SUBMODULE TWO: INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS

2.1 Introduction
Session two Introduction to computer is an electronic device, operating under the control
of instructions stored in its own memory that can accept data (input), process the data
according to specified rules, produce information (output), and store the information for future
use.

2.2 Learning outcomes

At end of session two student should be able to explain history of computer
a) Classification of computers.
b) Advantages and disadvantages of computer systems.

2.3 Meaning and importance of a computer

i) Computer
A computer is an electronic device that accepts and processes data into information and
under the control of instructions stored in its own memory and output or store the results for
future use.

NB: An electronic device is a device that depends on the principles of electronics and
uses the manipulation of electron flow for its operation.

ii) Data are raw, unprocessed and unorganized (unstructured) facts and figures that are
relatively meaningless to the user.
E.g. number of hours worked by an employee.

iii) Information is derived from data. This is data that is processed, organized/structured
and presented in a given context so as to make it useful.
e.g., multiplying the hours worked by the hourly rate to get each employee’s gross
earning.

Information is an important component in decision making.

For example from a students test scores, the following information can be derived:
a) Class' average score
b) Most improved student
c) Median Score etc.

2.4 Historical evolution of computer

A BRIEF COMPUTER HISTORY
The abacus, which emerged about 5,000 years ago in Asia Minor and is still in use today,
may be considered the first computer. This device allows users to make computations
using a system of sliding beads arranged on a rack; it was simply a counting device.
The Abacus

In 1642, Blaise Pascal (1623-1662), the 18-year-old son of a French tax collector, invented what
he called a numerical wheel calculator to help his father with his duties but which used eight
movable dials to add sums up. It was not until the 1940s that the electronic computers emerged.

In the 1820s, Charles Babbage designed the ‘Difference Engine’, a machine which could
perform mathematical calculations. It consists of 8,000 parts, weighs 5 tons, and measures 11
feet long. The engine is operated by a crank handle and can evaluate trigonometric and
logarithmic functions with 31 digits of precision. Its printer (on the left) stamps the results on
paper and on a plaster tray, which could be used to create lead type for printing books of
mathematical tables.
 He also worked on another invention, the more complex Analytical Engine, a revolutionary
device which was intended to be able to perform any arithmetic calculation using punched cards
that would deliver the instructions, as well as a memory unit to store numbers and many other
fundamental components of today's computers. Lady Ada Lovelace produced programs to be
used by the analytical machine. She is claimed to be possibly the first programmer.

2.5 Classification of Computers

Five Generations of Modern Computers - Digital Computers Modern computers can be
classified into five generations.

First generation: 1946-1959

Characteristics
i. First generation of computers started with using vacuum tubes as the basic components
for memory and circuitry for CPU (Central Processing Unit).
ii. These tubes like electric bulbs produced a lot of heat and were prone to frequent
fusing of the installations.
iii. They were, therefore, were very expensive and could be afforded only by very large
organizations. Th,e computer contained 17,468 vacuum tubes and consumed 150 kW of
electricity. The Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer (ENIAC) was
announced in 1946. It cost almost $500,000 (approximately $6,000,000 today).
iv. In this generation mainly batch processing of data was done. In this generation
Punched cards, Paper tape, Magnetic tape Input & Output devices were used. It is said
that this computer weighed 30 tons, and had 18,000 vacuum tubes which were used for
processing.
v. They consumed a lot of power. When this computer was turned on for the first time
lights dimmed in sections of Philadelphia.
 vi. Computers of this generation could only perform a single task at a time, and they had
no operating system

The first commercially available electronic computer, UNIVersal Automatic Computer I

(UNIVAC I), was designed by Eckert and Mauchly. The computer used 5200 vacuum tubes and
weighed 13 metric tons. It consumed 125 kW, and could perform about 1,905 operations per
second.

NB: Batch processing- Executing a series of non-interactive jobs all at one time.

Second generation: 1959-1965.

i. Computers in this generation used the transistor
ii. They were cheaper
iii. They consumed less power
iv. They were more compact in size, more reliable and faster than the first generation
machines made of vacuum tubes.
v. In this generation, magnetic cores were used as primary memory and magnetic tape
and magnetic disks as secondary storage devices.

vi. In this generation assembly languages and high level programming languages like
FORTRAN and COBOL were used. Examples of computers in this generation include
IBM 300 series and the ATLAS.

NB: A transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify and switch electronic signals and
electrical power.
The difference between a transistor and a vacuum tube is that a transistor uses a sandwich of
silicon instead of tube filled with gas to do the switching. Silicon falls into a family of elements
that are neither conductor nor insulator; they’re called semiconductors. This type of element will
be either a conductor or an insulator depending on some condition. In the case of transistors, an
electrical current will cause the silicon to be a conductor.

