Number Theory

Properties of Integers

Let us denote the set of natural numbers (also called positive integers)by N and the set of

integers by Z.

i.e., N = {1, 2, 3...} and Z = {...., −2, −1, 0, 1, 2...}.

The following simple rules associated with addition and multiplication of these inte-gers are

given below:

(a). Associative law for multiplication and addition

(a + b) + c = a + (b + c) and (ab)c = a(bc), for all a, b, c ∈ Z.

(b). Commutative law for multiplication and addition a + b = b + a and ab = ba, for all a, b ∈z.

(c). Distritbutive law a(b + c) = ab + ac and (b + c)a = ba + ca, for all a, b, c ∈ Z.

(d). Additive identity 0 and multiplicative identity 1 a + 0 = 0 + a = a and a.1 = 1.a = a, for all a∈Z.

(e). Additive inverse of −a for any integer a + (−a) = (−a) + a = 0.

Definition: Let a and b be any two integers. Then a is said to be greater than b if a − b is

positive integer and it is denoted by a > b. a > b can also be denoted by b < a.

Basic Properties of Integers

Divisor: A non-zero integer a is said to be divisor or factor of an integer b if there exists an

integer q such that b = aq.

If a is divisor of b, then we will write a/b (read as a is a divisor of b). If a is divisor of b, then

we say that b is divisible by a or a is a factor of b or b is multiple of a. Examples:

(a). 2/8, since 8 = 2 × 4.

(b). −4/16, since 16 = (−4) × (−4).

(c). a/0 for all a ∈ Z and a ≠0, because 0 = a.0.

Theorem: Let a, b, c ∈ Z, the set of integers. Then,

(i). If a/b and b ≠0, then |a| ≤ |b|.

(ii). If a/b and b/c, then a/c.

(iii). If a/b and a/c, then a/b + c and a/b − c.

(iv). If a/b, then for any integer m, a/bm.

(v). If a/b and a/c, then for any integers m and n, a/bm + cn.

(vi). If a/b and b/a then a = ±b.

(vii). If a/b and a/b + c, then a/c.

(viii). If a/b and m ≠0, then ma/mb.

Proof:

(i). We have a/b ⇒ b = aq, where q ∈ Z.

Since b ≠0, therefore q ≠0 and consequently |q| ≥ 1.

Also, |q| ≥ 1 ⇒ |a||q| ≥ |a|⇒ |b| ≥ |a|.

(ii). We have a/b ⇒ b = aq1, where q1 ∈ Z.b/c ⇒ c = bq2, where q2 ∈ Z

∴ c = bq2 = (aq1)q2 = a(q1q2) = aq, where q = q1q2 ∈ Z. ⇒ a/c.

(iii). We have a/b ⇒ b = aq1, where q1 ∈ Z.a/c ⇒ c = aq2, where q2 ∈ Z.

Now b + c = aq1 + aq2 = a(q1 + q2) = aq, where q = q1 + q2 ∈ Z.⇒ a/b + c.

Also, b − c = aq1 − aq2 = a(q1 − q2) = aq, where q = q1 − q2 ∈ Z.⇒ a/b − c.

(iv). We have a/b ⇒ b = aq, where q ∈ Z.

For any integer m, bm = (aq)m = a(qm) = aq, where a = qm ∈ Z.⇒ a/bm.

(v). We have a/b ⇒ b = aq1, where q1 ∈ Z.

a/c ⇒ c = aq2, where q2 ∈ Z.

Now bm + cn = (aq1)m + (aq2)n = a(q1m + q2n) = aq, where q = q1m + q2n ∈ Z=> a/mb + cn.

(vi). We have a/b ⇒ b = aq1, where q1 ∈ Z.

b/a ⇒ a = bq2, where q2 ∈ Z.

∴ b = aq1 = (bq2)q1 = b(q2q1)

⇒ b(1 − q2q1) = 0
q2q1 = 1 ⇒ q2 = q1 = 1 or q2 = q1 = −1

∴ a = b or a = −b i.e., a ± b. (vii). We have a/b ⇒ b

= aq1, where q1 ∈ Z.

a/b + c ⇒ b + c = aq2, where q2 ∈ Z

Now, c = b − aq2 = aq1 − aq2 = a(q1 − q2) = aq, where q = q1 − q2 ∈ Z.⇒ a/c.

