Introduction to the Internet

The Internet is the global network of interconnected networks that enables communication
among millions of devices worldwide . It uses the Internet Protocol suite (TCP/IP) to move data
in packets from sources to destinations across diverse networks. For example, a typical Local
Area Network (LAN) may connect several computers and devices via switches and a router; that
router then links the LAN to the Internet. Each device on the Internet has a unique IP address,
and routers direct packets based on these addresses. Importantly, the Internet is decentralized –
no single organization controls it. Its architecture and naming/addressing conventions are
managed collaboratively: bodies like the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) define protocol
standards, and organizations such as ICANN/IANA coordinate global IP address and DNS
assignment.

The Internet carries a vast range of information resources and services (e.g. email, the Web,
streaming, etc.), but fundamentally it is a network-of-networks: each participating network
(private, public, academic, business, government) follows common protocols so data can flow
end-to-end. Its design relies on packet-switching and layered protocols. The core Internet
protocols were developed (largely by DARPA and later the IETF) to provide reliable, scalable
end-to-end communication. In summary, the Internet is a global, public interconnection of
networks (physical cables, routers, switches, wireless links, etc.) bound by the TCP/IP protocol

Internet History
The Internet’s origins trace to U.S. Defense research in the 1960s. In 1962 J.C.R. Licklider
envisioned a global “Galactic Network” of computers. Soon after, ARPA (later DARPA)
launched the ARPANET project to link research institutions. ARPANET development began in
1969 when two nodes (at UCLA and SRI) were connected on October 29, 1969This packet-
switched network pioneered distributed routing and robust communication. By 1971, ARPANET
supported email – the first network email was sent that year– and research expanded on
internetworking concepts. In 1973 the first TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) was specified,
and by the early 1980s ARPANET had grown significantly.

In 1983 a turning point occurred: the ARPANET replaced its earlier NCP protocol with the
TCP/IP suite (a date known as “Flag Day”) This unified all military and civilian networks under
a common protocol. Around the same time, the Domain Name System (DNS) was introduced
(1983) to map human-readable names to IP addresses. Also in 1983 the network was split into
ARPANET (military) and MILNET (military) – effectively separating military traffic. In 1986
the National Science Foundation created NSFNET to link supercomputing centers, which
became the new core backbone connecting universities and research organization By the late
1980s, national research networks in other countries were being created (e.g. UK’s JANET,
France’s RENATER) and the modern Internet was forming.

The Internet opened to non-governmental use in the early 1990s. In 1990 Tim Berners-Lee
invented the World Wide Web at CERN, introducing HTML, URLs, and HTTP for linking
documents. NSFNET was privatized in 1991, ARPANET was retired in 1990, and commercial
Internet service providers (ISPs) began operating. By 1993 the Web was put in the public
domain, sparking explosive growth of the Internet into business and public life The final
unassigned IPv4 address blocks were allocated by 2011. Over this period, Internet governance
and infrastructure also evolved (e.g. formation of ICANN in 1998 for domain names). In
summary, the Internet history spans ARPANET’s 1960s inception, TCP/IP adoption in the
1980s, Web development in the 1990s, and continuing globalization and commercialization
thereafter.

Internet Administration
Internet administration is distributed across several organizations rather than centralized.
Protocol standards are developed by the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) – an open
standards body that publishes specifications in RFCs. For example, the IETF publishes the core
TCP/IP protocols as RFC1122/1123 and others Addressing and naming are coordinated globally
by ICANN (Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers), which oversees IANA (the
Internet Assigned Numbers Authority). IANA, now a function of ICANN, allocates blocks of
IPv4/IPv6 addresses and DNS root zone management . Those blocks are further delegated to
Regional Internet Registries (RIRs) (ARIN, RIPE NCC, APNIC, LACNIC, AFRINIC) for
distribution to ISPs and organizations.

Internet and Intranet

The Internet is a global, public network accessible to everyone. In contrast, an intranet is a
private network within an organization that uses Internet technologies (TCP/IP, HTTP, etc.) but
is isolated from the global Internet For example, a company may have an intranet of
workstations and servers for internal email, file sharing, and web services. Access to an intranet
is typically restricted (e.g. via firewalls, VPNs) to authorized employees, whereas the Internet is
open to any user. The data on an intranet can be more sensitive, so additional security (access
control, encryption) is often used.

Despite differences in scope and access, the technologies are the same: intranets use the same
packet formats, addressing, and application protocols (HTTP, SMTP, etc.) as the Internet. In
practical terms, an intranet is effectively a private slice of the Internet technology stack.
Organizations may also use extranets to extend intranet access to business partners. In summary,
an intranet is simply an internal-use network built on Internet protocols, whereas the Internet
itself is worldwide and public

Internet Services
Key application-layer services on the Internet include:

 Email: An essential service for messaging. Email uses SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer
Protocol) for sending messages between mail servers, and POP3 or IMAP for receiving
mail to clients. SMTP pushes email from a sender’s mail server to the recipient’s server
. POP3 (Post Office Protocol v3) and IMAP (Internet Message Access Protocol) allow a
 client to retrieve mail from a server; POP3 typically downloads new mail (often deleting
it on the server), whereas IMAP synchronizes mailbox contents and allows mail to
remain on the server . Email messages include headers (To, From, Subject, etc.)
and use encodings like MIME for attachments. (Historical note: the first ARPANET
email was sent in 1971 , and by the mid-1970s email comprised the majority of network
traffic.)
 WWW (World Wide Web): The Web is an information system of interlinked hypertext
documents accessed via browsers. Web resources are identified by URLs and transferred
using HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol). Web pages are written in HTML (Hypertext
Markup Language). For example, a web browser sends an HTTP GET request to a web
server to retrieve a page. The Web was invented by Tim Berners-Lee in 1989 (released to
the public domain in 1993) , revolutionizing Internet use. In essence, WWW is an
Internet service for sharing documents, where HTTP is the underlying protocol .
 FTP (File Transfer Protocol): A standard protocol for transferring files over IP
networks . FTP operates in a client-server model; a user runs an FTP client to connect to
an FTP server, authenticates (user/password or anonymous), and can then navigate
directories to upload or download files. It uses separate TCP connections (port 21 for
commands and a data port for transfers). (Because FTP normally sends credentials in
clear text, secure variants like FTPS or the SSH-based SFTP are often preferred today .)
 Telnet / SSH: These services allow remote command-line login. Telnet is a simple text-
based protocol (port
 23) that provides terminal access to a remote host. However, Telnet transmits data
(including passwords) in plain text, so it is insecure. SSH (Secure Shell) has superseded
Telnet for remote access. SSH is a cryptographic protocol that encrypts the session and
provides secure login and file transfer (via SCP/SFTP) . By default SSH uses TCP port
22. (In short: Telnet is legacy and unencrypted; SSH provides the same functionality but
with security .)

