COMPUTER SCIENCE

UNIT- II, COMPUTER NETWORKS

Network : A network is an interconnected collection of autonomous computers.

Autonomous means no computers on the network start, stop or control another.

Need for Networking :

✓ To share computer files, data and peripherals.
✓ To improve communication speed.
✓ To reduce cost of transfer.
✓ Reliability: A file can have copy of 2 or more different machine, so one of them is
unavailable the other copies can be used.

Evolution of networking :
ARPANET : (Advanced Research Project Agency Network): The computer network was
jointly designed by ARPA and Department Of Defense (DOD) of USA in 1969 and was called
ARPANET. It was an experimental project which connected few computers of some of the
reputed universities of USA and DOD. It allowed access and use of computer resource sharing
projects.
INTERNET: It is network of networks i.e. it is a worldwide networks of computer networks.
INTERANET: It is an interconnected network within one organization that uses web
technologies for sharing information internally.
Interspace: It is a client/Server software program that allows multiple users to communicate
online with real-time audio, video and text chat in dynamic 3D environments.

Elementary Terminology of Networks :

Nodes(Work stations) : It refers to the computers that are attached to a network and are
seeking to share the resources of the network.
Server: It is a computer that facilitates the sharing of data, software and hardware resources on
the network
Network Interface Unit(NIU) : It is an interpreter that helps establish communication between
the server and workstations.( It is also called NIC(Network interface card ) or TAP (Terminal
Access Point))

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Switching Techniques: are used for transferring data across networks.
3 types of switching techniques :
1. Circuit Switching
2. Message Switching
3. Packet switching

Circuit Switching: In this technique ,first the complete physical connection between two
computers is established and then data are transmitted from the source computer to the
destination computer. This technique provides end to end connection between computer before
any data can be sent. It is designed for voice communication.

Message Switching: It is similar to post office mailing system. In this technique, the source
computer sends data or the message to the switching office first, which stores the data in its
buffer and then it looks for a free link to another switching office and then sends the data to this
office. This process is continued until the data are delivered to the destination computers.
In this case the data access time is more because data packets are stored on the disc.

Packet Switching: In this technique, messages are broken into packets and send across the
network and they are collected and assembled at the destination. In this technique, the data
access time is less because the packets are stored in the main memory.
(OR)
In packet switching, a fixed size of data packet that can be transmitted across the network is
specified and then the data packets are sent through switching stations to the final destination.
All the packets are stored in the main memory instead of disk. As a result accessing time of
packets is reduced.

Data communication Terminologies:

Data channel/Communication Channel/Transmission Media :
The medium through which data are transferred from one location to another. Different
communication media are :
Twisted pair cable
Coaxial cable Guided Media
Optical Fiber
Ethernet cable

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Radio Wave
Micro Wave Unguided Media
Satellite
Infrared
Baud: It describes the rate of change of signal on the line i.e. how many times (per second) the
signal changes its pattern. ( 1 baud =1 bps (bits per second))
Band width: It is the difference between the highest and lowest frequencies of the transmission
channel.
In digital system , Band width is data speed in bpsIn analog system, it is measured in Hertz.
Data transfer Rate : It represents the amount of data transferred per second by a
communication channel. It is measured kbps( killo bits per second),Kbps( killo bytes
persecond),mbps, Mbps, gbps, Gbps, tbps,Tbps.
Transmission Media :
Twisted pair cable :
It consists of two identical wires wrapped together in a double helix. It is used for telephone
wiring
Merits :
➢ It is very simple.
➢ It is easy to install and maintain.
➢ It is physically flexible.
➢ It has light weight.
➢ It can be easily connected.
➢ It is very inexpensive (i.e. cheap).

Demerits:
➢ Low Bandwidth
➢ Easily pickup noise signals
➢ It is incapable carrying a signal over long distance without the use of repeaters.(100meter
limit)
Coaxial cable : It contains two conductors that are parallel to each other.
Merits :
The data transmission of coaxial cables are better than of twisted pair cable.(Higher band
width)
They are used in cable networks and long distance telephone lines.
They are used for broadband transmission.
Offer higher bandwidth up to 400 Mbps
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Demerits :
More expensive than twisted pair cable
They are not compatible with twisted pair cables

Optical Fibers
Fiber optics, or optical fiber, refers to the technology that transmits information as light pulses
along a glass or plastic fiber.
Merits :
High bandwidth
Noise resistance
Zero electrical interference and complete electrical isolation.
Information is travelling on a modulated light beam.
They are used for broadband transmission where several channels are handled in parallel.
It is a secure transmission,
It is suitable for harsh industrial environments.
Demerits:
High cost (i.e. most expensive)
Difficult to install
Difficult for solder
Connection losses are common problem
Connecting two fibers together is a difficult process.

