INDUSTRIAL

MOTOR CONTROL
 CHAPTER 1
GENERAL PRINCIPLES
OF MOTOR CONTROL
OBJECTIVES
After studying this chapter, the student will be able to:
State the purpose and general principles of motor control.
Discuss the differences between manual and automatic motor control.
Discuss considerations when installing motors or control equipment.
Discuss the basic functions of a control system.
Discuss surge protection for control systems.

The term “motor control” can have very broad meanings. related and must be considered as a unit. Some machines
It can mean anything from a simple toggle switch in- will have the motor or motors and control equipment
tended to turn a motor on or off (Figure 1–1) to an mounted on the machine itself when it is delivered from
extremely complex system intended to control several the manufacturer, and the electrician’s job in this case is
motors, with literally hundreds of sensing devices that generally to make a simple power connection to the
govern the operation of the circuit. The electrician work- machine. A machine of this type is shown in Figure 1–2.
ing in industry should be able to install different types of Other types of machines require separately mounted mo-
motors and the controls necessary to control and protect tors that are connected by belts, gears, or chains. Some
them and also to troubleshoot systems when they fail. machines also require the connection of pilot sensing
devices such as photo switches, limit switches, pressure
switches, and so on. Regardless of how easy or complex
the connection is, several factors must be considered.
Installation of Motors
and Control Equipment Power Source
When installing electric motors and equipment, several One of the main considerations when installing a
factors should be considered. When a machine is in- machine is the power source. Does the machine re-
stalled, the motor, machine, and controls are all inter- quire single-phase or three-phase power to operate?
 NEUTRAL CONDUCTOR

ON

F
OF

CIRCUIT BREAKER

HOT
CONDUCTOR +

SW
ITC
H

Figure 1 – 1 Motor controlled by a simple toggle switch. (Source: Delmar/Cengage Learning.)

Figure 1–2 This machine was delivered with self-contained motors and controls.
(Courtesy of Simmons Machine Tool Co.)

What is the horsepower of the motor or motors to be limit in-rush current? Is the existing power supply
connected? What is the amount of in-rush current that capable of handling the power requirement of the ma-
can be expected when the motor starts? Will the mo- chine or will it be necessary to install a new power
tor require some type of reduced voltage starter to system?
 Controller Type
The availability of power can vary greatly from The type of controller can vary depending on
one area of the country to another. Power companies the requirements of the motor. Motor starters can
that supply power to heavily industrialized areas can be divided into two major classifications: NEMA
generally permit larger motors to be started across-the- (National Electrical Manufacturers Association) and
line than companies that supply power to areas that IEC (International Electrotechnical Commission).
have light industrial needs. In some areas, the power NEMA is an American organization that rates electri-
company may permit a motor of several thousand horse- cal components. NEMA starter sizes range from 00
power to be started across-the-line, but in other areas the through 8. A NEMA size 00 starter is rated to control a
power company may require a reduced voltage starter 2 horsepower motor connected to a 460 volt three-
for motors rated no more than one hundred horsepower. phase power supply. A size 8 starter will control a
900 horsepower motor connected to a 460 volt three-
phase power source. IEC starter sizes range from size
Motor Connections A through size Z. Size A starters are rated to control a
When connecting motors, several factors should be 3 horsepower motor connected to a 460 volt three-
considered, such as: horsepower, service factor (SF), phase source. Size Z starters are rated to control a
marked temperature rise, voltage, full load current rat- 900 horsepower motor connected to a 460 volt source.
ing, and National Electrical Manufacturers Association It should be noted that the contact size for an IEC
(NEMA) Code letter. This information is found on the starter is smaller than for a NEMA starter of the same
motor nameplate. The conductor size, fuse or circuit rating. It is common practice when using IEC starters
breaker size, and overload size are generally deter- to increase the listed size by one or two sizes to com-
mined using the National Electrical Code (NEC®) pensate for the difference in contact size.
and/or local codes. It should be noted that local codes
generally supersede the National Electrical Code and Environment
should be followed when they apply. Motor installation
based on the NEC® will be covered in this text. Another consideration is the type of environment
in which the motor and control system operates. Can
the controls be housed in a general purpose enclosure
Motor Type similar to the one shown in Figure 1–3, or is the system
The type of motor best suited to operate a particu- subject to moisture or dust? Are the motor and controls
lar piece of equipment can be different for different
types of machines. Machines that employ gears gener-
ally require a motor that can start at reduced speed and
increase speed gradually. Wound rotor induction mo-
tors or squirrel cage motors controlled by variable fre-
quency drives are generally excellent choices for this
requirement. Machines that require a long starting pe-
riod, such as machines that operate large inertia loads
such as flywheels or centrifuges, require a motor with
high starting torque and relatively low starting current.
Squirrel cage motors with a type A rotor or synchro-
nous motors are a good choice for these types of loads.
Synchronous motors have an advantage in that they can
provide power factor correction for themselves or other
inductive loads connected to the same power line.
Squirrel cage motors controlled by variable fre-
quency drives or direct current motors can be employed
to power machines that require variable speed. Squirrel
cage induction motors are used to power most of the
machines throughout industry. These motors are rugged
and have a proven record of service unsurpassed by any
other type of power source. Figure 1 – 3 General purpose enclosure (NEMA 1).
Figure 1 – 4 Explosion proof enclosure (NEMA 7).