TCP/IP Model and its Protocols

The Internet Protocol Suite (TCP/IP model) organizes networking functions into four abstraction
layers . From lowest to highest these are:

 Link (Network Access) Layer: This bottom layer handles communication on the
physical network link (e.g. Ethernet, Wi-Fi). It defines how packets are framed and
transmitted over a local network segment. Protocols here include Ethernet (IEEE 802.3),
Wi-Fi (802.11), ARP (Address Resolution Protocol, for mapping IP to MAC), PPP, and
others .
 Internet (Network) Layer: This layer provides inter-network addressing and routing. Its
core protocol is IP (Internet Protocol) – IPv4 or IPv6 – which encapsulates data into IP
packets and routes them between networks. This layer also includes ICMP (Internet
Control Message Protocol, for diagnostics like ping) and possibly IGMP (for IPv4
multicast). IP defines the format of packet headers, addressing, and fragmentation (in
IPv4) .
 Transport Layer: This layer provides end-to-end communication between hosts. The
principal protocols are TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) and UDP (User
 Datagram Protocol). TCP is connection-oriented and reliable: it establishes a session,
sequences bytes, retransmits lost packets, and provides flow control. UDP is
connectionless and lightweight: it sends independent packets (“datagrams”) without
guaranteed delivery. Well-known port numbers in TCP/UDP identify applications (e.g.
port 80 for HTTP, 25 for SMTP). TCP and UDP are among the foundational protocols of
the suite .
 Application Layer: This top layer includes all high-level protocols that applications use.
Examples are HTTP/HTTPS (web), SMTP/IMAP/POP3 (email), FTP/Telnet, DNS
(domain name service), DHCP (dynamic address assignment), and many more.
Essentially, any protocol that directly supports user or process communication resides
here. Application protocols assume the underlying transport (TCP/UDP) and network
layers provide delivery.

In summary, the TCP/IP model layers match roughly to: (1) local link hardware (Link), (2)
internetwork routing (IP layer), (3) end-to-end host-to-host (TCP/UDP), and (4) end-user
applications. The IETF has standardized these layers and their protocols . For example, IPv4’s IP
protocol is the Internet layer, while TCP and UDP comprise the Transport layer .

IP Addressing: IPv4
An IPv4 address is a 32-bit numeric label assigned to each device interface on an IPv4 network .
It uniquely identifies a host and its location in the network (the two roles of an IP address ).
Addresses are usually written in dotted-decimal format as four octets (e.g. 192.168.1.10),
though computers use binary internally . CIDR notation appends a slash and a prefix length to
indicate the network mask (e.g. 192.168.1.0/24 means a 24-bit network prefix, mask
255.255.255.0) .

Originally IPv4 used classful addressing: a fixed separation of network and host bits depending
on class A/B/C, but this is now obsolete. Today Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR) is
used, where any contiguous mask length can define the network portion. Within any IPv4
network, a network administrator can assign addresses either statically (fixed in config) or
dynamically (e.g. via DHCP) . Each IPv4 address serves as the source or destination in packet
headers; routers use these addresses to forward packets. (The term “IP address” originated in
ARPANET; IPv4 addresses have been in use since 1983 and are nearing exhaustion .)

Subnetting
Subnetting is the process of dividing a larger IP network into smaller sub-networks (subnets). In
practice, an organization takes an allocated IP address block and “borrows” bits from the host
portion to create multiple subnets. A subnet mask (32-bit for IPv4) is used to distinguish the
network part from the host part of an address. In the mask, consecutive 1 bits mark the network
prefix and 0 bits mark the host suffix . For example, splitting a /24 network into two /25
networks would use mask 255.255.255.128 (making the first 25 bits “1”), creating two subnets
each half the size.
Subnetting increases the number of subnets and decreases the number of hosts per subnet . This
allows more efficient use of address space and better traffic management. For instance, separate
subnets can isolate different departments or types of traffic. To create subnets, one calculates
how many host bits are needed and sets those mask bits to 0 (all others to 1) . Each resulting
subnet functions like its own smaller network, with its own network ID and broadcast address.
By using subnet masks, network administrators can tailor IP allocations to their needs (e.g.,
many small subnets instead of one large one) .

IPv4 Addressing (Special Cases)

Within IPv4, certain address ranges and uses are special:

 Unicast, Multicast, Anycast: Unicast addresses identify single interfaces. Class D

addresses (224.0.0.0/4) are reserved for IPv4 multicast (one-to-many) traffic. (There is no
anycast defined in IPv4 as in IPv6.)
 Broadcasts: The all-ones host address in a subnet (e.g. 192.168.1.255 in a /24) is the
broadcast address for that subnet. The limited broadcast 255.255.255.255 can reach all
hosts on the local network.
 Private vs Public: Some IPv4 blocks are reserved for private (internal) use and are not
routed on the public Internet (RFC 1918). These are 10.0.0.0/8, 172.16.0.0/12, and
192.168.0.0/16. Addresses in these ranges can be used freely within private networks, but
routers on the global Internet drop them . (Typically, private networks use NAT so many
hosts share one public address.)
 Loopback: The 127.0.0.0/8 block is designated for loopback; 127.0.0.1 always refers to
the local host.
 Link-Local (APIPA): The block 169.254.0.0/16 is reserved for automatic private IP
addressing (APIPA). If a host cannot get a DHCP address, it assigns itself an address in
169.254/16 .
 Address Allocation: Global IPv4 addresses are managed by IANA/RIRs . Organizations
request address blocks based on need. IPv4 address exhaustion (run out of available
public addresses) has led to widespread use of NAT and the development of IPv6.

In summary, IPv4 addressing includes the network/host hierarchy, plus reserved ranges for
special purposes (private networks, multicast, loopback, etc.). Addresses are either permanently
assigned (static) or leased (e.g. via DHCP) for dynamic use.