(viii). We have a/b ⇒ b = aq1, where q1 ∈ Z.

Since m ≠0, mb = m(aq1) = ma(q1)⇒ ma/mb.

Greatest Common Divisor (GCD)

Common Divisor: A non-zero integer d is said to be a common divisor of integers a and b if/a and d/b.

Example:

(1). 3/ − 15 and 3/21 ⇒ 3 is a common divisor of 15, 21.

(2). ±1 is a common divisor of a, b, where a, b ∈ Z.

Greatest Common Divisor: A non-zero integer d is said to be a greatest common divisor

(gcd) of a and b if

(i). d is a common divisor of a and b; and

(ii). every divisor of a and b is a divisor of d. write d = (a, b)=gcd of a, b.

Example: 2, 3 and 6 are common divisors of 18, 24.

Also 2/6 and 3/6. Therefore 6 = (18, 24).

Relatively Prime: Two integers a and b are said to be relatively prime if their greatest

common divisor is 1, i.e., gcd(a, b)=1.

Example: Since (15, 8) = 1, 15 and 8 are relatively prime.

Note:

(i). If a, b are relatively prime then a, b have no common divisors.

(ii). a, b ∈ Z are relatively prime iff there exists x, y ∈ Z such that ax + by = 1.

Basic Properties of Greatest Common Divisors:

(1). If c/ab and gcd(a, c) = 1 then c/b.

Solution: We have c/ab ⇒ ab = cq1, q1 ∈ Z.

(a, c) = 1 ⇒ there exist x, y ∈ Z such tha tax + cy = 1.

ax + cy = 1 ⇒ b(ax + cy) = b

⇒ (ba)x + b(cy) = b ⇒ (cq1)x + b(cy) = b ⇒ c[q1x + by] = b

⇒ cq = b, where q = q1x + by ∈ Z ⇒ c/b.

(2). If (a, b) = 1 and (a, c) = 1, then (a, bc) = 1.

Solution: (a, b) = 1, there exist x1, y1 ∈ Z such that ax1 + by1 = 1

⇒ by1 = 1 − ax1——————-(1)

(a, c) = 1, there exist x2, y2 ∈ Z such that

ax2 + by2 = 1

⇒ cy2 = 1 − ax2——————-(2)

From (1) and (2), we have

(by1)(cy2) = (1 − ax1)(1 − ax2)

⇒ bcy1y2 = 1 − a(x1 + x2) + a2

x1x2 ⇒ a(x1 + x2 − ax1x2) + bc(y1y2) = 1

⇒ ax3 + bcy3 = 1, where x3 = x1 + x2 −ax1x2 and y3 = y1y2 are integers.

∴ There exists x3, y3 ∈ Z such that ax3 + bcy3 = 1.

(3). If (a, b) = d, then (ka, kb) = |k|d., k is any integer.

Solution: Since d = (a, b) ⇒ there exist x, y ∈ Z such that ax + by = d.

⇒ k(ax) + k(by) = kd ⇒ (ka)x + (kb)y = kd

∴ (ka, kb) = kd = k(a, b)

(4). If (a, b) = d, then (ad , db) = 1.

Solution: Since (a, b) = d ⇒ there exist x, y ∈ Z such that ax + by = d.

⇒( ax+by)/d = 1

⇒ (a/d)x + (b/d)y = 1

Since d is a divisor of both a and b, a/d and b/d are both integers.

Hence (a/d,b/d) = 1.

Division Theorem (or Algorithm)

Given integers a and d are any two integers with b > 0, there exist a unique pair of integers q

and r such that a = dq + r, 0 ≤ r < b. The integer‘s q and r are called the quotient and the

remainder respectively. Moreover, r = 0 if, and only if, b|a.

Proof:

Consider the set, S, of all numbers of the form a+nd, where n is an integer.

