products, serve the existing customers better, or reach out to potential new customers. Anyone who has ever purchased something with a credit cardin person, by mail order, or over the Webis included within such data collections. Human resources and procedures Qualified people are a vital component of any information system. Technical personnel include development and operations managers, business analysts, systems analysts and designers, database administrators, computer programmers, computer security specialists, and computer operators. In addition, all workers in an organization must be trained to utilize the capabilities of information systems. Billions of people around the world are learning about information systems as they use the Web. Procedures for using, operating, and maintaining an information system are part of its documentation. For example, procedures need to be established to run a payroll program, including when to run it, who is authorized to run it, and who has access to the output. Types of information systems Information systems support operations, knowledge work, and management in organizations. (Functional information systems that support a specific organizational function, such as marketing or production, have been supplanted by cross-functional systems. Such systems can be more effective in the development and delivery of the firms products and can be evaluated more closely with respect to the business outcomes. Operational support and enterprise systems Transaction processing systems support the operations through which products are designed, marketed, produced, and delivered. In larger organizations, transaction processing is frequently accomplished with large integrated systems known as enterprise systems. In this case the information systems that support various functional unitssales and marketing, production, finance, and human resourcesare integrated into an enterprise resource planning (ERP) system, the principal kind of enterprise system. ERP systems support the value chainthat is, the entire sequence of activities or processes through which a firm adds value to its products. For example, an individual or another business may submit a custom order over theWeb that automatically initiates just-in-time production to the customers specifications through an approach known as mass customization. This involves sending orders from the customers to the firms warehouses and perhaps to suppliers to deliver materials just in time for a batched custom production run. Financial accounts are updated accordingly, and billing is initiated. Along with helping to integrate a firms own value chain, transaction processing systems can also serve to integrate an organizations overall supply chain. This includes all firms involved in designing, producing, marketing, and delivering the goods and servicesfrom raw materials to the final delivery of the product. A supply chain management (SCM) system manages the flow of products, data, money, and information throughout the entire supply chain, which starts with the suppliers of raw materials, runs through the intermediate tiers of the processing companies, and ends with the distributors and retailers. For example,

purchasing an item at a major retail store generates more than a cash register receipt; it also automatically sends a restocking order to the appropriate supplier, which in turn may call for orders to the suppliers suppliers. With an SCM system, suppliers can also access a retailers inventory database over the Web to schedule efficient and timely deliveries. The third type of enterprise system, customer relationship management (CRM) supports dealing with the companys customers in marketing, sales, service, and new product development. A CRM system gives a business a unified view of each customer and its dealings with that customer, enabling a consistent and proactive customer relationship. Many transaction processing systems support electronic commerce over the Internet. Among these are systems for online shopping, banking, and securities trading. Other systems deliver information, educational services, and entertainment on demand. Yet other systems serve to support the search for products with desired attributes, price discovery (for example, via an auction), and delivery of digital products (for example, software, music, movies, or greeting cards). A growing array of specialized services and information-based products are offered by various organizations on the Web, as an infrastructure for electronic commerce is emerging on a global scale. Transaction processing systems accumulate the data in databases and data warehouses that are necessary for the higher-level information systems. Enterprise systems also provide software modules needed to perform many of these higher-level functions. Support of knowledge work A large proportion of work in an information society involves manipulating abstract information and knowledge (understood in this context as an organized and comprehensive structure of facts, relationships, theories, and insights) rather than directly processing, manufacturing, or delivering tangible materials. Such work is called knowledge work. Three general categories of information systems support such knowledge work: professional support systems, collaboration systems, and knowledge management systems. Management support A large category of information systems comprises those designed to support the management of an organization. These systems rely on the data obtained by transaction processing systems, as well as on data and information acquired outside the organization (on the Web, for example) and provided by business partners, suppliers, and customers. MANAGEMENT REPORTING SYSTEMS Information systems support all levels of management, from those in charge of short-term schedules and budgets for small work groups to those concerned with long-term plans and budgets for the entire organization. Management reporting systems provide routine, detailed, and voluminous information reports specific to each managers areas of responsibility. These systems are typically used by first-level supervisors. Generally, such reports focus on past and present activities, rather than projecting future performance. To prevent information overload, reports may be automatically sent only under exceptional circumstances or at the specific request of a manager.

