ELEMENTS, COMPOUNDS AND MIXTURES

Matter may be classified into elements, compounds and mixtures. Most elements and compounds
are pure substances because they cannot be separated into more than one component by physical
methods while others contain small amounts of other substances known as impurities. All mixtures
are regarded as impure substances because they contain more than one element and/or compound.
The components of a mixture can be separated by physical methods.

Elements: An element is a substance which cannot be split into simpler units by an ordinary
chemical process. Elements constitute the building units of all substances. There are over a hundred
known elements. About ninety of them occur naturally, while the rest are made artificially.
Elements can be grouped or classified into metals, non-metals and metalloids.

SYMBOLS OF ELEMENTS: Symbols are abbreviations used in representing elements. In 1814,

Berzelius suggested a very simple system of representing elements with symbols. The first letter of
the name of an element was taken as the symbol for that element. For example, H = hydrogen, C =
carbon, O = oxygen, P = phosphorus, S = sulphur. Such symbols are always written in capital.
Where the first letter had already been used, the first letter in capital, together with a small letter
from its name was used. For example, Ca = calcium, Si = silicon, Be = Beryllium, Al = aluminium,
Cl = chlorine. The symbols for some metals were derived from their Latin names in a similar
manner. For example:

Element Latin name Symbol

Sodium Natrium Na
Potassium Kalium K
Iron Ferrum Fe
Copper Cuprum Cu
Gold Aurum Au
Tin Stannum Sn
Silver Argentum Ag
Lead Plumbum Pb
COMPOUNDS

A compound is a substance which contains two or more elements chemically combined. A

compound is a product of a chemical change. The component elements of a given compound are
always present in a fixed ratio by mass. Examples of compounds and their component elements:

Compound component elements formula

Water hydrogen, oxygen H2O
Sand silicon, oxygen SiO2
Sodium chloride sodium, chlorine NaCl
Limestone calcium, carbon, oxygen CaCO3
Sodium hydroxide sodium, hydrogen, oxygen NaOH

FORMULAE OF COMPOUNDS

A molecule of any substance is represented by the symbols of its component elements. Such a
representation is known as a chemical formula. Where an element exists as a molecule, a number
representing its atomicity is written as a subscript after the symbol of the element. For example;
diatomic oxygen is written as O2 to show that it contains two atoms of oxygen. Also, a molecule of
ozone is written as O3 to show that it contains three atoms of oxygen.

A molecule of a compound contains whole numbers of atoms of the component elements. Its
molecular formula is written as follows:

- the symbols of all the component elements are closely written together as a group.

- the number of atoms of each component element is written as a subscript after the symbol of that
element.

Thus, the formula of calcium chloride is CaCl 2, since it contains one atom of calcium and two
atoms of chlorine.

Valency

Valency is a measure of the combining power of an element when it reacts with other elements to
form compounds or molecules. Valencies have no charge.

Below are some elements and their valencies:

Elements Symbol valency

Hydrogen H 1
Aluminum Al 3
Argon Ar nil
Chlorine Cl 1
Calcium Ca 2
Iron Fe 2 or 3
Carbon C 2 or 4
Copper Cu 1 or 2
Oxygen O 2
Potassium K 1
Phosphorus P 3 or 5
Sodium Na 1
Zinc Zn 2
Sulphur S 2, 4 or 6
Magnesium Mg 2
Lead Pb 2
Nitrogen N 3 or 5
Bromine Br 1
Radicals

These are group of atoms of different elements that come together to behave as one unit. Radicals
may be charged and have valencies which are usually represented by the net number of positive or
negative charges that they carry.

Below are some radicals, their formulae and valencies:

Radical Formula Valency
Ammonium ion NH4+ 1
Hydroxide ion OH- 1
Tetraoxosulphate VI ion SO42- 2
Trioxonitrate V ion NO3- 1
Hydrogentrioxocarbonate IV ion HCO3- 1
Trioxosulphate IV ion SO32- 2
Heptaoxodichromate VI ion Cr2O72- 2
Hydrogentrioxocarbonate IV ion HCO3- 1
Trioxocarbonate IV ion CO32- 2
Tetraoxomanganate VII ion MnO4- 1

Writing the correct formula of a compound

To write the correct formula of any given compound, simply follow the given steps below:

Step I: Identify the element(s) or radical(s) present and write them down.