Ethernet Cable: An Ethernet cable is used on a wired networks. It connect devices within a
local area network like PC’s, routers and switches within a local area network.
These cables are limited by length and durability. If a network cable is too long or
of poor quality, it won’t carry a good network signals.

Radio Wave :
Merits :
Radio wave transmission offers mobility.
It is cheaper than other media
It offers freedom from land owners right.
It penetrate the buildings.
It is omnidirectional.
It is used for long distance communication.
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Demerits :
It is an insecure communication.
It is susceptible to weather effects like rains, thunder, storms etc.

Micro Wave : it is an electromagnetic wave in the frequency range of about 1 to 300 GHz. It
transmits voice and data at 45 Mbps through the atmosphere. It is unidirectional.
Merits :
It is used to wide band communication system( telephone system, television
transmission)
It is cheaper
Easy of communication
It offers freedom from land owner right.
It can communicate over oceans.
Demerits :
It is an insecure communication.
It cannot penetrate walls.
It has high cost of design, implementation and maintenance.
It has limited bandwidth allocation.
The signal strength may be reduced due to setting of antenna.
It is susceptible to weather effects like rains, thunder, storms etc.

Satellite :
Merits :
It covers large area.
It is useful for sparsely populated areas.
It is a commercial attractive.
It is a secure communication.
Demerits :
Very high cost
High atmospheric losses above 30 GHz limit carrier frequencies.
Note :The other communication Media are Infrared, Laser, Bluetooth, WIFI and Ethernet
Cable( are connect network devices such as MODEM, Router and adapters)

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Infrared Waves :
Infrared waves, with frequencies from 300 GHz to 400 GHz, can be used for short-range
communication. They have high frequencies and cannot penetrate walls.

NETWORK DEVICES:
MODEM (Modulator-Demodulator) :
Modulator convert a digital signal to analog signal and demodulator convert an analog signal
into digital signal.
A Modem is a computer peripheral that allows to connect and communicate with other
computers via telephone lines.

RJ-45 (Registered Jack -45) It is an 8 wire connector which is used to connect computers on the
local area network.
(OR)
The eight-pin RJ45 connector is a standardized interface which often connects a computer to a
Local Area Network (LAN).

Ethernet card( LAN card) : It is a hardware device that helps in connection of nodes within a
network.

Hub : It is a hardware device used to connect several computers together.

Two types of Hub :
Active Hub: It provide path for the data signals and strengthen the signals before sending to
their destination. They are called repeaters.
Passive Hub: They have nothing to do with modifying the signals.

Switch : A switch is a device that is used to segment networks into different sub networks
called subnets or LAN segments.

Repeater : It is a device that amplifies a signal being transmitted on the network. It is used for
long distance transmission (i.e. above 70 meters)

Bridge: It is device that is used to connect two networks using in same topology and same
protocols.

Router : It is a device that is used to connect two networks using same topology and different
protocols.
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Gateway: It is a device that is used to connect dissimilar network( i.e. different topology and
different protocols)

TYPES OF NETWORK :
There are 4 types of networks.
Local Area Network(LAN)
Metropolitian Area Networks(MAN)
Wide Area Network(WAN)
Personal Area Network(PAN)

LAN : Small computer networks that are confined to a localized area (e.g. an office, a building
or a factory University Campus) are known as LANs. The key purpose of LAN is to serve its
users in resource sharing.

Properties :
Diameter is not more than 10 Kms.
Use multi-access channels
Rate of transmission is high
Highly reliable(low error rates)

WAN: The network spread across the countries is known as WANs. A WAN is a group of
computers that are separated by large distances and tied together. (Example : Internet)
Properties :
Use point-to-point link except satellite network
Rate of data transmission is slow.
Owned by multiple organization.
Low reliability(high error rates)

MAN : These are the networks that link computer facilitates within the city or town.( ie.
Maximum 20 Kms of Diameter).It is in between LAN and WAN. It is a network that covers an
entire city but uses LAN technology.
Example : An organization can have multiple branches in the same city, One being the
headquarter building and other being normal offices in the same city.
PAN : It is the interconnection of information technology devices within the range of an
individual person
i.e. within a range of 10 meters.
Example : Wifi, Hotspot, Bluetooth 7
NETWORK TOPOLOGIES :
The pattern of interconnection of nodes in a network is called the topology.
Types of topologies :
1. Star Topology
2. Bus(Linear) Topology
3. Tree Topology

STAR TOPOLOGY
It consists of a central node (Hub of Star) to which all other
nodes are connected by a single path.
Advantages of Star topology :
Easy of service
One device per connection( fast speed)
Faults are easily detected and isolated.
Simples access protocols( any given connection
involves only the central node)
It allows several types of cable in the same network.
Failure of a single system will not bring down the entire network\

Disadvantages of Star topology :

Long cable length and more cabling cost.
Difficult to expand
Central node dependency( if hub fails then he entire network will fail)

BUS TOPOLOGY (LINEAR

TOPOLOGY)
It consists of a single length of the
transmission medium(normally co-axial
cable) on to which the various nodes are
attached.