DECISION SUPPORT SYSTEMS AND BUSINESS INTELLIGENCE All information systems support decision making, however indirectly, but decision support systems are expressly designed for this purpose. As these systems have been developed to analyze massive collections of data, they have also become known as business intelligence applications. The two principal varieties of decision support systems are modeldriven and data-driven. In a model-driven decision support system, a preprogrammed model is applied to a relatively limited data set, such as a sales database for the present quarter. During a typical session, an analyst or sales manager will conduct a dialog with this decision support system by specifying a number of what-if scenarios. For example, in order to establish a selling price for a new product, the sales manager may use a marketing decision support system. Such a system contains a model relating various factorsthe price of the product, the cost of goods, and the promotion expense in various mediato the projected sales volume over the first five years on the market. By supplying different product prices to the model, the manager can compare predicted results and select the most profitable selling price. EXECUTIVE INFORMATION SYSTEMS Executive information systems make a variety of critical information readily available in a highly summarized and convenient form, typically via a graphical digital dashboard. Senior managers characteristically employ many informal sources of information, however, so that formal, computerized information systems are only of partial assistance. Nevertheless, this assistance is important for the chief executive officer, senior and executive vice presidents, and the board of directors to monitor the performance of the company, assess the business environment, and develop strategic directions for the future. In particular, these executives need to compare their organizations performance with that of its competitors and investigate general economic trends in regions or countries. Often individualized and relying on multiple media formats, executive information systems give their users an opportunity to drill down from summary information to increasingly focused details. Acquiring information systems and services Information systems are a major corporate asset, with respect both to the benefits they provide and to their high costs. Therefore, organizations have to plan for the long term when acquiring information systems and services that will support business initiatives. On the basis of long-term corporate plans and the requirements of various individuals from data workers to top management, essential applications are identified and project priorities are set. For example, certain projects may have to be carried out immediately to satisfy a new government reporting regulation or to interact with a new customers information system. Other projects may be given a higher priority because of their strategic role or greater expected benefits.

Once the need for a specific information system has been established, the system has to be acquired. This is generally done in the context of the already existing information systems architecture ofthe firm. The acquisition of information systems can either involve external sourcing or rely on internal development or modification. With todays highly developed IT industry, companies tend to acquire information systems and services from specialized vendors. The principal tasks of information systems specialists involve modifying the applications for their employers needs and integrating the applications to create a coherent systems architecture for the firm. Generally, only smaller applications are developed internally. Certain applications of a more personal nature may be developed where the programming environment supports simple end-user enhancement. Clouds in order to share resources and access them over the network. Scalability and avoidance of capital expenditures are notable advantages of public clouds; the partial loss of control is a drawback. Companies may choose to acquire an application by leasing a proprietary package from a vendor under a license and having the software customized internally or externally by the vendor or another outside contractor. Enterprise systems are generally leased in this way. An alternative is to deploy an open-source application, whose program code is free and open for all to modify under a different type of license that enforces the openness of the application in perpetuity. Generally, the costs of the use of open-source software include the technical support from specialized vendors.

Internal information systems development

When an information system is developed internally by an organization, one of two broad methods is used: life-cycle development or rapidapplication development (RAD). The same methods are used by software vendors, which need to provide more general, customizable systems. Large organizational systems, such as enterprise systems, are generally developed and maintained through a systematic process, known as a system life cycle, which consists of six stages: feasibility study, system analysis, system design, programming and testing, installation, and operation and maintenance. The first five stages are system development proper, and the last stage is the long-term exploitation. Following a period of use (with maintenance as needed), the information system may be either phased out or upgraded. In the case of a major upgrade, the system enters another development life cycle. The principal objective of a feasibility study is to determine whether the system is desirable on the basis of long-term plans, strategic initiatives, and a cost-benefit analysis. System analysis provides a detailed answer to the question, What will the new system do? The next stage, system design, results in an extensive blueprint for how the new system will be organized. During the programming and testing stage, the individual software modules of the system are developed, tested, and integrated into a coherent operational system. Further levels of testing ensure continuing quality control. Installation includes final testing of the system in the work environment and conversion of organizational operations to the new system, integrating it with other systems already in place. The later stages of development

include such implementation activities as training users and modifying the organizational processes in which the system will be used. Life-cycle development is frequently faulted for its long development times and voluminous documentation requirementsand, in some instances, for its failure to fulfill the users requirements at the end of the long development road. Increasingly, life-cycle development is being replaced by RAD. In various RAD methodologies a prototypea preliminary working version of an applicationis built quickly and inexpensively, albeit imperfectly. This prototype is turned over to the users, their reactions are collected, suggested modifications are incorporated, and successive prototype versions eventually evolve into the complete system. Formal processes for the collaboration between system developers and users, such as join