Supernetting (Route Aggregation)

Supernetting, or route summarization, is the opposite of subnetting: it combines multiple
contiguous networks into a larger one. This is often used in routing to reduce the number of
entries in routing tables. In supernetting, routes to several networks with common prefix\ bits are
merged into one aggregate route. For example, four contiguous Class C networks 200.1.0.0/24,
200.1.1.0/24, 200.1.2.0/24, and 200.1.3.0/24 can be summarized as a single 200.1.0.0/22
supernet . Instead of advertising four separate /24 routes, a router can advertise one
/22 route covering all addresses from 200.1.0.0 to 200.1.3.255.
The conditions for creating a supernet are that the networks must be contiguous and of equal
(power-of-two) size . Supernetting is a key technique in Classless Inter-Domain Routing
(CIDR). By using shorter (smaller) netmasks, ISPs and large organizations can aggregate blocks
of IP space and advertise them as one. This greatly reduces routing table size and update traffic
on the Internet . In essence, supernetting enables efficient summarization of IP routes,
improving scalability of routing.

IPv6 – Next Generation Internet Protocol

IPv6 (Internet Protocol version 6) is the successor to IPv4 and the most recent Internet Layer
protocol . It was designed by the IETF to address the impending exhaustion of IPv4 addresses
and to incorporate improvements from experience with IPv4. Unlike IPv4’s 32-bit addresses,
IPv6 uses 128-bit addresses, yielding an astronomical address space (2^128 ≈ 3.4×10^38
addresses) . This expansion ensures enough unique addresses for the foreseeable future (every
device on Earth could get billions of addresses). IPv6 was standardized in the late 1990s (RFC
1883, later RFC 2460 and RFC 8200) and began deployment in the 2000s .

Besides larger addresses, IPv6 introduces new features: simplified header format for faster
processing, mandatory support for IPsec (security), stateless address autoconfiguration, and
hierarchical address allocation. The protocol is not directly interoperable with IPv4, so transition
mechanisms (dual-stack, tunneling, translation) are used during migration. In summary, IPv6 is
the next-generation Internet protocol, engineered for scale and flexibility beyond what IPv4
can provide .

The Need for IPv6

The primary motivation for IPv6 is the depletion of IPv4 address space . IPv4’s 32-bit system
offers about 4.3 billion unique addresses, which proved insufficient as the Internet exploded in
the 1990s. By the late 20th century, projections showed that IPv4 would run out of free
addresses. While techniques like NAT and private addressing extended IPv4’s life, these are
stopgap solutions. IPv6 was developed to solve this “long-anticipated problem” of exhaustion .

With 128-bit addresses, IPv6 provides roughly 340 undecillion (3.4×10^38) addresses . This
huge space not only avoids scarcity but also enables hierarchical addressing and allocation
(facilitating routing aggregation) and eliminates the need for NAT. In addition, IPv6’s design
incorporates modern needs (e.g. built-in security, mobility). Thus, IPv6 is essential for continued
Internet growth and connectivity of the “Internet of Things.”

IPv6 Packet Format

An IPv6 packet begins with a fixed header of 40 bytes, followed by optional extension headers
and the payload. The fixed header includes the following fields (in order): Version (4 bits, value
6), Traffic Class (8 bits, for priority), Flow Label (20 bits, for special handling flows), Payload
Length (16 bits, length of payload in bytes), Next Header (8 bits, identifies either the transport
protocol or the first extension header), Hop Limit (8 bits, decremented by each router, analogous
to IPv4 TTL), Source Address (128 bits), and Destination Address (128 bits) .

Notable differences from IPv4 include the absence of a header checksum and a simplified layout.
In IPv6, there is no header checksum (error checking is left to link-layer and transport) . Also,
fragmentation fields are not in the fixed header but instead use a Fragment extension header if
needed. The Next Header field serves a similar role to IPv4’s “Protocol” field: it tells the
receiving stack what to expect next (e.g. value 6 for TCP, 17 for UDP, or a special value for an
extension header). The Hop Limit byte replaces IPv4’s TTL: each router decreases it by one .
The 128-bit source/destination fields allow the vast address space. In summary, the IPv6 header
is lean (40 bytes) and optimized for fast forwarding, with most optional features handled by
separate extension headers .

IPv6 Addresses
IPv6 addresses are 128 bits long. They are typically written in hexadecimal as eight groups of
four hex digits, separated by colons (for example,
2001:0db8:0000:0000:0000:8a2e:0370:7334) . To make addresses shorter, leading zeros in a
group can be omitted, and any contiguous run of all-zero 16-bit groups can be collapsed to a
double-colon :: (only once per address). For instance,
2001:0db8:0000:0000:0000:8a2e:0370:7334 can be written as 2001:db8::8a2e:370:7334 .

By design, IPv6 addresses have a 64-bit subnet (network) prefix and a 64-bit interface identifier
(host) portion . Typically, an IPv6 subnet is a /64 (fixed host size 64 bits). The interface identifier
is often derived from a device’s MAC address (modified EUI-64) or generated randomly for
privacy.

IPv6 defines three basic address types: Unicast, Anycast, and Multicast . - Unicast addresses
identify a single interface; packets to a unicast address reach only that interface. - Anycast
addresses are assigned to a set of interfaces (typically one per node in a group); a packet to an
anycast address is delivered to the nearest one (by routing distance). - Multicast addresses (prefix
ff00::/8) identify a group of interfaces and support one-to-many delivery (replacing IPv4
broadcast, which does not exist in IPv6).

Each IPv6 interface automatically has a link-local unicast address (prefix fe80::/10) for
communication on the local link . Additionally, networks use unique-local addresses
(fc00::/7) for private internal purposes (analogous to IPv4 private addresses). Publicly routable
global unicast addresses typically start with 2000::/3. In all cases, IPv6 addressing is
hierarchical, and the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) and RIRs allocate large
prefixes to providers for distribution.

In summary, an IPv6 address uniquely identifies an interface on the IPv6 network, is written in
hex colon notation, and can be abbreviated using standard rules . The space of IPv6 addresses
and their types (unicast/anycast/multicast) is defined in detail by the IETF standards.
IPv6 Extension Headers
IPv6 uses extension headers to carry optional Internet-layer information beyond the fixed
header . The fixed header is always 40 bytes; any additional fields (options) appear in extension
headers chained after it. This design keeps the core header simple and allows future extensibility.
For example, there are extension headers for Hop-by-Hop Options (to be processed by every
router in the path), Routing (to specify a list of intermediate nodes), Fragment (for fragmentation
by the source), and others (such as Destination Options, Authentication Header, and
Encapsulating Security Payload for IPsec). When the Next Header field in the IPv6 header
indicates an extension, the receiver processes that extension and then continues to the next, and
so on, until reaching the transport layer header. In effect, extension headers provide optional
features (routing, fragmentation, mobility, security) without requiring every packet to carry extra
data in the main header .