S = {a - nd : n is an integer}

S contains at least one nonnegative integer, because there is an integer, n, that ensures a-nd ≥0, namely
n = -|a| d makes a-nd = a+|a| d2≥ a+|a| ≥ 0.

Now, by the well-ordering principle, there is a least nonnegative element of S, which we will

call r, where r=a-nd for some n. Let q = (a-r)/d = (a-(a-nd))/d = n. To show that r < |d|,

suppose to the contrary that r ≥ |d|. In that case, either r-|d|=a-md, where m=n+1 (if d is

positive) or m=n-1 (if d is negative), and so r-|d| is an element of S that is nonnegative and

smaller than r, a contradiction. Thus r < |d|.

To show uniqueness, suppose there exist q,r,q',r' with 0 ≤ r,r' < |d| such that that a=qd + r and a =q'd +
r'.

Subtracting these equations gives d(q'-q) = r'-r, so d|r'-r. Since 0 ≤ r,r' < |d|, the difference r'-r

must also be smaller than d. Since d is a divisor of this difference, it follows that the

difference r'-r must be zero, i.e. r'=r, and so q'=q.

Example: If a = 16, b = 5, then 16 = 3 × 5 + 1; 0 ≤ 1 < 5.

Euclidean Algorithm for finding the GCD

An efficient method for finding the greatest common divisor of two integers based on the

quotient and remainder technique is called the Euclidean algorithm. The following lemma

provides the key to this algorithm.

Lemma: If a = bq + r, where a, b, q and r are integers, then gcd(a, b)=gcd(b, r).

Statement: When a and b are any two integers (a > b), if r1 is the remainder when a is

divided by b, r2 is the remainder when b is divided by r1, r3 is the remainder when r1 is

divided by r2 and so on and if rk+1 = 0, then the last non-zero remainder rk is the gcd(a, b).

Proof:

By the unique division principle, a divided by b gives quotient q and remainder r,

such that a = bq+r, with 0 ≤ r < |b|.

Consider now, a sequence of divisions, beginning with a divided by b giving quotient q1 and

remainder b1, then b divided by b1 giving quotient q2 and remainder b2, etc.

a=bq1+b1,

b=b1q2+b2,

b1=b2q3+b3,

...

bn-2=bn-1qn+bn,

bn-1=bnqn+1

In this sequence of divisions, 0 ≤ b1 < |b|, 0 ≤ b2 < |b1|, etc., so we have the sequence

|b| > |b1| > |b2| > ... ≥ 0. Since each b is strictly smaller than the one before it, eventually one

of them will be 0. We will let bn be the last non-zero element of this sequence.

From the last equation, we see bn | bn-1, and then from this fact and the equation before it, we

see that bn | bn-2, and from the one before that, we see that bn | bn-3, etc. Following the chain

backwards, it follows that bn | b, and bn | a. So we see that bn is a common divisor of a and b.

To see that bn is the greatest common divisor of a and b, consider, d, an arbitrary common

divisor of a and b. From the first equation, a-bq1=b1, we see d|b1, and from the second,

equation, b-b1q2=b2, we see d|b2, etc. Following the chain to the bottom, we see that d|bn.

Since an arbitrary common divisor of a and b divides bn, we see that bn is the greatest

common divisor of a and b.

Example: Find the gcd of 42823 and 6409.

Solution: By Euclid Algorithm for 42823 and 6409, we have

42823= 6.6409+ 4369, r1= 4369,

6409= 1.4369+2040, r2= 2040,

4369= 2.2040+289, r3 = 289,

2040= 7.289+ 17, r4 = 17,

289= 17.17+ 0,

r5 = 0

∴ r4 = 17 is the last non-zero remainder. ∴ d = (42823, 6409) = 17.

Example: Find the gcd of 826, 1890.

Solution: By Euclid Algorithm for 826 and 1890, we have

1890= 2.826+ 238,r1= 238

826= 3.238+ 112,r2= 112

238= 2.112+ 14,r3 = 14

112= 8.14 + 0, r4 = 0

∴ r3 = 14 is the last non-zero remainder. ∴ d = (826, 1890) = 14.