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Advantages :
Short cable length and less cabling cost.(i.e. less installation cost)
Resilient Architecture
Easy to Extend

Disadvantages :
Fault diagnosis is difficult.
Fault isolation is difficult.(if a node is faulty on the bus , it must be rectified at the point
where the node is connected to the network)
Repeater configuration
Only a single message can travel at a time.
A break or short circuit in the cable can halt the whole network.

RING TOPOLOGY
Ring topology is a type of network configuration where devices are connected in a circular
manner, forming a closed loop. In this setup, each device is connected to exactly two other
devices, creating a continuous pathway for data transmission.

Advantages :
Simplicity and Easy Installation
Efficient Data Transfer
Reduced Network Congestion
Cost-Effectiveness

Disadvantages:
Single Point of Failure
Limited Scalability
Difficulty in Network Troubleshooting
Slower Data Transmission with Increased Devices

TREE TOPOLOGY :
A variation of bus topology is the tree topology. The shape of the network is that of an inverted
tree with the central root branching and sub branching to the extremities of the network.

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Advantages :
Easy to extend
Very good for office automation
Stimulates(control) hierarchical flow of data

Disadvantages:
Long cable length and more cabling cost
Root dependency
If an intermediate node is faulty, all the nodes after hat node not work.

COMMUNICATION PROTOCOLS :
A protocol means the rules that are applicable for a network. It defines standardized formats for
data packets, techniques for detecting and correcting errors and so on.
(OR)
A protocol is a formal description of message formats and the rules that two or more machines
must follow to exchange those messages.

Types of protocols :
HTTP(Hyper Text Transfer Protocol) : is the set of rules for transferring hypertext (i.e. text,
graphic,image, sound, video etc) on WWW (world wide web).

FTP(File Transfer Protocol) is a standard for the exchange of files across Internet.
It is used to transfer files from one network/system to another network/system. It goes by the
name ftp followed by address of another site and press enter.

TCP/IP(Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) : is a collection of protocols that

govern the way data travels from one machine to another across network.
TCP is used breaking of data in various packets. IP is used to decide the contents of packets.

PPP/SLIP(Point to Point Protocol/Serial Line Internet Protocol) : It is a communication

protocol used to connect computers to remote networking services including Internet service
providers.
It is used to establish a direct connection between two nodes. It is used to connect the Home PC
to the server of ISP through high speed MODEM. It allows a computer to use the TCP/IP
protocol and to be connected directly to the Net using standard voice telephone line and high
speed MODEM.
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VOIP(Voice Over Internet Protocol) : It is a technology that enables voice communications
over the internet through the compression of voice into data packets that can be transmitted over
data networks and then converted back into voice at the other end.
It refers to a way to carry telephone calls over an IP data network
(OR)
It is a communication protocols and transmission technologies for delivery of voice
communications and multimedia sessions over the Internet Protocols network such as Internet.

Video Conferencing Protocol : ( H.323 and SIP ) : H.323 is a standard that specifies the
components, protocols and procedures that provide multimedia communication services (i.e.
real time audio, video, and data communications) over packet based networks including
Internet.
Chat Protocol IRC(Internet Relay Chat) : It is a simple, text-based conferencing protocol,
involving a number of users spread across a number of interconnected servers.

POP(post office protocols) : It is used to receive e-mail from a remote server over a TCP/IP
connection.

POP3(Post Office protocol version 3): It allow an e-mail client to download an e-mail server.

SMTP( Simple Mail transfer Protocol) : It is used when e-mail is delivered from an e-mail
client to an e-mail server.
(OR)
It is used when email is delivered from one e-mail server to another.

Remote login(Telnet) :Telnet is a network protocol used on the internet or on the local area
network to provide by directional interactive text, orientated communication facility using a
virtual terminal connection.

Telnet is the internet facility that facilitates remote login. It means to connect the network at
remote station without any network.