Unit 2
TCP/IP’s Transport and Network Layer Protocols (Detailed
Explanation)
The TCP/IP protocol suite is a cornerstone of modern internetworking. It defines how data should be
formatted, addressed, transmitted, routed, and received across diverse networks. The Transport and
Network (Internet) layers are particularly essential in ensuring that data is transmitted reliably,
efficiently, and correctly across multiple nodes. This section delves deep into the protocols and services
at these layers.

1. Role of Transport Layer Protocols: TCP and UDP

Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)

TCP is a connection-oriented, reliable, and byte-stream based protocol. It is formally defined in RFC 793
and is one of the core protocols of the Internet protocol suite.

Key Characteristics:

 Connection-Oriented: Establishes a session using a three-way handshake (SYN, SYN-ACK, ACK).

 Reliable Data Transfer: Guarantees data arrives in order, without duplication, and without loss.
 Flow Control: Uses a sliding window mechanism to ensure the sender doesn't overwhelm the
receiver.
 Congestion Control: Employs algorithms like Slow Start, Congestion Avoidance, Fast
Retransmit, and Fast Recovery.
 Multiplexing: Uses port numbers to identify sending and receiving processes.
  Error Checking: Uses a checksum to ensure data integrity.
 Full Duplex: Supports simultaneous bidirectional data flow.

Use Cases:

 Web browsing (HTTP/HTTPS)

 Email (SMTP, IMAP, POP3)
 File transfer (FTP)

User Datagram Protocol (UDP)

UDP is a connectionless, unreliable, and message-oriented protocol, specified in RFC 768.

Key Characteristics:

 No handshaking; communication starts immediately.

 No guarantee of delivery, ordering, or duplication protection.
 Lower overhead compared to TCP.
 Uses port numbers for addressing applications.
 Suitable for time-sensitive data where speed is more important than reliability.

Use Cases:

 DNS (Domain Name System)

 Streaming media (YouTube, Netflix)
 Online gaming
 VoIP (Voice over IP)

2. Role of Network Layer Protocols: IP, ICMP, IGMP

Internet Protocol (IP)

IP is the fundamental protocol at the Network Layer. It provides logical addressing and enables routing
of packets across network boundaries. IP is connectionless and best-effort, meaning it does not ensure
delivery or error checking.

Responsibilities:

 Addressing: Assigns each device a unique IP address.

 Routing: Determines the optimal path through the network using routing protocols.
 Fragmentation and Reassembly: Splits large packets into fragments when necessary.

Two versions of IP are in use:

  IPv4: 32-bit addressing (e.g., 192.168.1.1)
 IPv6: 128-bit addressing (e.g., 2001:0db8:85a3::8a2e:0370:7334)

Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP)

ICMP is used for error messaging and diagnostics. It works closely with IP to report transmission
problems.

ICMP Message Types:

 Echo Request/Reply: Used by ping to test connectivity.

 Destination Unreachable: Reports unreachable hosts or networks.
 Time Exceeded: Used by traceroute to trace routes.
 Redirect: Suggests better routes.

Internet Group Management Protocol (IGMP)

IGMP is used to manage multicast group memberships in IPv4.

IGMP Versions:

 IGMPv1: Basic membership reporting.

 IGMPv2: Adds leave group messages.
 IGMPv3: Supports source-specific multicast (SSM).

3. Port Numbers and Multiplexing

Port numbers identify specific processes or services running on a host.

 Well-known Ports (0–1023): Reserved (e.g., HTTP – 80, FTP – 21)

 Registered Ports (1024–49151): Assigned by IANA
 Dynamic/Ephemeral Ports (49152–65535): Temporary for client-side communication

Port numbers allow multiple applications to use the network simultaneously by multiplexing and
demultiplexing data at the Transport Layer.

4. Protocol Header Formats

TCP Header Format:

 Source/Destination Port (16 bits)

  Sequence Number (32 bits)
 Acknowledgment Number (32 bits)
 Data Offset (4 bits): Header length
 Flags (6 bits): URG, ACK, PSH, RST, SYN, FIN
 Window Size (16 bits)
 Checksum (16 bits)
 Urgent Pointer (16 bits)
 Options and Data

UDP Header Format:

 Source/Destination Port (16 bits)

 Length (16 bits)
 Checksum (16 bits)
 Data

IP Header Format (IPv4):

 Version (4 bits), IHL (4 bits): Header Length

 Type of Service (8 bits)
 Total Length (16 bits)
 Identification (16 bits)
 Flags (3 bits) and Fragment Offset (13 bits)
 TTL (8 bits), Protocol (8 bits) (TCP=6, UDP=17)
 Header Checksum (16 bits)
 Source and Destination IP (32 bits)
 Options, Padding, and Data

5. TCP Services and Connection Management

TCP provides:

 Stream Delivery: Byte-oriented communication.

 Full Duplex: Data flows in both directions.
 Reliable Delivery: Sequence numbers and ACKs.
 Flow Control: Prevents receiver overload.
 Congestion Control: Protects the network from excess traffic.

TCP Connection Establishment and Termination

Connection Setup (3-Way Handshake):

1. Client → Server: SYN

2. Server → Client: SYN-ACK
 3. Client → Server: ACK

Connection Teardown:

1. FIN → ACK
2. FIN ← ACK

States include: LISTEN, SYN-SENT, SYN-RECEIVED, ESTABLISHED, FIN-WAIT-1, etc.

 Networking

📘 Remote Procedure Call (RPC)

📖 Definition:

A Remote Procedure Call (RPC) is a communication mechanism that allows a program to cause a
procedure (subroutine) to execute on another address space, commonly on another computer on a
shared network, without the programmer having to explicitly code the details of the remote
interaction.

RPC abstracts the details of the network communication so that calling a remote function feels just like
calling a local one.

RPC makes a network call look like a local function call.

It allows distributed systems to function as if they were a single system by hiding the complexity of data
transmission over the network.