****Example: Find the gcd of 615 and 1080, and find the integers x and y such that gcd(615,1080) =
615x + 1080y.

Solution: By Euclid Algorithm for 615 and 1080, we have

1080 = 1.615 + 465, r1 = 465 − − − − − (1)

615 = 1.465 + 150, r2 = 150 − − − − − (2)

465 = 3.150 + 15, r3 = 15 − − − − − −(3)

150 = 10.15 + 0, r4 = 0 − − − − − − − (4)

∴ r3 = 15 is the last non-zero remainder.

∴ d = (615, 1080) = 15. Now, we find x and y such that

615x + 1080y = 15.

To find x and y, we begin with last non-zero remainder as follows.

d = 15 = 465 + (−3).150; using (3)

=465 + (−3){615 + (−1)465}; using (2)

=(−3).615 + (4).465

=(−3).615 + 4{1080 + (−1).615}; using (1)

=(−7).615 + (4).1080

=615x + 1080y

Thus gcd(615, 1080) = 15 provided 15 = 615x + 1080y, where x = −7 and y = 4.

Example: Find the gcd of 427 and 616 and express it in the form 427x + 616y.

Solution: By Euclid Algorithm for 427 and 616, we have

616= 1.427+189,r1 = 189.........(1)

427= 2.189+49,r2 = 49............(2)

189= 3.49+ 42, r3 = 42..............(3)

49= 1.42+ 7,r4 = 7..................(4)

42= 6.7 + 0,r5 = 0....................(5)

∴ r5 = 7 is the last non-zero remainder.

∴ d = (427, 616) = 7. Now, we find x and y such that

427x + 616y = 7.

To find x and y, we begin with last non-zero remainder as follows.

d = 7 = 49 + (−1).42; using (4)

=49 + (−1){189 + (−3).49}; using (3)

=4.49 − 189

=4.{427 + (−2).189} − 189; using (2)

=4.427 + (−8).189 − 189

=4.427 + (−9).189

=4.427 + (−9){616 + (−1)427}; using (1)

=4.427 + (−9).616 + 9.427

=13.427 + (−9).616

Thus gcd(427, 616) = 7 provided 7 = 427x + 616y, where x = 13 and y = −9.

Example: For any positive integer n, prove that the integers 8n + 3 and 5n + 2 are relatively

prime.

Solution: If n = 1, then gcd(8n + 3, 5n + 2)=gcd(11, 7) = 1.

If n ≥ 2, then we have 8n + 3 > 5n + 2, so we may write

8n + 3 = 1.(5n + 2) + 3n + 1, 0 < 3n + 1 < 5n + 2

5n + 2 = 1.(3n + 1) + 2n + 1, 0 < 2n + 1 < 3n + 1

3n + 1 = 1.(2n + 1) + n, 0 < n < 2n + 1

2n + 1 = 2.n + 1, 0 < 1 < n

n = n.1 + 0.

Since the last non-zero remainder is 1, gcd(8n + 3, 5n + 2) = 1 for all n ≥ 1.

Therefore the given integers 8n + 3 and 5n + 2 are relatively prime.

Example: If (a, b) = 1, then (a + b, a − b) is either 1 or 2.

Solution: Let (a + b, a − b) = d ⇒ d|a + b, d|a − b.

Then a + b = k1d........(1)

and a − b = k2d..........(2)

Solving (1) and (2), we have

2a = (k1 + k2)d and 2b = (k1 − k2)d

∴ d divides 2a and 2b

∴ d ≤gcd(2a, 2b) = 2 gcd(a, b) = 2, since gcd(a, b) = 1 ∴ d = 1 or 2.

Then 2a + b = k1d........ (1)

and a + 2b = k2d.......... (2)

3a = (2k1 − k2)d and 3b = (2k2 − k1)d

∴ d divides 3a and 3b

∴ d ≤gcd(3a, 3b) = 3 gcd(a, b) = 3, since gcd(a, b) = 1 ∴ d = 1 or 2 or 3.

But d cannot be 2, since 2a + b and a + 2b are not both even [when a is even and b is odd, 2a

+ b is odd and a + 2b is even; when a is odd and b is even, 2a + b is even and a + 2b is odd;

when both a and b are odd 2a + b and a + 2b are odd.] Hence d = (2a + b, a + 2b) is 1 or 3.