to be operated in a hazardous area that requires

explosion proof enclosures similar to that shown in
Figure 1–4? Some locations may contain corrosive
vapor or liquid, or extremes of temperature. All of
these conditions should be considered when selecting
motors and control components. Another type of starter
commonly found in industry is the combination starter
(Figure 1–5). The combination starter contains the dis- Figure 1 – 5 Combination motor starter with circuit breaker,
connecting means, fuses or circuit breaker, starter, and disconnect switch, starter, and control transformer. (Courtesy of
Square D Company.)
control transformer. They may also have a set of push
buttons or switches mounted on the front panel to con-
trol the motor.

the National Fire Protection Association. They estab-

Codes and Standards
lish rules and specifications for the installation of elec-
Another important consideration is the safety of trical equipment. The National Electrical Code is not a
the operator or persons that work around the machine. law unless it is made law by a local authority.
In 1970, the Occupational Safety and Health Act Two other organizations that have great influence
(OSHA) was established. In general, OSHA requires on control equipment are NEMA and IEC. Both of
employers to provide an environment free of recog- these organizations will be discussed later in the text.
nized hazards that are likely to cause serious injury.
Another organization that exhibits much influence
on the electrical field is Underwriters Laboratories Types of Control Systems
(UL). Underwriters Laboratories was established by
insurance companies in an effort to reduce the number Motor control systems can be divided into three major
of fires caused by electrical equipment. They test equip- types: manual, semiautomatic, and automatic. Manual
ment to determine if it is safe under different conditions. controls are characterized by the fact that the operator
Approved equipment is listed in an annual publication must go to the location of the controller to initiate any
that is kept current with bimonthly supplements. change in the state of the control system. Manual
Another previously mentioned organization is the controllers are generally very simple devices that con-
National Electrical Code. The NEC® is actually part of nect the motor directly to the line. They may or may not
provide overload protection or low voltage release. of the control components with connecting wires. Al-
Manual control may be accomplished by simply con- though the two circuits shown in Figure 1–7 look
necting a switch in series with a motor (Figure 1–1). different, electrically they are the same.
Semiautomatic control is characterized by the use Automatic control is very similar to semiautomatic
of push buttons, limit switches, pressure switches, and control in that pilot sensing devices are employed to
other sensing devices to control the operation of a mag- operate a magnetic contactor or starter that actually
netic contactor or starter. The starter actually connects controls the motor. With automatic control, however,
the motor to the line, and the push buttons and other an operator does not have to initiate certain actions.
pilot devices control the coil of the starter. This permits Once the control conditions have been set, the system
the actual control panel to be located away from the will continue to operate on its own. A good example
motor or starter. The operator must still initiate certain of an automatic control system is the heating and cool-
actions, such as starting and stopping, but does not ing system found in many homes. Once the thermostat
have to go to the location of the motor or starter to has been set to the desired temperature, the heating or
perform the action. A typical control panel is shown cooling system operates without further attention from
in Figure 1–6. A schematic and wiring diagram of a the home owner. The control circuit contains sensing
start-stop push-button station is shown in Figure 1–7. devices that automatically shut the system down in the
A schematic diagram shows components in their elec- event of an unsafe condition such as motor overload,
trical sequence without regard for physical location. excessive current, no pilot light or ignition in gas heat-
A wiring diagram is basically a pictorial representation ing systems, and so on.

Figure 1–6 Typical push-button control center. (Courtesy Allen-Bradley, a Rockwell

International Company.)
 L1 L2 L3

M OLHTR
T1
M OLHTR
T2
MOTOR
M OLHTR T3

CONTROL TRANSFORMER

START
FUSE STOP OL
M

M
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF A START-STOP PUSH-BUTTON CONTROL