Management information system

Management information system, or MIS, is a managerial decision-making tool. A company uses it in all of its business operations and processes. As the management is in complete know of everything transpiring in the company, it leverages on this advantageous position. Using it, a company is able to record and document all facts pertaining to its procedures and methodologies. The basic intent is to manage and control all of the companys employees and material through MIS. Related Searches:

Business Planning Business Managers

1. Significance
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Using an MIS, an organization is able to establish its hierarchical structure and work-flow charts. Every employee in the organization knows the employees he has authority over and to whom he is responsible for work. The work then progresses without glitches. The companys operating and procedures are listed by an MIS. The preparation of audits also gets simplified. Types

Organizations use different types of MIS for different needs and scenarios. At a given point of time an organization might be using several types in isolation and in combination. Organizations essentially use the TPS. TPS is the acronym for transaction processing system. The business tabulates all its recurring transactions like inventory and customer orders using TPS. The operations information system, or OIS, is used by managers to plan out their production and scheduling activities. The decision support systems, or DSS, is used by the top management to find feasible solutions and options to different scenarios. Benefits

There are numerous pluses in using an MIS. The organization records and tabulates all its key strategic functions. As and when deviations from the planned course happen, the organization is able to take corrective action at once. Communication channels are enforced. As the

authority-responsibility diagrams are well established, the superiors delegate work to their subordinates and the subordinates turn to them for guidance and suggestions. The MIS mechanism enables the organization to weigh the pros and cons of several methods of accomplishing a task and choosing the most practical one. History
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Management information systems and computing systems were both built in the 1960s. Companies all over the world use them both for efficient and effective business operations. Considerations

With an MIS, company leaders must be mindful of two

ISSUES AND CHALLENGES OF MIS Management Information System (MIS) can be defined as collecting and processing of raw data into useful information and its dissemination to the user in the required format. It consists of information, which impacts managements to feel the pulse of the organization and take decisions accordingly. In fact a full MIS consists of all the systems that the institution uses too generate the information that guide managements decisions and actions. Microfinance Institutions (MFIS), over the past few years, have been paying increasing attention to information systems. They are increasingly realizing that information lies at the very heart of microfinance. The practitioners as well as donors have become aware of the vital need for formal and informal financial institutions to manage large amounts of data. As a result, there is a massive drive to improve the effective understanding and use of these data. Needless to say that it is no possible to collect and collate large volumes of data without adopting new technology. As a result the MFIs are watching the developments in information technology very closely.

Problem in Developing MIS

Despite the availability of technology today there is a problem in developing a good and problem free MIS software for the MFIs. The diverse nature of microfinance creates an intriguing complexity for software application development. Some of the complexities in developing a single or a small number of software to meet the needs of the MFIs are discussed below.

Many Institutional Models:

The organizational forms is a function of the specific of social , political, economics , regulatory and legal environments throughout the world. There are a variety of organizational forms that are assumed by the MFIs for carrying on their work. The MFIs can be in the form of credit union, cooperatives, Non governmental Organizations (NGO) and even banks. All have their own varied type of requirement for MIS and its automation. Different Lending Methodologies: MFIs have vastly different lending methodologies across the globe and even within the same country. Some MFIs follow individual lending some follow village banking methodology and yet others may be following solidarity group lending . In Indian for example some MFIs follow the e Grameen Model as per the example of the Grameen Bank, Bangladesh while other follow Self Help Group Model as propagated by the institutions like National Bank for Agriculture and Rural development (NABARD) Methodology on Interest Payment: The practices for calculating interest and the periodicity for its payment vary according to the product and organisation. These variations can occur even within the same organisation depending on the product and the area of operation. Other varied requirements: /there are variations in terms of the currencies languages and reporting requirements of the MFIs.