1. Transparency: Hides the network communication.

2. Simplicity: Developer writes simple function calls.
3. Modularity: Easier to separate and distribute system components.
4. Location Independence: Client doesn’t need to know where the server is.

How RPC Works – Basic Steps

Let’s understand the sequence of steps when a client makes an RPC:

1. Client Call: The client program calls a local stub procedure.

2. Client Stub: The stub packages (marshals) the procedure name and arguments into a message.
 3. Communication Module: Sends the message over the network to the server.
4. Server Stub: The server's communication module receives the request and hands it to the server
stub.
5. Procedure Execution: The server stub unpacks (unmarshals) the message and calls the actual
server procedure.
6. Response: The server executes the procedure and sends the result back.
7. Client Response: The client stub receives the response and hands it back to the client code as if
the procedure returned normally.

7. Stream Control Transmission Protocol (SCTP)

SCTP is a transport layer protocol that:

 Combines features of TCP and UDP

 Supports multihoming and multistreaming
 Uses a four-way handshake
 Ensures message boundaries are preserved
 Is used in telecommunication signaling (e.g., SS7 over IP)

8. DNS and IP Address Resolution

Domain Name System (DNS)

DNS maps human-readable domain names to IP addresses.

DNS Structure:

 Root Servers
 Top-Level Domains (TLDs): .com, , .edu
 Second-Level Domains: google.com
 Subdomains: mail.google.com

Resolution Types:

 Recursive Resolution: DNS server fetches the full answer on behalf of the client.
 Iterative Resolution: Client queries each DNS server in the hierarchy.

Resource Records (RRs):

 A: IPv4 Address
 AAAA: IPv6 Address
  MX: Mail Exchange
 NS: Name Server
 CNAME: Canonical Name

9. Mapping IP to Physical Address

Address Resolution Protocol (ARP)

 Resolves IP address to MAC address.

 Uses broadcast ARP Request and unicast ARP Reply.

Reverse ARP (RARP)

 Resolves MAC address to IP address.

 Used by diskless systems (now obsolete).

BOOTP (Bootstrap Protocol)

 Predecessor of DHCP.
 Used for bootstrapping diskless systems.

Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP)

 Automatically assigns IP addresses, subnet mask, gateway, DNS.

 Works using the DORA process:
o Discover, Offer, Request, Acknowledge

10. Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP)

Used for sending control messages, not for data exchange.

ICMP Types:

 Type 0: Echo Reply

 Type 3: Destination Unreachable
 Type 8: Echo Request
 Type 11: Time Exceeded

Used in troubleshooting (e.g., ping, traceroute).

11. Internet Group Management Protocol (IGMP)
IGMP allows hosts to join or leave multicast groups.

IGMP Operation:

 Host sends join request.

 Router periodically queries for active groups.
 Leave group messages help routers update membership tables.

Unit 3
1. Electronic Mail: Architecture and Protocols
1.1. Architecture of Email Systems

Email systems are structured into three primary components:

 User Agent (UA): This is the application used by the end-user to compose, send, and read
emails. Examples include Microsoft Outlook, Mozilla Thunderbird, and web-based interfaces like
Gmail.
 Message Transfer Agent (MTA): These are server-side programs responsible for transferring
emails from the sender's server to the recipient's server. They use protocols like SMTP for this
purpose.
 Mailbox: A storage location on the recipient's server where incoming emails are stored until
accessed by the user.
 Message Access Agent (MAA): These agents allow users to retrieve and manage their emails
from the mailbox. Protocols like POP3 and IMAP are used here.

1.2. Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP)

 Purpose: SMTP is used for sending emails from a client to a server or between servers.
 Operation:
o Connection Establishment: The client establishes a TCP connection to the server on port
25.
o Mail Transfer: The client sends commands like HELO, MAIL FROM, RCPT TO, and DATA
to transmit the email.
o Connection Termination: The session ends with the QUIT command.
 Limitations: SMTP is limited to 7-bit ASCII text, making it unsuitable for transmitting binary data
or non-English characters directly.
1.3. Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions (MIME)

 Purpose: MIME extends the capabilities of SMTP to support multimedia content and non-ASCII
text.
 Features:
o Content-Type Header: Specifies the type of data (e.g., text/plain, image/jpeg).
o Content-Transfer-Encoding: Indicates the encoding used (e.g., Base64) to represent
binary data in ASCII format.
o Multipart Messages: Allows combining different types of content (e.g., text and images)
in a single email.

1.4. Post Office Protocol version 3 (POP3)

 Purpose: POP3 enables users to retrieve emails from the server to their local machine.
 Operation:
o Connection: The client connects to the server on TCP port 110.
o Authentication: The user provides credentials using USER and PASS commands.
o Transaction: Emails are listed, retrieved, or deleted using commands like LIST, RETR,
and DELE.
o Update: The session ends with the QUIT command, applying any deletions.
 Limitations: POP3 typically downloads emails and removes them from the server, making it less
suitable for accessing emails from multiple devices.

1.5. Internet Message Access Protocol (IMAP)

 Purpose: IMAP allows users to access and manage their emails directly on the server, facilitating
synchronization across multiple devices.
 Features:
o Selective Download: Users can view email headers and download specific messages.
o Folder Management: Supports multiple folders and subfolders on the server.
o Flags: Emails can be marked as read, unread, flagged, etc., with these statuses
maintained on the server.
 Operation: IMAP operates over TCP port 143.

1.6. Web-Based Mail

 Overview: Webmail services like Gmail and Yahoo Mail provide email access through web
browsers.
 Architecture:
o Client: A web browser serves as the user interface.
o Server: Handles HTTP requests, interfaces with the email storage, and uses SMTP for
sending and IMAP/POP3 for retrieving emails.
 Advantages: Accessible from any device with internet connectivity; no need for dedicated email
client software.
2. File Access and Transfer Protocols
2.1. File Transfer Protocol (FTP)

 Purpose: FTP is used for transferring files between a client and a server over a network.
 Operation:
o Control Connection: Established on TCP port 21 for sending commands.
o Data Connection: Established on TCP port 20 for transferring files.
 Modes:
o Active Mode: The client opens a port and waits for the server to connect for data
transfer.
o Passive Mode: The server opens a port and waits for the client to connect, useful when
clients are behind firewalls.
 Features: Supports authentication, directory listing, file upload/download, and file deletion.

Basic FTP Model – Client/Server Architecture:

FTP is based on the client-server model, where:

 Client initiates the connection.

 Server listens for incoming connections and processes commands.