Least Common Multiple (LCM)

Let a and b be two non-zero integers. A positive integer m is said to be a least common

multiple (lcm) of a and b if

(i) m is a common multiple of a and b i.e., a/m and b/m,

(ii) c is a common multiple of a and b, c is also a multiple of m

i.e., if a/c and b/c, then m/c.

In other words, if a and b are positive integers, then the smallest positive integer that is

divisible by both a and b is called the least common multiple of a and b and is denoted by

lcm(a, b).

Note: If either or both of a and b are negative then lcm(a, b) is always positive.

Example: lcm(5, -10)=10, lcm(16, 20)=80.

Prime Numbers

Definition: An integer n is called prime if n > 1 and if the only positive divisors of n are 1

and n. If n > 1 and if n is not prime, then n is called composite.

Examples: The prime numbers less than 100 are 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37, 41,

43, 47, 53, 59, 61, 67, 71, 73, 79, 83, 89, and 97.

Theorem: Every integer n > 1 is either a prime number or a product of prime numbers.

Proof: We use induction on n. The theorem is clearly true for n = 2. Assume it is true for

every integer < n. Then if n is not prime it has a positive divisor d ≠1, d ≠n. Hence n = cd,

where c ≠n. But both c and d are < n and > 1 so each of c, d is a product of prime numbers,

hence so is n.

Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic

Theorem: Every integer n > 1 can be expressed as a product of prime factors in one way, a part from the
order of the factor.

Proof:

There are two things to be proved. Both parts of the proof will use he Well-ordering

Principle for the set of natural numbers.

(1) We first prove that every a > 1 can be written as a product of prime factors. (This

includes the possibility of there being only one factor in case a is prime.)

Suppose bwoc that there exists a integer a > 1 such that a cannot be written as a product of

primes.

By the Well-ordering Principle, there is a smallest such a.

Then by assumption a is not prime so a = bc where 1 < b, c < a.

So b and c can be written as products of prime factors (since a is the smallest positive integer than
cannot be.)

But since a = bc, this makes a a product of prime factors, a contradiction.

(2) Now suppose bwoc that there exists an integer a > 1 that has two different prime

factorizations, say a = p1 ··· ps = q1 ··· qt , where the pi and qj are all primes. (We allow

repetitions among the pi and qj . That way, we don‘t have to use exponents.)

Then p1| a = q1 ··· qt . Since p1 is prime, by the Lemma above, p1| qj for some j .
Since qj is prime and p1 > 1, this means that p1 = qj .

For convenience, we may renumber the qj so that p1 = q1 .

We can now cancel p1 from both sides of the equation above to get p2 ··· ps = q2 ··· qt . But

p2 ··· ps < a and by assumption a is the smallest positive integer with a non–unique prime

factorization.

It follows that s = t and that p2,...,ps are the same as q2,...,qt , except possibly in a different

order.

But since p1 = q1 as well, this is a contradition to the assumption that these were two

different factorizations.

Thus there cannot exist such an integer a with two different factorizations

Example: Find the prime factorisation of 81, 100 and 289. Solution: 81 = 3 × 3 × 3 × 3 = 34.

100 = 2 × 2 × 5 × 5 = 22× 52289 = 17 × 17 = 172.

Theorem: Let m = p1a1p2a2...pk and n = p1b1p2b2...pk. Then(m, n) = p1min(a1,b1)× p2(a2,b2)× ... ×

pkmin(a,bk) =∏(ai,bi)

, where min(a, b) represents the minimum of the two numbers a and b lcm(m, n) = p1 max(a1,b1)×
p2(a2,b2)× ... × pk(a,bk) =∏(ai,bi)

, where max(a,b) represents the maximum of the two numbers a and b.

Theorem: If a and b are two positive integers, then gcd(a, b).lcm(a, b) = ab.