TYPES
Analytic Databases

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Analytic databases (a.k.a. OLAP- On Line Analytical Processing) are primarily static, readonly databases which store archived, historical data used for analysis. For example, a company might store sales records over the last ten years in an analytic database and use that database to analyze marketing strategies in relationship to demographics. On the web, you will often see analytic databases in the form of inventory catalogs such as the one shown previously from Amazon.com. An inventory catalog analytical database usually holds descriptive information about all available products in the inventory. Web pages are generated dynamically by querying the list of available products in the inventory against some search parameters. The dynamically-generated page will display the information about each item (such as title, author, ISBN) which is stored in the database.

Operational Database

Operational databases (a.k.a. OLTP On Line Transaction Processing), on the other hand, are used to manage more dynamic bits of data. These types of databases allow you to do more than simply view archived data. Operational databases allow you to modify that data (add, change or delete data). These types of databases are usually used to track real-time information. For example, a company might have an operational database used to track warehouse/stock quantities. As customers order products from an online web store, an operational database can be used to keep track of how many items have been sold and when the company will need to reorder stock.

Database Models Besides differentiating databases according to function, databases can also be differentiated according to how they model the data. What is a data model? Well, essentially a data model is a "description" of both a container for data and a methodology for storing and retrieving data from that container. Actually, there isn't really a data model "thing". Data models are abstractions, oftentimes mathematical algorithms and concepts. You cannot really touch a data model. But nevertheless, they are very useful. The analysis and design of data models has been the cornerstone of the evolution of databases. As models have advanced so has database efficiency. Before the 1980's, the two most commonly used Database Models were the hierarchical and network systems. Let's take a quick look at these two models and then move on to the more current models.

Hierarchical Databases As its name implies, the Hierarchical Database Model defines hierarchically-arranged data. Perhaps the most intuitive way to visualize this type of relationship is by visualizing an upside down tree of data. In this tree, a single table acts as the "root" of the database from which other tables "branch" out. You will be instantly familiar with this relationship because that is how all windows-based directory management systems (like Windows Explorer) work these days. Relationships in such a system are thought of in terms of children and parents such that a child may only have one parent but a parent can have multiple children. Parents and children

are tied together by links called "pointers" (perhaps physical addresses inside the file system). A parent will have a list of pointers to each of their children.

Network Databases In many ways, the Network Database model was designed to solve some of the more serious problems with the Hierarchical Database Model. Specifically, the Network model solves the problem of data redundancy by representing relationships in terms of sets rather than hierarchy. The model had its origins in the Conference on Data Systems Languages (CODASYL) which had created the Data Base Task Group to explore and design a method to replace the hierarchical model. The network model is very similar to the hierarchical model actually. In fact, the hierarchical model is a subset of the network model. However, instead of using a single-parent tree hierarchy, the network model uses set theory to provide a tree-like hierarchy with the exception that child tables were allowed to have more than one parent. This allowed the network model to support many-to-many relationships. Visually, a Network Database looks like a hierarchical Database in that you can see it as a type of tree. However, in the case of a Network Database, the look is more like several trees which share branches. Thus, children can have multiple parents and parents can have multiple children.

Nevertheless, though it was a dramatic improvement, the network model was far from perfect. Most profoundly, the model was difficult to implement and maintain. Most implementations of the network model were used by computer programmers rather than real users. What was needed was a simple model which could be used by real end users to solve real problems.

be held about each entity (record)Introduction to System Analysis and Design :: 5

(d) System Analysis

Systems analysis is a process of collecting factual data, understand the processes involved, identifying problems and recommending feasible suggestions for improving the system functioning. This involves studying the business processes, gathering operational data, understand the information flow, finding out bottlenecks and evolving solutions for overcoming the weaknesses of the system so as to achieve the organizational goals. System Analysis also includes subdividing of complex process involving the entire system, identification of data store and manual processes. The major objectives of systems analysis are to find answers for each business process: What is being done, How is it being done, Who is doing it, When is he doing it, Why is it being done and How can it be improved? It is more of a thinking process and involves the creative skills of the System Analyst. It attempts to give birth to a new efficient system that satisfies the current needs of the user and has scope for future growth within the organizational constraints. The result of this process is a logical system design. Systems analysis is an iterative process that continues until a preferred and acceptable solution emerges. (e) System Design Based on the user requirements and the detailed analysis of the existing system, the new system must be designed. This is the phase of system designing. It is the most crucial phase in the developments of a system. The logical system design arrived at as a result of systems analysis is converted into physical system design. Normally, the design proceeds in two stages: l Preliminary or General Design l Structured or Detailed Design