2.2. Anonymous FTP

 Purpose: Allows users to access public files on an FTP server without a personal account.
 Operation: Users log in with the username anonymous and use their email address as the
password.
 Use Cases: Distributing software, documents, and other public resources.

2.3. Trivial File Transfer Protocol (TFTP)

 Purpose: A simplified version of FTP used for transferring small files.

 Operation:
o Protocol: Operates over UDP port 69.
o Features: No authentication, minimal commands, and no directory listing.
 Use Cases: Bootstrapping diskless workstations, transferring firmware to network devices.

2.4. Network File System (NFS)

 Purpose: Allows users to access files over a network as if they were on the local disk.
 Operation:
o Protocol: Uses Remote Procedure Calls (RPC) over TCP or UDP, typically on port 2049.
o Features: Supports file locking, authentication, and access control.
 Use Cases: Sharing files in UNIX/Linux environments, centralizing data storage.
3. Remote Login: TELNET
3.1. TELNET Protocol

 Purpose: Enables users to log into remote systems and execute commands as if they were local
terminals.
 Operation:
o Protocol: Operates over TCP port 23.
o Features: Provides a bidirectional interactive text-oriented communication facility.
 Limitations: Transmits data, including passwords, in plaintext, making it insecure over untrusted
networks.

3.2. Security Considerations

 Risks: Susceptible to eavesdropping and man-in-the-middle attacks.

 Modern Alternatives: Secure Shell (SSH) provides encrypted communication and is preferred
over TELNET for secure remote logins.

4. Voice and Video over IP

4.1. Real-Time Transport Protocol (RTP)

 Purpose: Facilitates the delivery of real-time audio and video over IP networks.
 Features:
o Sequence Numbers: Helps in packet loss detection and reordering.
o Timestamps: Assists in synchronizing playback.
o Payload Type Identification: Indicates the format of the payload (e.g., audio codec).
 Operation: Typically runs over UDP to minimize latency.

4.2. RTP Control Protocol (RTCP)

 Purpose: Works alongside RTP to monitor transmission statistics and quality of service (QoS).
 Features:
o Sender Reports: Provide transmission and reception statistics.
o Receiver Reports: Offer feedback on the quality of the received data.
o Source Description Items: Convey information about the participants.

4.3. IP Telephony and Signaling

 Purpose: Manages the setup, control, and termination of voice calls over IP networks.
 Protocols:
 o Session Initiation Protocol (SIP): Used for initiating, maintaining, and terminating real-
time sessions.
o H.323: An older protocol suite for voice, video, and data conferencing.

Unit 4

📘 1. Routing in the Internet

Routing is the process of selecting a path over which data can be sent from source to destination across
interconnected networks. Internet routing is a vital part of packet-switched networks, enabling
communication across networks using routers.

Internet routing protocols are generally divided into two categories:

 Interior Gateway Protocols (IGPs) – Used within an Autonomous System (AS).

 Exterior Gateway Protocols (EGPs) – Used between different Autonomous Systems.

We will now discuss three major Internet routing protocols:

🔹 1.1 RIP (Routing Information Protocol)

📖 Definition:

RIP is a distance-vector routing protocol used in interior networks to exchange routing information
based on hop count.

📚 Based on: Forouzan, Comer, Tanenbaum

🧠 Key Concepts:

 Distance Vector: Each router maintains a table with the best-known distance (in hops) to reach
every other router.
 Hop Count: Metric used to measure distance. Maximum allowed hop count = 15 (16 = infinity →
unreachable).
 Routing Updates: Sent every 30 seconds to neighbors (UDP port 520).
 Algorithm: Based on Bellman-Ford Algorithm.

🛠️How RIP Works:

1. Each router initializes its routing table with direct connections.

2. Periodically, routers exchange routing tables with neighbors.
 3. On receiving a table, the router updates its own table if a better (shorter hop) route is found.

⚠️Problems with RIP:

 Slow convergence
 Routing loops (count-to-infinity problem)
 Limited scalability (not suitable for large networks)

🚫 Solutions Introduced:

 Split Horizon
 Poison Reverse
 Hold-Down Timers

🔹 1.2 OSPF (Open Shortest Path First)

📖 Definition:

OSPF is a link-state routing protocol used as an IGP. It uses Dijkstra’s shortest path first (SPF) algorithm
to determine the best route.

📚 Based on: Tanenbaum, Comer, Kurose & Ross

🧠 Key Concepts:

 Link-State Advertisement (LSA): Routers advertise link status to all others in the area.
 Link-State Database (LSDB): All routers maintain identical LSDBs.
 Area Concept: OSPF divides a network into areas. One backbone area (Area 0) connects all
others.
 Metric Used: Cost = 10⁸ / bandwidth (higher bandwidth = lower cost).
 Authentication: OSPF supports plain-text and cryptographic authentication.

🛠️How OSPF Works:

1. Routers discover neighbors and establish adjacency.

2. Exchange LSAs and build LSDB.
3. Run SPF algorithm on LSDB to find the shortest path.
4. Updates are sent only when a topology change occurs.

✅ Advantages of OSPF over RIP:

 Faster convergence
 No hop-count limit
 Efficient use of bandwidth
  Supports Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR) and VLSM
 Better scalability

🔹 1.3 BGP (Border Gateway Protocol)

📖 Definition:

BGP is the standard EGP used for routing between autonomous systems (AS) in the Internet. Current
version is BGP-4.

📚 Based on: Comer, Gallo & Hancock, Kurose & Ross

🧠 Key Concepts:

 Path Vector Protocol: Maintains path information (AS numbers) for loop prevention.
 AS-PATH: Main attribute to prevent routing loops.
 Policies: BGP allows policy-based routing (routes chosen based on rules).
 TCP-based: BGP runs over TCP (port 179) ensuring reliable delivery.