Step II: Replace the elements with their correct symbols and the radicals with their correct formula

Step III: Write down the correct valency of the elements or radicals

Step IV: Do an exchange of valencies.

Examples: Write down the correct formulae of the following compounds: (i) Calcium chloride (ii)
sodium tetraoxosulphate VI (iii) ammonium trioxonitrate V (iv) calcium hydroxide (v) carbon IV
oxide (vi) iron III tetraoxosulphate VI

Solution

(i) calcium chlorine

Ca Cl
2 1
CaCl2

(ii) sodium tetraoxosulphate VI

Na SO4

1 2

Na2SO4

(iii) ammonium trioxonitrate V

NH4 NO3

1 1
 NH4NO3

(iv) calcium hydroxide

Ca OH

2 1

Ca(OH)2

(v) carbon oxygen

C O

4 2

2 1

CO2

(iv) iron tetraoxosulphate VI

Fe SO4

3 2

Fe2(SO4)3

Class Activity: Write down the correct formulae of the following compounds: (i) sulphur IV oxide
(ii) copper II tetraoxosulphate VI (iii) iron III chloride (iv) zinc oxide

CHEMICAL EQUATIONS

A chemical equation is a written description of what happens in a chemical reaction. The starting
materials, called reactants, are listed on the left-hand side of the equation. Next is an arrow that
indicates the direction of the reaction. The right-hand side of the reaction lists the substances that
are made (formed), called products.

A balanced chemical equation tells you the amounts of reactants and products needed to satisfy the
Law of Conservation of Mass. Basically, this means there are the same numbers of each type of
atoms on the left side of the equation as there are on the right side of the equation. It sounds like it
should be simple to balance equations, but it's a skill that takes practice. So, while you might feel
like a dummy, you're not! Here's the process you follow, step by step, to balance equations. You
can apply these same steps to balance any unbalanced chemical equation.

Easy Steps for Balancing Chemical Equations

1. Write the unbalanced equation to show the reactants and products.

2. Write down how many atoms of each element there are on each side of the reaction arrow.
3. Add coefficients (the numbers in front of the formulas) so the number of atoms of each element
is the same on both sides of the equation. It's easiest to balance the hydrogen and oxygen atoms
last.

4. Indicate the state of matter of the reactants and products and check your work.

Class activities

Balance the following chemical equations:

1. Fe(s) + O2(g) Fe2O3(s)

Answer: 4Fe(s) + 3O2(g) → 2Fe2O3(s)

2. CH4 + O2 → CO2 + H2O

Answer: CH4(g) + 2O2(g) → CO2(g) + 2H2O(g)

3. C3H8 + O2 → CO2 + H2O

Answer: C3H8(g) + 5O2(g) → 3CO2(g) + 4H2O(g)

Application/Importance of balancing equations to Nursing Practice/Health Care

Balancing chemical equations in hospitals are major necessities. For instance, when the Doctors
prescribe medicines and certain doses are to be administered by the nurse to a patient. The equation
of the medication must be balanced to equal effective care of an illness it is used to treat; the nurse
must also ensure that the doses are balanced by a pharmacist because too much of one compound
could cause abnormal side effects in a patient when working with another drug. Balancing
equations is also important when cancer patients go through chemotherapy and radiation, not all
patients’ body can be exposed to the same amount of radiation; therefore, the amount of radiation
exposed during therapy has to be altered because too much exposure can cause death and too little
could be no help at all.

MIXTURES

A mixture contains two or more constituents which can easily be separated by physical methods.
The constituents of a mixture are either elements or compounds, or both. Also, in any given
mixture, the constituents may be present in different proportions. This is why a mixture cannot be
represented by a chemical formula. Each constituent of a given mixture always retain their
individual identities since their physical and chemical properties never change. A mixture can
either be homogeneous or heterogeneous. A homogenous mixture is that mixture in which the
components mix with each other, and its composition is uniform throughout the solution. A
heterogenous mixture is that mixture in which the composition is not uniform throughout and
different components are observed.