Preliminary or General Design: In the preliminary or general design, the features of the new system are specified. The costs of implementing these features and the benefits to be derived are estimated. If the project is still considered to be feasible, we move to the detailed design stage. Structured or Detailed Design: In the detailed design stage, computer oriented work begins in earnest. At this stage, the design of the system becomes more structured. Structure design is a blue print of a computer system solution to a given problem having the6 :: Computer Applications same components and inter-relationships among the same components as the original problem. Input, output, databases, forms, codification schemes and processing specifications are drawn up in detail. In the design stage, the programming language and the hardware and software platform in which the new system will run are also decided. There are several tools and techniques used for describing the system design of the system. These tools and techniques are: l Flowchart l Data flow diagram (DFD) l Data dictionary l Structured English l Decision table l Decision tre

A data flow diagram (DFD) is a significant modeling technique for analyzing and constructing information processes. DFD literally means an illustration that explains the course or movement of information in a process. DFD illustrates this flow of information in a process based on the inputs and outputs. A DFD can be referred to as a Process Model. Additionally, a DFD can be utilized to visualize data processing or a structured design. A DFD illustrates technical or business processes with the help of the external data stored, the data flowing from a process to another, and the results. A designer usually draws a context-level DFD showing the relationship between the entities inside and outside of a system as one single step. This basic DFD can be then disintegrated to a lower level diagram demonstrating smaller steps exhibiting details of the system that is being modelled. Numerous levels may be required to explain a complicated system. See more Data Flow Diagram Samples.

When to use Data Flow Diagram

The DFD is an excellent communication tool for analysts to model processes and functional requirements. One of the primary tools of the structured analysis efforts of the 1970's it was developed and enhanced by the likes of Yourdon, McMenamin, Palmer, Gane and Sarson. It is still considered one of the best modeling techniques for eliciting and representing the processing requirements of a system. Used effectively, it is a useful and easy to understand modeling tool. It has broad application and usability across most software development projects. It is easily integrated with data modeling, workflow modeling tools, and textual specs. Together with these, it provides analysts and developers with solid models and specs. Alone, however, it has limited usability. It is simple and easy to understand by users and can be easily extended and refined with further specification into a physical version for the design and development teams. The different versions are Context Diagrams (Level 0), Partitioned Diagrams (single process only -one

data dictionary

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In database management systems, a file that defines the basic organization of a database. A data dictionary contains a list of all files in the database, the number of records in each file, and the names and types of each field. Most database management systems keep the data dictionary hidden from usersto prevent them from destroying its contents. When implementing a data warehouse which is management by a relational database management system, it is a requirement to have a data dictionary. The benefit of having a data dictionary is that data items will always be consistent wherever tables within the database enterprise they may be stored. For instance, several telephone numbers may be stored in different tables in different locations. accidentally

It is a known fact there telephone numbers are being written down in different ways by different people. With a data dictionary, the format of the telephone number within the whole organization will always be the same, and hence consistency is maintained.

Most data dictionaries contain different information about the data used in the enterprise. In terms of the database representation of the data, the data table defines all schema objects including views, tables, clusters, indexes, sequences, synonyms, procedures, packages, functions, triggers and many more. This will ensure that all these things follow one standard defined in the dictionary. The data dictionary also defines how much space has been allocated for and / or currently in used by all the schema objects.

Other information defined in a typical data dictionary which is related to database implementation also include default values for database columns, names of the database users, the users privileges and limitations, database integrity constraint information, and many other general information.

A data dictionary is in fact a database implementation as well as they contain data information about data. It is typically structured in tables and views just like other data in a database. Most data dictionaries are central to a database and are very important tool for kinds of users from the data consumers to application designers to database developers and administrators.

A data dictionary is used when finding information about users, objects, schema and storage structures. Every time a data definition language (DDL) statement is issued, the data dictionary becomes modified.

Organizations that are trying to develop an enterprise wide data dictionary need to have representational definition for data elements and semantics. Semantics refer to the aspects of meaning expressed in language. In the same manner, an enterprise wide data dictionary semantics component focuses on creating a precise meaning of the data elements. Representational definition, on the other hand, defines the way that data elements are being stored in the computer such as data types including string, integers, floats, double or data formats.
Data dictionaries do not contain any actual data from the database, only bookkeeping information for managing it. Without a data dictionary, however, a database management system cannot access data from the database. level), Functionally decomposed, leveled sets of Data Flow Diagrams.