🛠️How BGP Works:

1. BGP routers establish a TCP connection and become peers.

2. Exchange UPDATE messages containing route information.
3. Route selection based on path attributes like:
o AS-PATH
o NEXT-HOP
o LOCAL-PREF
o MED (Multi-Exit Discriminator)

🔐 Security Concerns in BGP:

 Route hijacking and route leaks

 Lack of authentication (unless manually configured with MD5 or more advanced security)

✅ Advantages of BGP:

 Handles millions of routes

 Supports CIDR
 Highly scalable
 Enforces routing policies

🔁 Comparison Table: RIP vs OSPF vs BGP

 Feature RIP OSPF BGP

Type Distance Vector Link State Path Vector

Used In Interior Interior Exterior

Metric Hop Count Cost (Bandwidth) Policy, AS-Path, Others

Algorithm Bellman-Ford Dijkstra Custom Path Selection

Updates Periodic On Change On Change

Transport UDP IP Direct TCP

Scalability Low Medium to High Very High

Convergence Slow Fast Slower than OSPF

Loop Prevention Limited Built-in AS-PATH Attribute

📘 2. Internet Multicasting
📖 Definition:

Multicasting is a method of communication where data is sent from one source to multiple selected
destinations simultaneously in a single transmission, using the most efficient route possible.

It lies between unicasting (one-to-one) and broadcasting (one-to-all), and is fundamental for
applications such as video conferencing, IPTV, live streaming, and stock exchange data distribution.

🧠 Core Concepts of Multicasting:

🔹 Multicast Group:

 A group of receivers identified by a multicast IP address.

 Receivers can join or leave the group at any time.
 Senders do not need to know the identity or number of receivers.

🔹 Multicast IP Addresses:

 Defined in the Class D address range: 224.0.0.0 to 239.255.255.255.

 Special addresses:
o 224.0.0.1 – All systems on a subnet
 o 224.0.0.2 – All routers on a subnet

🔍 Multicasting vs Unicasting vs Broadcasting

Method Description Efficiency Scope Control

Unicasting One-to-one Low High

Broadcasting One-to-all Very Low Low

Multicasting One-to-many (selected) High High

🛠️How Multicasting Works in the Internet

📌 Steps:

1. Sender sends packets to a multicast group address.

2. Routers check multicast routing tables to decide how to forward the packet.
3. Only routers with subscribers to that group forward the packet.
4. Receiver joins or leaves multicast group using IGMP.

🔧 Protocols Used in Multicasting

1. IGMP (Internet Group Management Protocol)

 Works at the Network Layer.

 Used by hosts to join or leave multicast groups.
 Versions:
o IGMPv1: Hosts report membership
o IGMPv2: Allows leaving group messages
o IGMPv3: Supports source-specific multicast

2. Multicast Routing Protocols:

 Needed because traditional IP routing is unicast-based.

🔸 DVMRP (Distance Vector Multicast Routing Protocol)

 Based on RIP; uses flooding and pruning.

🔸 PIM (Protocol Independent Multicast)

 Can work with any unicast routing protocol.

 Two modes:
o Dense Mode (PIM-DM): Assumes receivers are dense; uses flooding.
o Sparse Mode (PIM-SM): Assumes few receivers; uses Rendezvous Points (RP).

🔸 MOSPF (Multicast OSPF):

 Extension of OSPF to support multicast using link-state principles.

📈 Applications of Multicasting:
 Live Video Streaming (e.g., sports)
 Internet Radio
 Stock Market Updates
 Online Multiplayer Games
 Distributed Databases & Replication

⚠️Challenges in Multicasting:
 Scalability: Multicast must scale to thousands/millions of users.
 Security: Harder to secure a dynamic group of users.
 Reliable Delivery: IP multicast is unreliable; no built-in ACK.
 Deployment: Many ISPs still don’t support multicast routing.

📘 3. Mobile IP
📖 Definition:

Mobile IP allows mobile devices to maintain a constant IP address while moving across different
networks, ensuring uninterrupted connectivity. This concept is crucial for devices such as smartphones,
laptops, and IoT devices that move across wireless networks.

🧠 Key Concepts:

 Mobile Node (MN): The device that moves across networks.

 Home Agent (HA): A router located in the home network that keeps track of the mobile node’s
current location.
 Foreign Agent (FA): A router in the visited network that temporarily stores the mobile node's
location.
 Care-of Address (CoA): The temporary IP address assigned to the mobile node while visiting a
foreign network.
🛠️How Mobile IP Works:

1. The mobile node registers with the home agent when it connects to a new foreign network.
2. The home agent tunnels packets destined for the mobile node to the current care-of address.
3. The foreign agent receives these packets and delivers them to the mobile node.

✅ Advantages:

 Enables seamless roaming across networks.

 Transparent to higher layers (applications don't need to be aware of mobility).

⚠️Challenges:

 Latency due to tunneling.

 Security issues with the location updates.
 Scalability in large-scale deployments.

📘 4. Network Address Translation (NAT)

📖 Definition:

NAT is a method used by routers to translate private IP addresses to public ones, allowing multiple
devices in a private network to access the Internet with a single public IP address.

🧠 Key Concepts:

 Private IP Addresses: Defined by RFC 1918, used within local networks.

 Public IP Address: A globally unique address used on the Internet.
 NAT Table: A table that maps private IP addresses to public addresses and port numbers.

🛠️How NAT Works:

1. A device in the private network sends a request to the router.

2. The router modifies the packet’s source IP to its own public IP and assigns a unique port
number.
3. The router then tracks the request in a NAT translation table.
4. When a response comes, the router uses the port number to identify the appropriate private IP
address.

✅ Types of NAT:

 Static NAT: One-to-one mapping of private to public IPs.

 Dynamic NAT: Many-to-many mapping, uses a pool of public IP addresses.
 PAT (Port Address Translation): Many-to-one mapping using port numbers.
⚠️Challenges:

 Breaks end-to-end connectivity (difficult to run servers behind NAT).

 Issues with certain protocols (e.g., IPsec).
 Can impact performance due to translation overhead.

📘 5. Virtual Private Network (VPN)

📖 Definition:

A VPN creates a secure, encrypted tunnel over the internet for private communication, enabling remote
users to access internal networks as if they were physically present.

🧠 Key Concepts:

 Tunneling: The process of encapsulating data packets to create a private tunnel.

 Encryption: Ensures that the transmitted data remains confidential.
 Authentication: Verifies the identity of users and devices.

🛠️How VPN Works:

1. The user initiates a connection to a VPN server.

2. The VPN server authenticates the user and establishes an encrypted tunnel.
3. Data between the user and the server is transmitted through this secure tunnel.

✅ Types of VPN:

 Remote Access VPN: Allows individual users to connect to a private network remotely.
 Site-to-Site VPN: Connects two or more networks (e.g., branch offices) over the internet.
 MPLS VPN: Uses Multiprotocol Label Switching to route VPN traffic.

⚠️Challenges:

 Latency due to encryption overhead.