Below are some examples of mixtures and their constituents:

Mixture Constituents

Soil sand, humus, clay, air, water, mineral salts

Air nitrogen, oxygen, dust, moisture, carbon IV oxide, rare gases

Brass copper, zinc

Urine urea, water, mineral salts

Palm wine water, sugar, alcohol, mineral salts, vitamins, yeast, fat, proteins

Blood water, proteins, fat, oil, sugar, mineral salts, vitamins, hormones,

enzymes, blood cells, haemoglobin

Class Activity

Classify the following substances as an element, a compound or a mixture: limestone, clay, urea,
soil, urine, neon, air, iron, bronze, sugar, gold, milk, soap, antimony, sand

Application of chemical symbols of element, formulae of compounds and mixtures to Nursing

practice

All the drugs a nurse administers to his/her patients on daily basis are either in their elemental form
or combined as compounds and others as mixtures. A nurse should be able to differentiate between
them and recognize them with ease even when their symbols or formulae are used to represent
them using the knowledge gained from chemistry.

SEPARATION OF MIXTURES

Mixtures can be separated by series of methods otherwise known as Separation techniques. In

doing so, we take advantage of the physical properties of the constituents that make up the mixture.
Here are some separations methods and their application in nursing practice:

CENTRIFUGATION

Centrifugation is a technique used for the separation of particles from a solution according to their
size, shape, density, viscosity of the medium and rotor speed. The particles are suspended in a
liquid medium and placed in a centrifuge tube. The tube is then placed in a rotor and spun at a
define speed.
As a rotor spins in a centrifuge, a centrifugal force is applied to each particle in the sample; the
particle will then sediment at the rate that is proportional to the centrifugal force applied to it. The
viscosity of the sample solution and the physical properties of the particles also affect the
sedimentation rate of each particle.

At a fixed centrifugal force and liquid viscosity, the sedimentation rate of a particle is proportional
to its size (molecular weight) and to the difference between the particle density and the density of
the solution. In a solution, particles whose density is higher than that of the solvent sink (sediment),
and particles that are lighter than it floats to the top.

The greater the difference in density, the faster they move. If there is no difference in density
(isopyknic conditions), the particles stay steady.

a centrifuge

Application of Centrifugation

Centrifugation is commonly used in hospitals to separate blood samples. The blood samples are
centrifuged to separate the blood cells from the plasma. Centrifugation is also employed in
DNA/RNA separation, cell culture separation, etc.

DECANTATION

This is used to separate a mixture of liquid and solid particles. When such a mixture is allowed to
stand, it separates into two distinct layers: a lower solid layer and an upper clear layer. Using a
glass rod, the upper clear layer can be carefully decanted into another vessel. The method is very
fast but can be inaccurate.
 decantation process

Applications of decantation: Decantation maybe applied in preparing intravenous solutions before

the addition of medication in drug administration to patients. It is also used in blood fractionation.

EVAPORATION

Evaporation is a heating to dryness process. Evaporation can also be seen as a process in which a
liquid change into vapor/gaseous phase due to an increase in temperature (though while remaining
below its boiling point). It involves a liquid changing into the gaseous state. A mixture containing a
soluble solute and a solvent can best be separated by evaporation. However, for evaporation to be
effective, the solute must be stable to heat.

Application: Evaporation is utilized in nebulizer for respiratory distressed patients’ e.g asthmatic
patients (A nebulizer is a small machine that turns liquid medicine into a mist that can be easily
inhaled). Evaporation is also commonly employed to dry clothes under the sun. Evaporation also
induces a kind of cooling effect on our body as we sweat in hot weather condition. Knowledge of
evaporation also helps a nurse to know volatile substances that could easily be lost when opened
for a long period.

FILTRATION

Filtration is used to separate insoluble particles from liquids. A porous material like filter paper is
normally employed in doing this.

Application of filtration in Nursing practice

Nurses use filtration in contamination control as applied to intravenous solution preparation and
also for filtering point-of-use hospital water.

PRECIPITATION

In chemistry, a precipitate is an insoluble solid that emerges from a liquid solution. Precipitation
reactions occur when cations and anions in solution combine to form an insoluble solid called a
precipitate. The insoluble salt formed in precipitation reactions is called the precipitate. For
example, the chemical reaction between potassium chloride and silver nitrate, in which solid silver
chloride is precipitated out. Silver chloride is the insoluble salt formed as a product of the
precipitation reaction.