Proof: Let prime factorisation of a and b be m= pa1122...pak n = pb1122...p

Then gcd(a, b) =p1

min(a1,b1)× p2min(a2,b2)× ... × pkmin(aj,bk) and

lcm(m, n) =p1

max(a1,b1)× p2max(a2,b2)

× ... × pk max(ak,bk)

We observe that if min(ai, bi) is ai(or bi) then max(ai, bi) is bi(or ai), i = 1, 2.., n.

Hence gcd(a, b).lcm(a, b)

=p1min(a1,b1)× p2(a2,b2)× ... × pk(a,bk)×p(11,b1).p(22,b2)...p(,b)

=p1[min(a1,1)+max(a1,b1)].p2[min(a2,b2)+max(a2b2)]...pk[min(a,b)+max(a,b)]

=p1(a+b1).p2(a2+b2)...pk(a+b)

=( p1p2a2...pk )( p1b1p2b2...pk)

=ab.

Example: Use prime factorisation to find the greatest common divisor of 18 and 30.

Solution: Prime factorisation of 18 and 30 are18 = 21× 32× 50

and 30 = 21× 31× 51.

gcd(18, 30) = 2min(1,1) × 3min(2,1) × 5min(0,1)=2

1× 31× 50=2 × 3 × 1=6.

Example: Use prime factorisation to find the least common multiple of 119 and 544.

Solution: Prime factorisation of 119 and 544 are119 = 20× 71× 171 544 = 25× 70× 171.

lcm(119, 544) = 2max(0,5) ×7max(1,0) ×17max(1,1)=25× 71× 171=32 × 7 × 17=3808.

Example: Using prime factorisation, find the gcd and lcm of

(i). (231, 1575) (ii). (337500, 21600). Verify also gcd(m, n). lcm(m, n) = mn.

Example: Prove that log3 5 is irrational number.

Solution: If possible, let log3 5 is rational number.

⇒ log3 5 = u/v , where u and v are positive integers and prime to each other.

∴3

u/v = 5

i.e., 3u= 5v= n, say.

This means that the integer n > 1 is expressed as a product (or power) of prime numbers (or a

prime number) in two ways.

This contradicts the fundamental theorem arithmetic.

∴ log3 5 is irrational number.

Example: Prove that√ 5 is irrational number.

Solution: If possible, let√ 5 is rational number.

⇒√5 = u/v, where u and v are positive integers and prime to each other.

⇒u

2 = 5v

...................(1)

⇒u

2 is divisible by 5

⇒ u is divisible by 5 i.e., u = 5m.........(2)

∴ From (1), we have 5v

2 = 25m2 or v

2 = 5m2

i.e., v

2 and hence v is divisible by 5

i.e., v = 5n..........(3)

From (2) and (3), we see that u and v have a common factor 5, which contradicts the

assumption.

∴ √5 is irrational number.

Testing of Prime Numbers

Theorem: If n > 1 is a composite integer, then there exists a prime number p such

that p/n and p ≤√n.

Proof: Since n > 1 is a composite integer, n can be expressed as n = ab, where

1 < a ≤ b < n. Then a ≤√n.

If a >√n, then b ≥ a >√n.

∴ n = ab >√n.√n = n, i.e. n > n, which is a contradiction.

Thus n has a positive divisor (= a) not exceeding√n.

a > 1, is either prime or by the Fundamental theorem of arithmetic, has a primefactor. In ither

ase, n has a prime factor≤√n.

Algorithm to test whether an integer n > 1 is prime:

Step 1: Verify whether n is 2. If n is 2, then n is prime. If not goto step 2.

Step 2: Verify whether 2 divides n. If 2 divides n, then n is not a prime. If 2 does not divides

n, then goto step (3).

Step 3: Find all odd primes p ≤ √n.If there is no such odd prime, then n is prime otherwise,

goto step (4).

Step 4: Verify whether p divides n, where p is a prime obtained in step (3). If p divides n,

then n is not a prime. If p does not divide n for any odd prime p obtained in step (3),

then n is prime.

Example: Determine whether the integer 113 is prime or not.

Solution: Note that 2 does not divide 113. We now find all odd primes p such that p2≤ 113.

These primes are 3, 5 and 7, since 72< 113 < 112.