 Compatibility with certain protocols and applications.
 Scalability for large networks.

📘 6. Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP)

📖 Definition:

SNMP is a protocol used for network management and monitoring, allowing administrators to remotely
manage network devices such as routers, switches, and servers.
🧠 Key Concepts:

 Managed Devices: Devices that are monitored using SNMP (e.g., routers).
 SNMP Agents: Software running on managed devices that collect and store management
information.
 SNMP Manager: A central system that retrieves and processes information from SNMP agents.

🛠️How SNMP Works:

1. The SNMP manager sends get requests to agents.

2. Agents reply with the requested information.
3. SNMP can also be used for set requests to configure devices.

✅ SNMP Versions:

 SNMPv1: Basic, less secure.

 SNMPv2c: Improved security with community strings.
 SNMPv3: Supports stronger security features (encryption and authentication).

📘 7. Internet Security
📖 Definition:

Internet security encompasses measures to protect the data, applications, and infrastructure of the
internet from threats such as unauthorized access, data breaches, malware, and cyberattacks.

🔹 7.1 IPSec (Internet Protocol Security)

 Definition: IPSec is a suite of protocols used to secure Internet Protocol (IP) communications by
authenticating and encrypting each IP packet.
 Key Concepts:
o AH (Authentication Header): Ensures the integrity and authenticity of data.
o ESP (Encapsulating Security Payload): Provides confidentiality (encryption) and
integrity.
 Modes of Operation:
o Transport Mode: Encrypts only the payload of the IP packet.
o Tunnel Mode: Encrypts the entire IP packet, useful for VPNs.
🔹 7.2 Email Security (PGP, S/MIME)

 PGP (Pretty Good Privacy): Encrypts and signs email messages, ensuring confidentiality and
authenticity.
 S/MIME (Secure/Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions): A standard for public key encryption
and digital signatures in emails.

🔹 7.3 Web Security (SSL/TLS)

 SSL (Secure Sockets Layer): A protocol to secure communication between web browsers and
servers, now largely replaced by TLS (Transport Layer Security).
 HTTPS: HTTP over SSL/TLS for secure web transactions.

🔹 7.4 Firewalls

 Definition: A firewall is a network security system that monitors and controls incoming and
outgoing network traffic based on predetermined security rules.
 Types:
o Packet Filtering: Inspects packets against a set of rules.
o Stateful Inspection: Tracks the state of active connections.
o Proxy Firewalls: Act as intermediaries between users and the destination.

🔹 7.5 Digital Signatures & Certificates

 Digital Signatures: Provide proof of the origin and integrity of the data.
 Certificates: Public key certificates issued by a trusted Certificate Authority (CA), used for
encryption and verifying identity.

Network Address Translation (NAT) is a technique used in computer networking to

map or translate one IP address space into another, most commonly used to allow
multiple devices on a local network to share a single public IP address. NAT is a critical
component in the functioning of modern networks, particularly due to the limited
availability of IPv4 addresses.
 NAT is typically used in home and office networks, where the devices inside the local
network use private IP addresses and the public-facing IP address is shared by the entire
network. It is commonly implemented in routers or firewalls.
o Network Address Translation (NAT) is a technique used in computer
networking to map or translate one IP address space into another, most commonly
used to allow multiple devices on a local network to share a single public IP
address. NAT is a critical component in the functioning of modern networks,
particularly due to the limited availability of IPv4 addresses.
  NAT is typically used in home and office networks, where the devices inside the local
network use private IP addresses and the public-facing IP address is shared by the entire
network. It is commonly implemented in routers or firewalls.

Datagrams

A datagram is a self-contained, independent packet of data that is transmitted across a network. It is a

fundamental unit of communication in connectionless protocols, such as IP (Internet Protocol) and UDP
(User Datagram Protocol). Unlike protocols that require the establishment of a connection (like TCP), a
datagram is sent without establishing a dedicated end-to-end connection, meaning each datagram is
treated as an independent entity.

Domain Name Space refers to the hierarchical structure of domain names used in the
Domain Name System (DNS). DNS translates human-readable domain names (like
www.example.com) into machine-readable IP addresses (like 192.0.2.1) that are necessary
for routing packets on the Internet.

The domain name space defines the structure and organization of all possible domain names,
ensuring they are unique, scalable, and easily managed globally.

📘 MIB (Management Information Base)

📖 Definition:

MIB, or Management Information Base, is a virtual database used for network management. It stores
information about the objects in a network device that can be monitored or controlled using SNMP
(Simple Network Management Protocol).

It acts as the dictionary or schema for all the data that SNMP can retrieve or manipulate.

FTP (File Transfer Protocol) 21 (Control), 20 (Data) TCP Transfers files between systems
SSH (Secure Shell) 22 TCP Secure remote login and command execution
Telnet 23 TCP Remote terminal access (insecure)
SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol) 25 TCP Sending emails between servers
DNS (Domain Name System) 53 UDP/TCP Resolving domain names to IP addresses
DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration 67 (Server), 68 Assigns IP addresses
Protocol) UDP
(Client) dynamically
TFTP (Trivial File Transfer Protocol) 69 UDP Simple, insecure file transfer
HTTP (HyperText Transfer Protocol) 80 TCP Web communication (insecure)
POP3 (Post Office Protocol v3) 110 TCP Receiving emails (stores locally)
📖 Definition:

SSL (Secure Sockets Layer) is a security protocol developed to ensure secure communication over the
Internet. It operates between the application and transport layers of the TCP/IP model and provides:

 Encryption (confidentiality),
 Authentication (identity verification),
 Data Integrity (ensuring data isn't altered in transit).

SSL is the foundation for HTTPS and other secure services, though it has been replaced by TLS
(Transport Layer Security) in modern implementations.

🛠️Purpose of SSL:

SSL was designed to address three major security problems on the Internet:

1. Eavesdropping – Preventing unauthorized users from reading data.

2. Tampering – Preventing unauthorized alteration of data.
3. Impersonation – Verifying that you're talking to the real website/server.

TLS (Transport Layer Security) is a cryptographic protocol that ensures privacy,

authentication, and integrity of data exchanged between networked applications. It is the
successor to SSL (Secure Sockets Layer) and is more secure and efficient.

TLS is used primarily to secure communication over the Internet – for example, securing:

 Websites (HTTPS)
 Email
 VoIP
 Messaging apps
 VPN tunnels