AgNO3(aq) + KCl(aq) AgCl + KNO3(aq)

(ppt)

Also, Iron (II) tetraoxosulphate (VI) is soluble in water, but insoluble in ethanol. While ethanol is
miscible with water. If ethanol is added to a solution of Iron (II) tetraoxosulphate (VI) and water,
the Iron (II) tetraoxosulphate (VI) will be precipitated out of the solution and can then be separated
by filtration.

Application of precipitation in Nursing practice

In IV drugs administration, precipitation reactions can be observed as crystals or turbidity. If a

precipitate is observed, the drug should not be administered as the precipitate could cause the
bursting of blood vessels and lead to internal bleeding. Also, depending on the organ the
medication is going to, it could cause damage to the organ.

CRYSTALLIZATION

Crystallization is a separation technique to separate solids from a solution. It is a technique used for
the purification of substances. During crystallization, the solution is heated in an open container to
evaporate some of the solvent, leaving behind the solutes. When the solution cools, crystals of
solute start accumulating on the surface of the solution. The crystals are collected and the
undissolved solids in the liquid are separated by the process of filtration.

Application

Crystallization is an important step within the pharmaceutical industry, used in the separation and
purification of active pharmaceutical ingredients. Crystallization is also useful in the production of
sugars.

DISTILLATION

This method is used to recover a solvent from a solution. The solution is strongly heated in a flask
to vaporize the solvent. The vapor passes along a liebig condenser which is cooled by circulating
water in its outer jacket. The cold water helps recondense the vapor into a liquid, called the
distillate, which is then collected in a receiver. The solute and other impurities are left behind in the
distillation flask.
 A distillation set-up

Application of distillation method

Distillation is used in water purification. Also, it is employed in the production of alcohol

commonly used in disinfectants.

FRACTIONAL DISTILLATION

Fractional distillation is used in separating mixtures of two or more miscible liquids into its
component fractions. The fractions distil over in ascending order of their boiling points, starting
with the fraction with the lowest boiling point.

In the laboratory, the apparatus for fractional distillation is same as the apparatus for simple
distillation, except that a fractionating column is introduced between the distillation flask and the
condenser. It is this fractionating column that does the actual separation.

Application of fractional distillation

Oxygen is an aid to breathing. It is a common gas that must be available in hospitals and clinics for
the sake of emergency. Industrially, fractional distillation is commonly employed in the
manufacture of artificial oxygen. This is done via the fractional distillation of liquified air.

CHROMATOGRAPHY

Chromatography uses a solvent moving over a porous, adsorbent medium to separate a mixture of
solutes. There are many chromatographic methods used in separating colored and colorless
substances. For example, gas chromatography (GC), high performance liquid chromatography
(HPLC), paper chromatography, affinity chromatography, size exclusion chromatography, etc

In all chromatographic techniques, there are two phases:

- A stationary phase on which the solutes are absorbed, and

- A mobile phase which dissolves the solutes and carries them.

Application of chromatography

The human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG) Card Pregnancy Test is a rapid chromatographic
immunoassay for the qualitative detection of human chorionic gonadotropin in urine to aid in the
early detection of pregnancy. HCG is secreted in a woman's placenta after a fertilized egg implants
in the uterus. It is normally secreted only during pregnancy.

Chromatography is also applied in the development of drugs, to identify and analyze samples for
the presence of trace elements or chemicals, separation of compounds based on their molecular
weight and element.

PURE AND IMPURE SUBSTANCES

A pure substance possesses specific composition and their physical and chemical properties remain
unchanged. They are homogeneous in nature (i.e their composition remains the same throughout
the bulk). Elements and compounds are good examples of pure substances.

An impure substance on the other hand does not have a fixed composition. Impure substances are
formed from two or more pure substances. The compositions of impure substances change.
Common examples of impure substances are petroleum, air, sodium chloride solution, etc

TEST FOR PURITY

Boiling point and Melting point are the two parameters commonly employed to test for the purity
of a substance. Boiling point is used to determine the purity of a liquid while melting point is
applied to solids. In practical terms, when a substance is tested and its boiling point value or
melting point value agrees with the value in the book of records, such a substance is said to be pure
and if not it is impure.

The presence of impurities lowers the melting point of a substance while same increases the boiling
point of a substance.