L1 L2 L3

CIRCUIT BREAKER

CONTROL TRANSFORMER

FUSE

MOTOR STARTER
M FACTORY MADE
CONNECTION
START

STOP

WIRING DIAGRAM OF A START-STOP PUSH-BUTTON CONTROL

MOTOR

Figure 1 – 7 Schematic and wiring diagram of a start-stop push-button control. (Source: Delmar/Cengage Learning.)
 for alternating current motors, or by controlling the
Functions of Motor Control voltage applied to the armature and fields of a direct
current motor. Another method may involve the use of
There are some basic functions that motor control sys- a direct current clutch. These methods will be dis-
tems perform. The ones listed below are by no means the cussed in more detail later in this text.
only ones, but are very common. These basic functions
will be discussed in greater detail in this text. It is im-
portant not only to understand these basic functions of a Motor and Circuit Protection
control system, but also to know how control compo-
nents are employed to achieve the desired circuit logic. One of the major functions of most control systems
is to provide protection for both the circuit components
Starting and the motor. Fuses and circuit breakers are generally
employed for circuit protection, and overload relays are
Starting the motor is one of the main purposes of a used to protect the motor. The different types of over-
motor control circuit. There are several methods that load relays will be discussed later.
can be employed, depending on the requirements of the
circuit. The simplest method is across-the-line starting.
This is accomplished by connecting the motor directly Surge Protection
to the power line. There may be situations, however,
Another concern in many control circuits is the
that require the motor to start at a low speed and accel-
voltage spikes or surges produced by collapsing mag-
erate to full speed over some period of time. This is
netic fields when power to the coil of a relay or con-
often referred to as ramping. In other situations, it may
tactor is turned off. These collapsing magnetic fields can
be necessary to limit the amount of current or torque
induce voltage spikes that are hundreds of volts (Fig-
during starting. Some of these methods will be dis-
ure 1–8). These high voltage surges can damage elec-
cussed later in the text.
tronic components connected to the power line. Volt-
age spikes are of greatest concern in control systems
Stopping that employ computer controlled devices such as pro-
Another function of the control system is to stop grammable logic controllers and measuring instru-
the motor. The simplest method is to disconnect the ments used to sense temperature, pressure, and so on.
motor from the power line and permit it to coast to a Coils connected to alternating current often have a
stop. Some conditions, however, may require that the metal oxide varistor (MOV) connected across the coil
motor be stopped more quickly or that a brake hold a (Figure 1–9). Metal oxide varistors are voltage sensi-
load when the motor is stopped. tive resistors. They have the ability to change their
resistance value in accord with the amount of voltage
applied to them. The MOV will have a voltage rating
Jogging or Inching greater than that of the coil it is connected across. An
Jogging and inching are methods employed to MOV connected across a coil intended to operate
move a motor with short jabs of power. This is gener- on 120 volts, for example, will have a rating of about
ally done to move a motor or load into some desired 140 volts. As long as the voltage applied to the MOV is
position. The difference between jogging and inching below its voltage rating, it will exhibit an extremely
is that jogging is accomplished by momentarily con- high amount of resistance, generally several million
necting the motor to full line voltage, and inching is ohms. The current flow through the MOV is called
accomplished by momentarily connecting the motor to leakage current and is so small that it does not affect
reduced voltage. the operation of the circuit.
If the voltage across the coil should become greater
than the voltage rating of the MOV, the resistance of
Speed Control the MOV will suddenly change to a very low value,
Some control systems require variable speed. generally in the range of 2 or 3 ohms. This effectively
There are several ways to accomplish this. One of the short-circuits the coil and prevents the voltage from be-
most common ways is with variable frequency control coming any higher than the voltage rating of the MOV
 AC CONTACTOR COIL
600 VOLTS

120VAC

MOV

Figure 1 – 9 A metal oxide varistor (MOV) is used to eliminate

voltage spikes on coils connected to alternating current.
(Source: Delmar/Cengage Learning.)

140 VOLTS
120 VOLTS 120 VOLTS

Figure 1 – 8 Spike voltages produced by collapsing magnetic Figure 1 – 10 The metal oxide varistor limits the voltage spike to
fields can be hundreds of volts. (Source: Delmar/Cengage 140 volts. (Source: Delmar/Cengage Learning.)
Learning.)

+
(Figure 1–10). Metal oxide varistors change resistance
value very quickly, generally in the range of 3 to
10 nanoseconds. When the circuit voltage drops below
24 VDC
the voltage rating of the MOV, it will return to its high
resistance value. The energy of the voltage spike is dis-
sipated as heat by the MOV. –
Diodes are used to suppress the voltage spikes pro-
duced by coils that operate on direct current. The diode
is connected reverse bias to the voltage connected
to the coil (see Figure 1–11). During normal operation,
the diode blocks the flow of current, permitting all Figure 1 – 11 A diode is used to prevent voltage spikes on coils
the circuit current to flow through the coil. When the connected to direct current. (Source: Delmar/Cengage Learning.)
power is disconnected, the magnetic field around the Safety
coil collapses and induces a voltage into the coil. Since
the induced voltage is opposite in polarity to the ap- Probably the most important function of any con-
plied voltage (Lenz’s Law), the induced voltage causes trol system is to provide protection for the operator
the diode to become forward biased. A silicon diode or persons that may be in the vicinity of the machine.
exhibits a forward voltage drop of approximately These protections will vary from one type of machine
0.7 volt. This limits the induced voltage to a value of to another depending on the specific function of the
about 0.7 volt. The energy of the voltage spike is dissi- machine. Many machines are provided with both me-
pated as heat by the diode. chanical and electrical safeguards.

Review Questions
1. When installing a motor control system, list four 6. Explain the difference between jogging and inching.
major factors to consider concerning the power 7. What is the most common method of controlling
system. the speed of an alternating current motor?
2. Where is the best place to look to find specific 8. What agency requires employers to provide a
information about a motor, such as horsepower, workplace free of recognized hazards for its
voltage, full load current, service factor, and full employees?
load speed?
9. What is meant by the term ramping?
3. Is the National Electrical Code a law?
10. What is the most important function of any
4. Explain the difference between manual control, control system?
semiautomatic control, and automatic control.
5. What is the simplest of all starting methods for a
motor?