None of these primes divide 113.

Hence, 113 is a prime.

Example: Determine whether the integer 287 is prime or not.

Solution: Note that 2 does not divide 287. We now find all odd primes p such that p2≤ 287.

These primes are 3, 5, 7, 11 and 13, since 132< 287 < 1727 divides 287.

Hence, 287 is a composite integer.

Modular Arithmetic

Congruence Relation

If a and b are integers and m is positive integer, then a is said to be congruent to b modulo m,
if m divides a − b or a − b is multiple of m. This is denoted as a≡ b(mod m)

m is called the modulus of the congruence, b is called the residue of a(mod m). If a is not

congruent to b modulo m, then it is denoted by a ̸≡b(mod m).

Example:

(i). 89 ≡ 25(mod 4), since 89-25=64 is divisible by 4. Consequently 25 is the residue of

89(mod 4) and 4 is the modulus of the congruent.

(ii). 153 ≡ −7(mod 8), since 153-(-7)=160 is divisible by 8. Thus -7 is the residue of

153(mod 8) and 8 is the modulus of the congruent.

(iii). 24 ̸≡3(mod 5), since 24-3=21 is not divisible by 5. Thus 24 and 3 are incon-gruent module 5

Note: If a ≡ b(mod m) ⇔ a − b = mk, for some integer k

⇔ a = b + mk, for some integer k.

Properties of Congruence

Property 1: The relation ‖Congruence modulo m‖ is an equivalence relation. i.e., for all

integers a, b and c, the relation is

(i)Reflexive: For any integer a, we have a ≡ a(mod m)

(ii) Symmetric: If a ≡ b(mod m), then b ≡ a(mod m)

(iii) Transitive: If a ≡ b(mod m) and b ≡ c(mod m), then a ≡ c(mod m).

Proof: (i). Let a be any integer. Then a − a = 0 is divisible by any fixed positive integer m.

Thus a ≡ a(mod m).

The congruence relation is reflexive.

(ii). Given a ≡ b(mod m)⇒ a − b is divisible by m ⇒ −(a − b) is

divisible by m ⇒ b − a is divisible by

i.e., b ≡ a(mod m).

Hence the congruence relation is symmetric.

(iii). Given a ≡ b(mod m) and b ≡ c(mod m)

⇒ a − b is divisible of m and b − c is divisible by m. Hence (a −b) + (b − c) = a − c is divisible bym

i.e., a ≡ c(mod m)⇒ The congruence relation is transitive.

Hence, the congruence relation is an equivalence relation.

Property 2: If a ≡ b(mod m) and c is any integer, then

(i). a ± c ≡ b ± c(mod m)

(ii). ac ≡ bc(mod m).

Proof:

(i). Since a ≡ b(mod m) ⇒ a − b is divisible by m.

Now (a ± c) − (b ± c) = a − b is divisible by m.

∴ a ± c ≡ b ± c(mod m).

(ii). Since a ≡ b(mod m) ⇒ a − b is divisible by m.

Now, (a − b)c = ac − bc is also divisible by m.

∴ ac ≡ bc(mod m).

Note: The converse of property (2) (ii) is not true always.

Property 3: If ac ≡ bc(mod m), then a ≡ b(mod m) only if gcd(c,m) = 1. In fact, if c is an

integer which divides m, and if ac ≡ bc(mod m), then a ≡ b mod[gcd (c,m)m]

Proof: Since ac ≡ bc(mod m) ⇒ ac − bc is divisible by m.

i.e., ac − bc = pm, where p is an integer.

⇒ a − b= p(cm)

∴ a ≡ b[ mod (cm )] , provided that cm an integer.

Since c divides m, gcd(c, m) = c.

Hence, a ≡ b mod [ gcd (c,m)m]

But, if gcd(c, m) = 1, then a ≡ b(mod m).

Property 4: If a, b, c, d are integers and m is a positive integer such that a ≡ b(mod m) and c

≡ d(mod m), then

(i). a ± c ≡ b ± d(mod m)

(ii). ac ≡ bd(mod m)

(iii). an≡ bn

(mod m), where n is a positive integer