Third Generation: 1965-1971.

i. The third generation of computers is marked by the use of Integrated Circuits (IC's) in place of
transistors. A single I.C has many transistors, resistors and capacitors along with the associated
circuitry. The I.C was invented by Jack Kilby.
ii. This development made computers smaller in size, reliable and efficient.
iii. In this generation Remote processing, Time-sharing, Real-time, Multi-programming
Operating System were used. High level language (FORTRAN-II TO IV, COBOL, PASCAL
PL/1, BASIC, ALGOL-68 etc.) were used during this generation

NB: A resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that implements electrical

resistance as a circuit element.
A capacitor (originally known as a condenser) is a passive two-terminal electrical
component used to store energy electrostatically in an electric field.

Fourth Generation: 1971-1980.

i. The fourth generation of computers is marked by the use of Very Large Scale
Integrated (VLSI) circuits. VLSI circuits having about 5000 transistors and other circuit
elements and their associated circuits on a single chip made it possible to have
microcomputers of fourth generation.
ii. Fourth Generation computers became more powerful, compact, reliable, and
affordable. As a result, it gave rise to personal computer (PC) revolution: individuals
could afford computers.
iii. In this generation Time sharing, Real time, Networks, Distributed Operating System
were used. iv. All the High level languages like C and C++, DBASE etc. were used in
this generation

Fifth Generation: 1980-to date.

i. In the fifth generation, the VLSI technology became ULSI (Ultra Large Scale Integration)
technology, resulting in the production of microprocessor chips having ten million electronic
components or more.
ii. This generation is based on parallel processing hardware and AI (Artificial Intelligence)
software. AI is an emerging branch in computer science, which interprets means and methods of
making computers think like human beings.
iii. All the high level languages like C and C++, Java, .Net etc. are used in this generation

THE TREND IN THE COMPUTER’S TECHNOLOGICAL REVOLUTION

 ➢ Continual decrease in computer size
➢ Improved speed and power of processing
➢ Decrease in computer’s power consumption
➢ Decrease in initial and maintenance costs
➢ Increase in the number of components per circuit (IC).

ADVANTAGES OF USING COMPUTERS

• Processing capability/Speed – Computers have higher processing speeds than other means of
processing, measured as number of instructions executed per second.
• Accuracy – Computers are not prone to errors. So long as the programs are correct, they will
always give correct output. A computer is designed in such a way that many of the inaccuracies,
which could arise due to the malfunctioning of the equipment, are detected and their
consequences avoided in a way, which is completely transparent to the user.
• Consistency – Given the same data and the same instructions computers will produce exactly
the same answer every time that particular process is repeated.
• Reliability – Computer systems are built with fault tolerance features, meaning that failure of
one of the components does not necessarily lead to failure of the whole system.
• Memory capability – A computer has the ability to store and access large volumes of data.
• Computers can operate in risky environments e.g. volcanic sites, lethal chemical plants, where
it’s risky for humans to operate.
• Computers help to reduce paper work significantly.
• Computers can work continuously without getting bored or tired.
• Helps to cut on wage bills by reducing manpower.

DISADVANTAGES OF USING COMPUTERS

• Initial cost of installation and maintenance is high
• Can result to retrenchment of staff
• Computerization projects are not always cost-effective
• In case the computers break down or malfunction, it might be extremely difficult to revert back
to the old manual system. For this reason, stand-by procedures are necessary, but expensive.
• Can compromise security of data stored or being transmitted.
• Computerization leads to cyber-crime e.g. pornography etc
• They present a health hazard for example eye strain, trigger-finger syndrome and addiction
• Due to the rapid change in the computer technology, the computer and related facilities can
become outdated very fast, hence posing a risk of capital loss and cost of upgrading.

2.6 CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS

Computers can be classified in different ways as shown below:
Classification by size and capability

a) Supercomputers.
The largest and most powerful. Used to process large amounts of data very quickly. They use
extremely fast processors that are built for speed and are used for processorintensive calculations
such as nuclear reaction simulations and global weather pattern modeling. Useful for
meteorological or astronomical applications. Examples include Cray and Fujitsu.

b) Mainframe computers.
Large computers in terms of price, power and size. Require a carefully controlled environment
and specialist staff to operate and used for centralized processing for large commercial
organizations. They are designed to provide maximum throughput for a simultaneous variety of
workloads. They can also support a large number of terminals and have large on-line secondary
storage capacities. Manufacturers include International Business Machine (IBM).

c) Minicomputers.
Their size, speed and capabilities lie somewhere between mainframes and microcomputers.
Used as departmental computers in large organizations or as the main computer in medium-sized
organizations. Manufacturers of minicomputers include IBM and International Computer
Limited (ICL).

d) Microcomputers.
These are the personal computers commonly used for office and leisure activities i.e. they are
designed for an individual. Examples include Hewlett Packard (HP), Compaq and Dell. They
include desktops, laptops, palmtops and notebooks.
Examples of computers in this category include:

OTHERS
I. LAPTOPS
 • Are among the smallest in modern world and have very large-scale circuit integration.
• The main difference between the microcomputers and the laptop is the size. They are more
portable than desktops.
• Expandability and the number of devices supported by the laptops are also limited
• They run on battery power, but can also be plugged into a wall outlet.
• They typically have a built-in LCD display that folds down to protect the display when the
computer is carried around.
• They also feature a built-in keyboard and some kind of built-in pointing device (such as a
touch pad).