INTRODUCTION TO WEB SERVICES :

WWW(World Wide Web) : It is a set of protocol that allows to access any document on the
net through a naming system based on Uniform Resource Locator(URL)
Web pages : It is a document containing single unit of information that is available via WWW.
(or) 11
A document that uses HTTP is called a Web Page.
Website : It is a collection of web pages belonging to a particular person or organization.
Example : www.nvmdg.com
Web Browser : It is a software used for browsing the web pages.
Examples of web browsers are : Internet Explorer, Netscape Navigator, Safari, Chrome,
Firefox, Opera, Mosaic
Web Server : It is a WWW server that responds to requests made by web browsers.
Web Hosting : It is a service that allows organizations and individuals to post a website or web
page onto the internet.
Domain Name System(DNS): The characters based naming system by which servers are
identified is known as domain name system. (or) It is the way to identify and locate
computers/servers connected to the internet.
eg. Of Domain IDs are .com, .in, .gov, .org, .co(companies), .biz(business), .int, .net
URL(Uniform Resource Locator) : It specifies the distinct address for each resources on the
internet.An internet address is a character based is called a Domain Name.
It defines 4 things : Method : //Host : Port/Path
Example : HTTP ://WWW.google.com is URL and Google.com is a Domain Name
Protocol Address /IP Address/Internet Address : It is a unique 32 bits address assigned to each
computer which connect to the internet. It is given 4 parts decimal number and each part contain
8bits. Eg. 255.255.255.0 , 192.168.1.2
HTML(Hyper Text Markup Language) : It is a language used to create documents on the
World Wide Web.
(OR)
It is the language used to create web pages. It defines the structured andlayout of a Web
document by using a variety of tags and attributes.

XML( eXtensible Markup Language) is a markup language that defines a set of rules for
encoding documents in a format which is both human-readable and machine-readable.

DHTML(Dynamic Hyper text Markup Language) : It is a combination of web development

technologies used to create dynamically changing websites. Web pages may include animation,
dynamic menus and text effects.

Web Scripting : The process of creating and embedding scripts in a web page is known as
Web-Scripting. It is of two types : (a) Client Side Script (b) Server Side Script

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 Client Side Scripts Server side Scripts
❖ It enables interaction within a web ❖ It enables the completion or carrying
page out task at the server- end and
sending the result to the client end.
❖ The client side scripts are ❖ The server side scripts are executed
downloaded and executed at the at the server end and the result is
client end. sent to the client end.
❖ Does not depend on browsers
❖ Depend on browsers ❖ Example : PHP, Perl, ASP(Active
❖ Examples : VB script, Java Script, Server Pages), JSP(Java Server
HyperText Preprocessor(PHP) Pages)

Write the Full form of the following :

ARPANET : Advanced Research Project Agency Network

NIU : Network interface Unit
bps : bits per second
Bps : Bytes per second
kbps : kilo bits per second
Kbps : Kilo bytes per second (Similarly mbps,Mbps,gbps,Gbps, tbps, Tbps)
PAN :Personal Area Network
LAN : Local Area NetworkMAN : Metro Politian Area Network
WAN : Wide Area Network
MODEM : Modulator and Demodulator
RJ45 : Registered Jack 45
HTTP : Hypertext Transfer Protocol
HTTPS : Hyper Text Transfer Protocol Secure
FTP : File Transfer Protocol
TCP/IP : Transmission Control Protocol/ Internet Protocol
PPP : Point to Point Protocol
SLIP : Serial Line Internet Protocol
POP : post Office Protocol
SMTP : simple Mail Transfer Protocol
IRC : Internet Relay Chat
VoIP : voice over Internet Protocol
SIP : Session Initiation protocol
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NFS : Network File System
GSM : Global System for Mobile Communication
CDMA :Code Division Multiple Access
SIM : Subscriber Identity Module
WLL : Wireless in Local Loop
1G,2G,3G,4G,5G : 1st /2nd /3rd /4th /5th Generation of Mobile Technology.
SMS : Short Message Services
Wi-Fi : Wireless Fidelity
URL : Uniform Resource Locator
IPR : Intellectual Property Right
HTML : Hyper Text Markup Language
DHTML : Dynamic Hyper Text Markup language
XML : eXtensible Markup language
WWW : World Wide Web
PHP : Hyper Text Pre Processor
ASP : Active Server Pages
JSP : Java Server pages
ISP : Internet Service Provider

NOTE : (For Case Studies Questions)

SERVER/MODEM : will be installed at the place that contains maximum number of

computers.
HUB/SWITCH : will be installed at each Blocks/Building/Offices
REPEATER : will be installed in the cable layout when distance is more than 70 meters
Types of Network : PAN : Distance up to 10 meters
LAN : Distance up to 10 Kilo Meters
MAN: Distance up to 20 Kilo Meters in the same city
WAN : Different cities(Entire Country/World)
Name the technology/Media/Communication Channel :
For LAN/MAN : Economical(Twisted Pair Cable/Ethernet Cable)
For Fast/High Speed/Secure(Optical Fiber Cable)
For WAN : Economical(Radio Wave)
For Fast/High speed/Secure( Satellite)

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