II. PERSONAL DIGITAL ASSISTANT (PDA)

• It is a handheld microcomputer that trades off power for small size and greater portability.
• They typically use a touch-sensitive LCD screen for both output and input (the user draws
characters and presses icons on the screen with a stylus).
• PDAs communicate with desktop computers and with each other either by cable connection,
infrared (IR) beam, or radio waves.
• PDAs are normally used to keep track of appointment calendars, to-do lists, address books, and
for taking notes.

III. PALMTOP OR HANDHELD PC

• It is a very small microcomputer that also sacrifices power for small size and portability. These
devices typically look more like a tiny laptop than a PDA, with a flip-up screen and small
keyboard.
• They may use Windows CE or similar operating system for handheld devices.
• Some PDAs and palmtops contain wireless networking or cell phone devices so that users can
check e-mail or surf the web on the move.

2.7 Classification by way of processing data (Type of data handled)

This is by how the computer represents and processes the data.

a) Digital computers
Digital computers process data represented in binary format using the numbers 0 and 1. They are
used for both business data processing and scientific purposes since digital computation results
in greater accuracy than analog computers. They also can perform complex computations. They
are the most commonly used type of computers.

b) Analog computers
These are used for scientific, engineering, and process-controlled purposes. Outputs are
represented in the form of graphs. Analogue computers process data represented by physical
variables and output physical magnitudes in the form of smooth graphs. These physical changes
include changes in electronic voltages, pressure changes, temperature changes etc. Analog
values, unlike digital values, are typically many values in a range. Examples of analogue devices
include car speedometer and the slide rule.
 c) Hybrid computers are computers that have the combined features of digital and analog
computers; hybrid computing offers both speed and precision. They offer an efficient and
economical method of working out special problems in science and various areas of engineering.

Consider the difference between two common types of light switches: a standard light switch and
a dimmer switch. The standard light switch has only two values: on and off. As a rule, at any one
time the switch will be in either one position or the other.

This is similar to digital electrical signals, which have discrete values (like on and off). By way
of comparison, the dimmer switch starts at off , but can be changed gradually to stronger and
stronger intensities, up to the full on setting. At any one instant, a dimmer switch can have a
setting almost anywhere between on and off. This is similar to an analog electrical signal, which
may be on or off or somewhere in between.

2.7 Classification by purpose

This is a classification by the use to which the computer is put.
a) Special purpose/ Dedicated computers are used for a certain specific function e.g. in
medicine, engineering, manufacturing.
Embedded systems are examples of special purpose computers.

b) General-purpose computers can be used for a wide variety of tasks e.g. accounting,
word processing etc.

2.8 Components of a Computer

In order for us to understand the components of a computer, we need to answer the question “what
are the similarities between a human being and a computer?” In many ways, a computer mirrors a
human being. Human beings have a body that protects vital organs such as the heart and the brain.
Computers too have a system unit that houses components such as the central processing unit
(CPU) which is the brain of the computer. On the other hand, human being have intangible things
such as the soul and the spirit, the equivalence of this being the program or software that run the
hardware.

Definition: The physical devices that a computer is made of are referred to as the computer’s
hardware. The programs that run on a computer are referred to as software.
2.9 Uses of Computers
Application Areas of computers:
The uses of computers are almost limitless in our everyday live. Think about some of the
different ways that people use computers.
(a) At home
• paying utility bills
• communicating with family and friends
• shop online
• play computer games.
(b) At work we use computers
• to pay salaries
• send emails
• attend virtual meetings
c) In university students use computers
• to access their portal
• download fees statement
• book for accommodation
• register for classes

2.8 Summary of Topic One

A computer system is a set of integrated devices that input, output, process, and store data
and information. Computer systems are currently built around at least one digital processing device.
There are five main hardware components in a computer system: Input, Processing, Storage, Output and
Communication devices.

2.9 Session One Quiz

(i) Explain the term Hardware.
(ii) Explain the computer generations.
(iii) State advantages of computer system.

2.10 Reflection
2.11 Resources e.g Videos, Articles
2.12 References and further Readings
Using information technology : a practical introduction to computers & communications :
Introductory version / Brian K. Williams, Stacey C. Sawyer. -- 9th ed.